Name: highly sensitive assay for measurement of arenavirus-cell attachment
Uploaded: 2016-03-02T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Highly Sensitive Assay for Measurement of Arenavirus-cell Attachment at JoVE.com

We thank Markus Thali, Nathan Roy, Christopher Ziegler, Emily Bruce, and Benjamin King for helpful discussions and the National Institutes of Health for support of these studies through grants T32 AI055402 (JK), R21 AI088059 (JB), and P20RR021905 (JB).

Note: It is critical that the described protocol be carried out using strict pre-PCR technique (see 28 for an excellent overview on how to set up a pre-PCR laboratory and how to conduct experiments using good pre-PCR technique). It is imperative that all reagents and equipment are free of amplified DNA containing the qPCR target sequence and that appropriate controls are in place to detect such contamination. An overview of the protocol is shown in Figure 1.
1. Prepare Media and Seed Cell...

<ol>
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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequence+heterogeneity+in+the+termini+of+lymphocytic+choriomeningitis+virus+genomic+and+antigenomic+RNAs.">Sequence heterogeneity in the termini of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus genomic and antigenomic RNAs.</a> J. Virol. 68, 7659-7664 (1994).</li><li>Haist, K., Ziegler, C., Botten, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strand-Specific+Quantitative+Reverse+Transcription-Polymerase+Chain+Reaction+Assay+for+Measurement+of+Arenavirus+Genomic+and+Antigenomic+RNAs.">Strand-Specific Quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay for Measurement of Arenavirus Genomic and Antigenomic RNAs.</a> PLoS One. 10, e0120043 (2015).</li><li>Radoshitzky, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transferrin+receptor+1+is+a+cellular+receptor+for+New+World+haemorrhagic+fever+arenaviruses.">Transferrin receptor 1 is a cellular receptor for New World haemorrhagic fever arenaviruses.</a> Nature. 446, 92-96 (2007).</li><li>Martinez, M. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Utilization+of+human+DC-SIGN+and+L-SIGN+for+entry+and+infection+of+host+cells+by+the+New+World+arenavirus,+Junin+virus.">Utilization of human DC-SIGN and L-SIGN for entry and infection of host cells by the New World arenavirus, Junin virus.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 441, 612-617 (2013).</li><li>Martinez, M. G., Cordo, S. M., Candurra, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+Junin+arenavirus+cell+entry.">Characterization of Junin arenavirus cell entry.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 88, 1776-1784 (2007).</li><li>Martinez, M. G., Forlenza, M. B., Candurra, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Involvement+of+cellular+proteins+in+Junin+arenavirus+entry.">Involvement of cellular proteins in Junin arenavirus entry.</a> Biotechnol J. 4, 866-870 (2009).</li><li>Nunberg, J. H., York, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Curious+Case+of+Arenavirus+Entry,+and+Its+Inhibition.">The Curious Case of Arenavirus Entry, and Its Inhibition.</a> Viruses. 4, 83-101 (2012).</li><li>Botten, J., King, B., Klaus, J., Zielger, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers. , 233-260 (2013).</li><li>Klaus, J. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+intracellular+cargo+receptor+ERGIC-53+is+required+for+the+production+of+infectious+arenavirus,+coronavirus,+and+filovirus+particles.">The intracellular cargo receptor ERGIC-53 is required for the production of infectious arenavirus, coronavirus, and filovirus particles.</a> Cell Host Microbe. 14, 522-534 (2013).</li><li>Rojek, J. M., Perez, M., Kunz, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellular+entry+of+lymphocytic+choriomeningitis+virus.">Cellular entry of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus.</a> J. Virol. 82, 1505-1517 (2008).</li><li>Lavanya, M., Cuevas, C. D., Thomas, M., Cherry, S., Ross, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=siRNA+screen+for+genes+that+affect+Junin+virus+entry+uncovers+voltage-gated+calcium+channels+as+a+therapeutic+target.">siRNA screen for genes that affect Junin virus entry uncovers voltage-gated calcium channels as a therapeutic target.</a> Sci Transl Med. 5, 204ra131 (2013).</li><li>Ellenberg, P., Edreira, M., Scolaro, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resistance+to+superinfection+of+Vero+cells+persistently+infected+with+Junin+virus.">Resistance to superinfection of Vero cells persistently infected with Junin virus.</a> Arch. Virol. 149, 507-522 (2004).</li><li>Brandenburg, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+poliovirus+entry+in+live+cells.">Imaging poliovirus entry in live cells.</a> PLoS Biol. 5, e183 (2007).</li><li>Petersen, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Major+Cellular+Sterol+Regulatory+Pathway+Is+Required+for+Andes+Virus+Infection.">The Major Cellular Sterol Regulatory Pathway Is Required for Andes Virus Infection.</a> PLoS pathogens. 