Name: the deese-roediger-mcdermott (drm) task: a simple cognitive paradigm to investigate false memories in the laboratory
Uploaded: 2017-01-31T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 7 min 26 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Deese-Roediger-McDermott DRM Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory at JoVE.com

The authors thank all members of the Sleep, Stress, and Memory Lab for their help in data collection, particularly Stephen M. Mattingly for proofreading the final manuscript.

圣母大学的机构审查委员会批准的所有的程序，包括使用人类受试者，在这里讨论。制备和下面描述的DRM任务材料的管理在发表的研究26，在这种心理压力的下面DRM词表编码的影响进行了评估24小时后进行使用。 1. DRM任务的研制<ol><li>使用来自施泰德，洛蒂格和麦克德莫特48的单词列表，在附录中提出，要选择单词列表适当数量的实验。从表1和表 2，选择假回忆和识别的概率最高的单词列表。在实验中使用了更多的单词列表，更大的假字的数目参加者将有机会记住。 注: 表1和2示出了probabil假自由回忆和再认记忆，分别由施泰德等人使用的前18单词列表的性。 41。附录给出了完整的单词列表。参见加洛和洛蒂格49额外的范单词列表。 </li><li> 准备编码任务 <ol><li>单词选择列表的呈现方式。见讨论，了解有关演示模式的选择问题。 注意:演示模式可以是视觉或听觉。 </li><li>如果选择了听觉介绍，数字记录在每个列表中的所有单词。使用专业级设备（ 例如 ，策马NT1-A话筒），最好是一个陌生的声音和隔音或耐药声音的房间。 </li><li>记录在降关联的强度的词列表，因为它们是在附录中提出的，在每两秒一个字的速率。 </li><li>在每个列表的末尾，包括相当长的延迟时间（&lt;EM&gt;例如，12秒）的沉默，接着是1语气，2秒的沉默，然后下一个列表的开始。这有助于与会者解析个人名单。 </li><li>使用音频编辑软件（ 如 Audacity的）来应用这些标准。 <ol><li>拖放音频文件到音频编辑软件。 </li><li>使用鼠标光标，以选择沉默将被应用在音频部分。 </li><li>在顶部，选择编辑&gt;删除音频&gt;静音音频。 </li><li>在每个表的开始应用1-S音效，使用音频编辑软件的复制和粘贴选项。 </li><li>要保存录音，按STOP，选择文件&gt;导出，然后选择文件格式和音频文件的目的地。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li> 准备测试任务 <ol><li>选择的编码和检测之间的保持间隔为适合实验。如果寻址应激对记忆PERFORMA的影响NCE，至少选择24小时。 </li><li> 对于自由回忆任务，有一个空白的纸上或在文字处理应用程序中的空白文档（ 例如 ，微软Word）准备好了。 </li><li> 对于识别任务，选择的话，包括在识别任务。 <ol><li>包括从位置1,8研究词语（ 即在编码展示的话），和10从包括在编码任务2各自列表。参见附录完整的单词列表。 </li><li>包括包含在编码任务（代表单词列表的要点在编码没有提出即假字）从每个列表中的所有关键的诱惑的话。参见附录完整的单词列表及其相应的关键诱惑。 </li><li>包括相同数量的附加的，非提出词语（ 即箔字不相关的任何所研究的DRM列表）中，从其他的非研究的DRM单词列表，从相同的位置（1,8，一个<html> ð10）和它们的相应的临界诱饵。 注:例如，如果15 DRM的单词列表在编码过程中提出，为表彰测试，目前120字:45学习的话，15个关键的诱惑的话，从其他非研究的DRM词表45 nonpresented列表项和15微词从这些nonstudied DRM的单词列表。 </li></ol></li><li>使用实验制作软件（ 如 E-总理）创建的话自学介绍，并实现数据的采集。 <ol><li>使用黑色字体与白色背景，合理的字体大小，根据屏幕尺寸/分辨率。 </li><li>在一个标准的旧/新识别测试中，使用单独的密钥分配响应;如旧的&#39;Z&#39;键和新的"M"键。如果可能的话，在加入这个传说与屏幕上的每个字的文稿。软件，如E-总理会自动收集反应时间和关键响应。 </li></ol></li></ol></li></ol>e_title"&gt; 2。DRM任务管理<ol><li> 编码任务管理 <ol><li>向受试者在含有单词列表的记录设备的前面坐。确保主题是舒适。 </li><li>阅读以下说明，以科目为:"对，你会听单词表这一认知任务在每个列表的最后一个字，就会有12秒休息，其次是1的语气，其次是2秒的。沉默，再下一张表的开始时间，请密切关注的话，因为你对他们在下次会议上进行测试。" </li><li>请受戴上耳机。为了确保参与者有没有杂念，关掉电脑显示器。按播放。 </li><li>告知参与者，这个会议已经结束，并为他们提供下一个（测试）会话的说明。 </li></ol></li><li> 测试任务管理 <ol><li> 自由回忆测试 <ol><li>请受坐到一张桌子或书桌前（如果使用笔和纸），或在