10, e1003911 (2014).</li><li>Jonsson, N., Gullberg, M., Israelsson, S., Lindberg, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rapid+and+efficient+method+for+studies+of+virus+interaction+at+the+host+cell+surface+using+enteroviruses+and+real-time+PCR.">A rapid and efficient method for studies of virus interaction at the host cell surface using enteroviruses and real-time PCR.</a> Virol J. 6, 217 (2009).</li><li>Jiang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hepatitis+C+virus+attachment+mediated+by+apolipoprotein+E+binding+to+cell+surface+heparan+sulfate.">Hepatitis C virus attachment mediated by apolipoprotein E binding to cell surface heparan sulfate.</a> J. Virol. 86, 7256-7267 (2012).</li><li>Shannon-Lowe, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epstein-Barr+virus-induced+B-cell+transformation:+quantitating+events+from+virus+binding+to+cell+outgrowth.">Epstein-Barr virus-induced B-cell transformation: quantitating events from virus binding to cell outgrowth.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 86, 3009-3019 (2005).</li><li>Mifflin, T. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Setting+up+a+PCR+laboratory.">Setting up a PCR laboratory.</a> CSH Protoc. 2007, pdb top14 (2007).</li><li>Maiztegui, J. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protective+efficacy+of+a+live+attenuated+vaccine+against+Argentine+hemorrhagic+fever.+AHF+Study+Group.">Protective efficacy of a live attenuated vaccine against Argentine hemorrhagic fever. AHF Study Group.</a> J. Infect. Dis. 177, 277-283 (1998).</li><li>Goni, S. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+features+of+attenuated+Junin+virus+vaccine+strain+candidate.">Genomic features of attenuated Junin virus vaccine strain candidate.</a> Virus Genes. 32, 37-41 (2006).</li><li>Chosewood, L. C., Wilson, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories. , (2009).</li><li>White, J., Matlin, K., Helenius, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+fusion+by+Semliki+Forest,+influenza,+and+vesicular+stomatitis+viruses.">Cell fusion by Semliki Forest, influenza, and vesicular stomatitis viruses.</a> J. Cell Biol. 89, 674-679 (1981).</li><li>McGraw, T. E., Greenfield, L., Maxfield, F. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+expression+of+the+human+transferrin+receptor+cDNA+in+Chinese+hamster+ovary+cells+deficient+in+endogenous+transferrin+receptor.">Functional expression of the human transferrin receptor cDNA in Chinese hamster ovary cells deficient in endogenous transferrin receptor.</a> J. Cell Biol. 105, 207-214 (1987).</li><li>Borrow, P., Oldstone, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+lymphocytic+choriomeningitis+virus-binding+protein(s):+a+candidate+cellular+receptor+for+the+virus.">Characterization of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus-binding protein(s): a candidate cellular receptor for the virus.</a> J. Virol. 66, 7270-7281 (1992).</li><li>Rojek, J. M., Spiropoulou, C. F., Kunz, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+the+cellular+receptors+for+the+South+American+hemorrhagic+fever+viruses+Junin,+Guanarito,+and+Machupo.">Characterization of the cellular receptors for the South American hemorrhagic fever viruses Junin, Guanarito, and Machupo.</a> 346. , 476-491 (2006).</li><li>Helguera, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+antibody+recognizing+the+apical+domain+of+human+transferrin+receptor+1+efficiently+inhibits+the+entry+of+all+new+world+hemorrhagic+Fever+arenaviruses.">An antibody recognizing the apical domain of human transferrin receptor 1 efficiently inhibits the entry of all new world hemorrhagic Fever arenaviruses.</a> J. Virol. 86, 4024-4028 (2012).</li><li>Sanchez, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Junin+virus+monoclonal+antibodies:+characterization+and+cross-reactivity+with+other+arenaviruses.">Junin virus monoclonal antibodies: characterization and cross-reactivity with other arenaviruses.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 70, 1125-1132 (1989).</li><li>Trombley, A. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comprehensive+panel+of+real-time+TaqMan+polymerase+chain+reaction+assays+for+detection+and+absolute+quantification+of+filoviruses,+arenaviruses,+and+New+World+hantaviruses.">Comprehensive panel of real-time TaqMan polymerase chain reaction assays for detection and absolute quantification of filoviruses, arenaviruses, and New World hantaviruses.</a> Am. J. Trop. Med. 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The protocol we describe is straightforward and robust provided the following critical considerations are observed. First, strict pre-PCR technique must be employed (see 28 for an excellent review). It is imperative that all reagents and equipment are free of amplified DNA containing the qPCR target sequence and that appropriate controls are in place to detect such contamination. Second, for the virus-cell attachment portion of the protocol, the virus, cells, and media must be kept at 4&#160;&#176;C to prevent...

Arenaviruses are a family of enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses that are maintained primarily in rodents in nature1-3. While these viruses typically establish an asymptomatic, persistent infection in rodent reservoirs1,2, they can cause severe disease in humans3. Important pathogenic species include the New World Junin virus (JUNV)4 and the Old World Lassa virus5, which are the etiologic agents of Argentine hemorrhagic fever in South America and Lassa fever in Africa, respectively. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), the prototypic virus of the family6, has a worldwide distribution and is responsible for a variety of disease states including aseptic meningitis in immunocompetent individuals6, severe birth defects in the developing fetus7, or high lethality in immunosuppressed individuals following solid-organ transplantation8,9. The lack of United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved vaccines or effective antivirals to combat these viruses highlights the critical need to develop novel strategies to therapeutically target these emerging/re-emerging pathogens.
The arenavirus genome consists of two single-stranded RNA segments, the large (L) (~7.2 kb) and small (S) (~3.6 kb) segments10. The S segment encodes the viral nucleoprotein (NP) and envelope glycoprotein (GP) while the L segment encodes the viral polymerase (L) and matrix protein (Z). The L and S genomic RNA segments (vRNAs) are packaged into virions10-12. The initial step of arenavirus infection is attachment of viral particles to host cells through an interaction between the viral GP and its corresponding host cell receptors which, for JUNV, includes the human transferrin receptor 1 (hTfR1)13,14. Following attachment, JUNV particles are taken into the cell via clathrin-mediated endocytosis15. Particles then traffic to the late endosome where the low pH of this compartment triggers the activation of GP16,17. Once activated, the GP-encoded fusion peptide inserts into the endosomal membrane, initiating fusion between the viral and endosomal membranes. Successful fusion results in the release of the virion-packaged vRNAs into the cytoplasm, where they serve as templates for genomic replication and transcription. When sufficient quantities of viral structural proteins and vRNAs are generated, new particles assemble and bud from the infected cell to complete the life cycle18.
To facilitate the discovery of new strategies to therapeutically target the pathogenic arenaviruses, our group has focused on the identification of host factors that are critical for virus propagation, but dispensable for the host. In this context, defining the precise stage(s) of the viral life cycle controlled by such host factors is necessary to guide the development of antiviral strategies. Herein, we describe a quantitative (q)RT-PCR-based assay that can be used to measure arenavirus-cell attachment for the purpose of identifying whether selected host proteins and/or antiviral molecules influence this initial stage of viral entry19. Alternative approaches to measure arenavirus-cell attachment have featured virions labeled with biotin20, fluorescent dyes21, or radioactive isotopes22. Drawbacks to these methods can include the requirement for large quantities of input virus (e.g. high multiplicities of infection (MOI)), the use of radioactivity, and/or additional handling steps to prepare input virus (e.g. concentration and/or labeling of virus). In particular, the use of high MOI makes it difficult to distinguish productive versus nonproductive attachment events15,23. The qRT-PCR-based assay described here can detect attachment events using as few as 20 plaque forming units (PFUs) of virus, which translates into an MOI of 0.0004 for a 48-well plate. Therefore, the strong sensitivity of the assay overcomes the requirement for high MOI as well as any virus labeling or concentration steps. Further, the assay can be i) adapted to measure virion endocytosis as well as release of virus genome into the cytoplasm following fusion and ii) tailored for use with other viruses through the development of virus-specific qRT-PCR reagents (for examples, see 24-27).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="730">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">DMEM</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">11965-118</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">15140-163</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">100x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">HEPES Buffer Solution</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">15630-130</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">100x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">PBS pH 7.4</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">10010-023</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">1x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">Vero E6 cells</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">CRL-1586</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">Costar 48-well plate</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">3548</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">RNeasy mini kit</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">74106</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">do not mix buffers RLT or&#160; RW1 with bleach</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">QIAshredder homogenizer</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">79654</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">Taqman Universal PCR Master Mix</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">4326614</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">Multiscribe Reverse Transcriptase (50U/&#181;l)</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">4311235</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">dNTP Mixture (10 mM; 2.5 mM each dNTP)</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">N808-0260</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">GeneAmp 10X PCR Buffer II and 25 mM MgCl2 solution</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">N808-0010</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">RNase Inhibitor (5000U/100 &#181;l)</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">N808-0119</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">RT primer 5&#8217;-AAGGGTTTAAAAATGGTAGCAGAC-3&#8217;</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">250 nmol DNA oligo</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">standard desalting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">Forward qPCR primer&#160; 5&#8217;-CATGGAGGTCAAACAACTTCCT-3&#8217;</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">4304971</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">standard desalting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">Reverse qPCR primer 5&#8217;-GCCTCCAGACATGGTTGTGA-3&#8217;</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">4304971</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">standard desalting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">TaqMan Probe 5&#8217;-6FAM-ATGTCATCGGATCCTT-MGBNFQ-3&#8217;</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">4316033</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">HPLC purified</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">MicroAmp Fast Optical 96-well reaction plate (0.1 mL)</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">4346906</td>
			<td style="width:160px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">StepOnePlus Real-Time PCR System</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">4376598</td>
			<td style="width:160px;">or other qPCR instrument</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

highly sensitive assay for measurement of arenavirus-cell attachment

Arenaviruses are a family of enveloped RNA viruses that cause severe human disease. The first step in the arenavirus life cycle is attachment of viral particles to host cells. While virus-cell attachment can be measured through the use of virions labeled with biotin, radioactive isotopes, or fluorescent dyes, these approaches typically require high multiplicities of infection (MOI) to enable detection of bound virus. We describe a quantitative (q)RT-PCR-based assay that measures Junin virus strain Candid 1 attachment via quantitation of virion-packaged viral genomic RNA. This assay has several advantages including its extreme sensitivity and ability to measure attachment over a large dynamic range of MOIs without the need to purify or label input virus. Importantly, this approach can be easily tailored for use with other viruses through the use of virus-specific qRT-PCR reagents. Further, this assay can be modified to permit measurement of particle endocytosis and genome uncoating. In conclusion, we describe a simple, yet robust assay for highly sensitive measurement of arenavirus-cell attachment.

To demonstrate the sensitivity and dynamic range of the qPCR assay, known quantities of a plasmid encoding the NP gene of JUNV C#1 (range 5-5 x 107 copies) were subjected to qPCR as described in Section 4 of the protocol. The assay is sensitive and can reliably detect as few as 5 copies of the target nucleic acid (Figure 2). Further, the dynamic range of the assay is large and, as shown in Figure 2, can cover at least 7 logs of template. While ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Highly Sensitive Assay for Measurement of Arenavirus-cell Attachment at JoVE.com

Highly Sensitive Assay for Measurement of Arenavirus-cell Attachment

The first step in the arenavirus life cycle is attachment of viral particles to host cells. We report a quantitative (q)RT-PCR-based assay for ultrasensitive detection and quantitation of arenavirus attachment events.

Arenaviruses are a family of enveloped RNA viruses that cause severe human disease. The first step in the arenavirus life cycle is attachment of viral ...

The overall goal of this protocol is to quantitatively measure arenavirus particle attachment to host cells. The main advantage to this technique is its high sensitivity. It can also be adapted to measure virion endocytosis, as well as the release of genome into the cytoplasm following fusion.To begin, to make complete DMEM, to a 500 milliliter bottle of DMEM, add 50 milliliters of heat inactivated fetal bovine serum, and five milliliters each of 100X penicillin-streptomycin, and 100X HEPES buffer. At the end of the day, seed 2.5 times 10 to the 4th Vero E6 cells per well, in triplicate for each virus, in a 48-well tissue culture plate in a final volume of 500 microliters of complete DMEM. Incubate the plate at 37 degrees Celsius in a humidified incubator with 5%carbon dioxide for 10 to 18 hours.Under a Class 2 biosafety cabinet, using ice-cold complete DMEM, dilute the Junin Candid 1 virus samples to be tested to 200 to 2, 000 focus forming units or plaque forming units. Plaque forming units will be referred to as PFUs in the remainder of the protocol. For example, to inoculate with 50 microliters of 2, 000 PFUs in duplicate, add 4, 800 PFUs into a total volume of 120 microliters of medium.Store on ice until ready to add to the Vero cultures. Remove the plates from the 37 degree Celsius incubator and place on ice or at 4 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes to inhibit the ability of the plated cells to carry out endocytosis. Next, aspirate the complete DMEM from each well, and use 100 microliters of ice-cold PBS to rapidly wash each well twice.Then add 50 microliters of the pre-diluted virus samples to the appropriate wells. Wrap the plate in plastic and immediately place it back on ice or at 4 degrees Celsius for 60 to 90 minutes to allow virus attachment to occur. Keep the wash buffer and virus samples at 4 degrees Celsius throughout this step.After the incubation, aspirate the virus inoculum and use 200 microliters of ice-cold PBS to wash each well three times. To extract viral RNA from Junin Candid 1 particles, use a commercial RNA isolation kit according to the manufacturer's protocol for purification of RNA from animal cells using spin technology as follows. Lyse the cells as directed by adding 350 microliters of lysis buffer, RLT, directly to each well.Mix the buffer several times to ensure cell lysis. Then use an inverted microscope to ensure lysis by the absence of cells. At this point, the virus has been neutralized, so the remaining steps can be performed outside of the Class 2 biosafety cabinet, provided kit tubes were not contaminated.Transfer the lysate to the kit column, and follow the rest of the protocol as described. Include the optional Step 9 from the manufacturer's protocol, which is an additional centrifugation of the spin column to eliminate any possible carryover of buffer RPE. For the final step, use 30 microliters of nuclease-free double-distilled water to elute the purified RNA from the spin column.Store the RNA at 80 degrees Celsius, or use directly in the qRT-PCR assay. To convert Junin Candid 1 S-segment RNA into cDNA for qPCR, set up a 50 microliter RT Reaction Master Mix using the reagents listed in the text protocol. Gently mix the RT Master Mix, and then aliquot 40 microliters into individual 0.2 milliliter PCR tubes.Next, add 10 microliters of viral RNA to each tube. Include a no template control tube and a no RT enzyme control tube to screen for contamination of RT reagents. Include RNA extracted from uninfected cells with a full RT Master Mix to control for assay specificity in the presence of cellular RNA.Also include a known positive viral RNA sample with a full Master Mix to verify the quality of the RT reagents. Use the cycling conditions listed below for RT.When the program is complete, leave the samples in the thermocycler at 4 degrees Celsius or store them at 20 degrees Celsius. Next, prepare 25 microliter qPCR reactions by combining the qPCR Master Mix, PCR primers, and the qPCR probe as listed in the text protocol.Gently mix the solution, and then add 20 microliters to each qPCR well. Add five microliters of each RT reaction containing plasmin numbers that fall within the standard curve to the appropriate qPCR wells in triplicate. Load the qPCR plate into the thermocycler and run the reaction conditions shown below.Finally, collect and analyze the data to determine the quantity of viral RNA present in each sample, according the manufacturer's protocol. As shown here, known quantities of a plasmid encoding the NP gene from Junin virus Candid 1 were subjected to qPCR to demonstrate the sensitivity and dynamic range of the assay. In this experiment, various quantities of Junin virus Candid 1 were prebound to Vero E6 cells and quantified by qRT-PCR.As illustrated in this figure, the assay can detect viral attachment events using as few as 20, or as many as 2 times 10 to the 6th PFU, which translates to multiplicities of infection of 0.0004 and 40, respectively. In this example, the protocol was modified to also measure the rate of amplification of the viral genome inside of cells over time. Interestingly, the quantity of viral genome appears to decrease during the first six hours following attachment.This suggests that a portion of the viral RNA is degraded. This could happen to particles that fail to be taken into the cell, and degrade in the extracellular space, or perhaps due to degradation within the endolysosomal network. The data shown demonstrates that 12 or 18 hours post-infection would be optimal times to screen for active genome replication.Once mastered, this technique can be done in a single day. After watching this video, you should have a very good idea of how to accurately quantitate arenavirus attachment to host cells.

highly-sensitive-assay-for-measurement-of-arenavirus-cell-attachment

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Obtaining Highly Purified Toxoplasma gondii Oocysts by a Discontinuous Cesium Chloride Gradient

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan pathogen that commonly infects humans. It is a well characterized apicomplexan associated with causing food- and water-borne disease outbreaks. The definitive host is the feline species where sexual replication occurs resulting in the development of the highly infectious and environmentally resistant oocyst. Infection occurs via ingestion of tissue cysts from contaminated meat or oocysts from soil or water. Infection is typically asymptomatic in healthy individuals, but results in a life-long latent infection that can reactivate causing toxoplasmic encephalitis and death if the individual becomes immunocompromised. Meat contaminated with T. gondii cysts have been the primary source of infection in Europe and the United States, but recent changes in animal management and husbandry practices and improved food handling and processing procedures have significantly reduced the prevalence of T. gondii cysts in meat1, 2. Nonetheless, seroprevalence in humans remains relatively high suggesting that exposure from oocyst contaminated soil or water is likely. Indeed, waterborne outbreaks of toxoplasmosis have been reported worldwide supporting the theory exposure to the environmental oocyst form poses a significant health risk3-5. To date, research on understanding the prevalence of T. gondii oocysts in the water and environment are limited due to the lack of tools to detect oocysts in the environment 5, 6. This is primarily due to the lack of efficient purification protocols for obtaining large numbers of highly purified T gondii oocysts from infected cats for research purposes. This study describes the development of a modified CsCl method that easily purifies T. gondii oocysts from feces of infected cats that are suitable for molecular biological and tissue culture manipulation7.

Obtaining Highly Purified Toxoplasma gondii Oocysts by a Discontinuous Cesium Chloride Gradient

This study describes the development of a modified CsCl method that easily purifies T. gondii oocysts from feces of infected cats that are suitable for molecular biological and tissue culture manipulation

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan pathogen that commonly infects humans. It is a well characterized apicomplexan associated with ...

Measurement of &#947;HV68 Infection in Mice

&gamma;-Herpesviruses (&gamma;-HVs) are notable for their ability to establish latent infections of lymphoid cells1. The narrow host range of human &gamma;-HVs, such as EBV and KSHV, has severely hindered detailed pathogenic studies. Murine &gamma;-herpesvirus 68 (&gamma;HV68) shares extensive genetic and biological similarities with human &gamma;-HVs and is a natural pathogen of murid rodents2. As such, evaluation of &gamma;HV68 infection of mice inbred strains at different stages of viral infection provides an important model for understanding viral lifecycle and pathogenesis during &gamma;-HVs infection.
Upon intranasal inoculation, &gamma;HV68 infection results in acute viremia in the lung that is later resolved into a latent infection of splenocytes and other cells, which may be reactivated throughout the life of the host3,4. In this protocol, we will describe how to use the plaque assay to assess infectious virus titer in the lung homogenates on Vero cell monolayers at the early stage (5 - 7 days) of post-intranasal infection (dpi). While acute infection is largely cleared 2 - 3 weeks postinfection, a latent infection of &gamma;HV68 is established around 14 dpi and maintained later on in the spleen of the mice. Latent infection usually affects a very small population of cells in the infected tissues, whereby the virus stays dormant and shuts off most of its gene expression. Latently-infected splenocytes spontaneously reactivate virus upon explanting into tissue culture, which can be recapitulated by an infectious center (IC) assay to determine the viral latent load. To further estimate the amount of viral genome copies in the acutely and/or latently infected tissues, quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) is used for its maximal sensitivity and accuracy. The combined analyses of the results of qPCR and plaque assay, and/or IC assay will reveal the spatiotemporal profiles of viral replication and infectivity in vivo.

Measurement of &amp;#947;HV68 Infection in Mice

&#947;-Herpesviruses (&#947;-HVs) establish life-long persistency in their host. Infection of mice with &#947;-HV68 provides a genetically tractable in vivo model for the characterization of the lifecycle/pathogenesis of &#947;HVs. This protocol describes the detection and quantitation of &#947;HV68 infection at acute and latent stages following infection by plaque-forming, infectious center, and qPCR assays.

&gamma;-Herpesviruses (&gamma;-HVs) are notable for their ability to establish latent infections of lymphoid cells1. The narrow host range of human ...

Measurement of Factor V Activity in Human Plasma Using a Microplate Coagulation Assay

In response to injury, blood coagulation is activated and results in generation of the clotting protease, thrombin. Thrombin cleaves fibrinogen to fibrin which forms an insoluble clot that stops hemorrhage. Factor V (FV) in its activated form, FVa, is a critical cofactor for the protease FXa and accelerator of thrombin generation during fibrin clot formation as part of prothrombinase 1, 2. Manual FV assays have been described 3, 4, but they are time consuming and subjective. Automated FV assays have been reported 5-7, but the analyzer and reagents are expensive and generally provide only the clot time, not the rate and extent of fibrin formation. The microplate platform is preferred for measuring enzyme-catalyzed events because of convenience, time, cost, small volume, continuous monitoring, and high-throughput 8, 9. Microplate assays have been reported for clot lysis 10, platelet aggregation 11, and coagulation Factors 12, but not for FV activity in human plasma. The goal of the method was to develop a microplate assay that measures FV activity during fibrin formation in human plasma.
This novel microplate method outlines a simple, inexpensive, and rapid assay of FV activity in human plasma. The assay utilizes a kinetic microplate reader to monitor the absorbance change at 405nm during fibrin formation in human plasma (Figure 1) 13. The assay accurately measures the time, initial rate, and extent of fibrin clot formation. It requires only &mu;l quantities of plasma, is complete in 6 min, has high-throughput, is sensitive to 24-80pM FV, and measures the amount of unintentionally activated (1-stage activity) and thrombin-activated FV (2-stage activity) to obtain a complete assessment of its total functional activity (2-stage activity - 1-stage activity).
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is an acquired coagulopathy that most often develops from pre-existing infections 14. DIC is associated with a poor prognosis and increases mortality above the pre-existing pathology 15. The assay was used to show that in 9 patients with DIC, the FV 1-stage, 2-stage, and total activities were decreased, on average, by 54%, 44%, and 42%, respectively, compared with normal pooled human reference plasma (NHP).
The FV microplate assay is easily adaptable to measure the activity of any coagulation factor. This assay will increase our understanding of FV biochemistry through a more accurate and complete measurement of its activity in research and clinical settings. This information will positively impact healthcare environments through earlier diagnosis and development of more effective treatments for coagulation disorders, such as DIC.

This study describes a novel microplate assay that measures FV coagulation activity during fibrin clot formation in human plasma which has not been reported previously. The method uses a kinetic microplate reader to continuously measure the change in absorbance at 405nm during fibrin clot formation in human plasma.

 In response to injury, blood coagulation is activated and results in generation of the clotting protease, thrombin. Thrombin cleaves fibrinogen to fibrin ...

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

A complex interaction between the immune response and host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in particular, is known to occur as a response to infection in mammals 1 and has also recently been described in Drosophila melanogaster2. It is generally accepted that sleep is beneficial to the host during an infection and that it is important for the maintenance of a robust immune system3,4. However, experimental evidence that supports this hypothesis is limited4, and the function of excess sleep during an immune response remains unclear. We have used a multidisciplinary approach to address this complex problem, and have conducted studies in the simple genetic model system, the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. We use a standard assay for measuring locomotor behavior and sleep in flies, and demonstrate how this assay is used to measure behavior in flies infected with a pathogenic strain of bacteria. This assay is also useful for monitoring the duration of survival in individual flies during an infection. Additional measures of immune function include the ability of flies to clear an infection and the activation of NF&kappa;B, a key transcription factor that is central to the innate immune response in Drosophila. Both survival outcome and bacterial clearance during infection together are indicators of resistance and tolerance to infection. Resistance refers to the ability of flies to clear an infection, while tolerance is defined as the ability of the host to limit damage from an infection and thereby survive despite high levels of pathogen within the system5. Real-time monitoring of NF&kappa;B activity during infection provides insight into a molecular mechanism of survival during infection. The use of Drosophila in these straightforward assays facilitates the genetic and molecular analyses of sleep and the immune response and how these two complex systems are reciprocally influenced.

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

To understand a link between the immune response and behavior, we describe a method to measure locomotor behavior in Drosophila during bacterial infection as well as the ability of flies to mount an immune response by monitoring survival, bacterial load, and real-time activity of a key regulator of innate immunity, NF&kappa;B.

A complex interaction between the immune response and  host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in  particular, is known ...

Highly Resolved Intravital Striped-illumination Microscopy of Germinal Centers

Monitoring cellular communication by intravital deep-tissue multi-photon microscopy is the key for understanding the fate of immune cells within thick tissue samples and organs in health and disease. By controlling the scanning pattern in multi-photon microscopy and applying appropriate numerical algorithms, we developed a striped-illumination approach, which enabled us to achieve 3-fold better axial resolution and improved signal-to-noise ratio, i.e. contrast, in more than 100 &#181;m tissue depth within highly scattering tissue of lymphoid organs as compared to standard multi-photon microscopy. The acquisition speed as well as photobleaching and photodamage effects were similar to standard photo-multiplier-based technique, whereas the imaging depth was slightly lower due to the use of field detectors. By using the striped-illumination approach, we are able to observe the dynamics of immune complex deposits on secondary follicular dendritic cells &#8211; on the level of a few protein molecules in germinal centers.

High-resolution intravital imaging with enhanced contrast up to 120 &#181;m depth in lymph nodes of adult mice is achieved by spatially modulating the excitation pattern of a multi-focal two-photon microscope. In 100 &#181;m depth we measured resolutions of 487 nm (lateral) and 551 nm (axial), thus circumventing scattering and diffraction limits.

Monitoring cellular communication by intravital deep-tissue multi-photon microscopy is the key for understanding the fate of immune cells within thick ...

Highly Efficient Transfection of Human THP-1 Macrophages by Nucleofection

Macrophages, as key players of the innate immune response, are at the focus of research dealing with tissue homeostasis or various pathologies. Transfection with siRNA and plasmid DNA is an efficient tool for studying their function, but transfection of macrophages is not a trivial matter. Although many different approaches for transfection of eukaryotic cells are available, only few allow reliable and efficient transfection of macrophages, but reduced cell vitality and severely altered cell behavior like diminished capability for differentiation or polarization are frequently observed. Therefore a transfection protocol is required that is capable of transferring siRNA and plasmid DNA into macrophages without causing serious side-effects thus allowing the investigation of the effect of the siRNA or plasmid in the context of normal cell behavior. The protocol presented here provides a method for reliably and efficiently transfecting human THP-1 macrophages and monocytes with high cell vitality, high transfection efficiency, and minimal effects on cell behavior. This approach is based on Nucleofection and the protocol has been optimized to maintain maximum capability for cell activation after transfection. The protocol is adequate for adherent cells after detachment as well as cells in suspension, and can be used for small to medium sample numbers. Thus, the method presented is useful for investigating gene regulatory effects during macrophage differentiation and polarization. Apart from presenting results characterizing macrophages transfected according to this protocol in comparison to an alternative chemical method, the impact of cell culture medium selection after transfection on cell behavior is also discussed. The presented data indicate the importance of validating the selection for different experimental settings.

This protocol presents an efficient and reliable method to transfect human THP-1 macrophages with siRNA or plasmid DNA by electroporation with high transfection efficiency while maintaining high cell vitality and full macrophage capacity for differentiation and polarization.

Macrophages, as key players of the innate immune response, are at the focus of research dealing with tissue homeostasis or various pathologies. ...

Measuring Attachment and Internalization of Influenza A Virus in A549 Cells by Flow Cytometry

Attachment to target cells followed by internalization are the very first steps of the life cycle of influenza A virus (IAV). We provide here a detailed protocol for measuring relative changes in the amount of viral particles that attach to A549 cells, a human lung epithelial cell line, as well as in the amount of particles that are internalized into the cell. We use biotinylated virus which can be easily detected following staining with Cy3-labeled streptavidin (STV-Cy3). We describe the growth, purification and biotinylation of A/WSN/33, a widely used IAV laboratory strain. Cold-bound biotinylated IAV particles on A549 cells are stained with STV-Cy3 and measured using flow cytometry. To investigate uptake of viral particles, cold-bound virus is allowed to internalize at 37 &#176;C. In order to differentiate between external and internalized viral particles, a blocking step is applied: Free binding spots on the biotin of attached virus on the cell surface are bound by unlabeled streptavidin (STV). Subsequent cell permeabilization and staining with STV-Cy3 then enables detection of internalized viral particles. We present a calculation to determine the relative amount of internalized virus. This assay is suitable to measure effects of drug-treatments or other manipulations on attachment or internalization of IAV.

We present a protocol describing a semi-quantitative method for measuring both, the attachment of influenza A virus to A549 cells, as well as the internalization of virus particles into the target cells by flow cytometry.

Attachment to target cells followed by internalization are the very first steps of the life cycle of influenza A virus (IAV). We provide here a detailed ...

Development of a More Sensitive and Specific Chromogenic Agar Medium for the Detection of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Other Vibrio Species

Foodborne infections in the US caused by Vibrio species have shown an upward trend. In the genus Vibrio, V. parahaemolyticus is responsible for the majority of Vibrio-associated infections. Thus, accurate differentiation among Vibrio spp. and detection of V. parahaemolyticus is critically important to ensure the safety of our food supply. Although molecular techniques are increasingly common, culture-depending methods are still routinely done and they are considered standard methods in certain circumstances. Hence, a novel chromogenic agar medium was tested with the goal of providing a better method for isolation and differentiation of clinically relevant Vibrio spp. The protocol compared the sensitivity, specificity and detection limit for the detection of V. parahaemolyticus between the new chromogenic medium and a conventional medium. Various V. parahaemolyticus strains (n=22) representing diverse serotypes and source of origins were used. They were previously identified by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and further verified in our laboratory by tlh-PCR. In at least four separate trials, these strains were inoculated on the chromogenic agar and thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose (TCBS) agar, which is the recommended medium for culturing this species, followed by incubation at 35-37 &#176;C for 24-96 hr. Three V. parahaemolyticus strains (13.6%) did not grow optimally on TCBS, nonetheless exhibited green colonies if there was growth. Two strains (9.1%) did not yield the expected cyan colonies on the chromogenic agar. Non-V. parahaemolyticus strains (n=32) were also tested to determine the specificity of the chromogenic agar. Among these strains, 31 did not grow or exhibited other colony morphologies. The mean recovery of V. parahaemolyticus on the chromogenic agar was ~96.4% relative to tryptic soy agar supplemented with 2% NaCl. In conclusion, the new chromogenic agar is an effective medium to detect V. parahaemolyticus and to differentiate it from other vibrios.

Development of a More Sensitive and Specific Chromogenic Agar Medium for the Detection of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Other Vibrio Species

Detection and isolation of clinically relevant Vibrio species require selective and differential culture media. This study evaluated the ability of a new chromogenic medium to detect and identify V. parahaemolyticus and other related species. The new medium was found to have better sensitivity and specificity than the conventional medium.

Foodborne infections in the US caused by Vibrio species have shown an upward trend. In the genus Vibrio, V. parahaemolyticus is responsible for the ...

Measurement of In Vitro Integration Activity of HIV-1 Preintegration Complexes

HIV-1 envelope proteins engage cognate receptors on the target cell surface, which leads to viral-cell membrane fusion followed by the release of the viral capsid (CA) core into the cytoplasm. Subsequently, the viral Reverse Transcriptase (RT), as part of a namesake nucleoprotein complex termed the Reverse Transcription Complex (RTC), converts the viral single-stranded RNA genome into a double-stranded DNA copy (vDNA). This leads to the biogenesis of another nucleoprotein complex, termed the pre-integration complex (PIC), composed of the vDNA and associated virus proteins and host factors. The PIC-associated viral integrase (IN) orchestrates the integration of the vDNA into the host chromosomal DNA in a temporally and spatially regulated two-step process. First, the IN processes the 3&#39; ends of the vDNA in the cytoplasm and, second, after the PIC traffics to the nucleus, it mediates integration of the processed vDNA into the chromosomal DNA. The PICs isolated from target cells acutely infected with HIV-1 are functional in vitro, as they are competent to integrate the associated vDNA into an exogenously added heterologous target DNA. Such PIC-based in vitro integration assays have significantly contributed to delineating the mechanistic details of retroviral integration and to discovering IN inhibitors. In this report, we elaborate upon an updated HIV-1 PIC assay that employs a nested real-time quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR)-based strategy for measuring the in vitro integration activity of isolated native PICs.

Measurement of In Vitro Integration Activity of HIV-1 Preintegration Complexes

This report describes an in vitro assay for measuring the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) preintegration complex (PIC)-associated integration activity in the cytoplasmic extracts of acutely infected cells. The integration of PIC-associated HIV-1 DNA into heterologous target DNA is quantified by using a nested real-time polymerase chain reaction strategy.

HIV-1 envelope proteins engage cognate receptors on the target cell surface, which leads to viral-cell membrane fusion followed by the release of the ...

Highly Multiplexed, Super-resolution Imaging of T Cells Using madSTORM

Imaging heterogeneous cellular structures using single molecule localization microscopy has been hindered by inadequate localization precision and multiplexing ability. Using fluorescent nano-diamond fiducial markers, we describe the drift correction and alignment procedures required to obtain high precision in single molecule localization microscopy. In addition, a new multiplexing strategy, madSTORM, is described in which multiple molecules are targeted in the same cell using sequential binding and elution of fluorescent antibodies. madSTORM is demonstrated on an activated T cell to visualize the locations of different components within a membrane-bound, multi-protein structure called the T cell receptor microcluster. In addition, application of madSTORM as a general tool for visualization of multi-protein structures is discussed.

We demonstrate a method to image multiple molecules within heterogeneous nano-structures at single molecule accuracy using sequential binding and elution of fluorescently labeled antibodies.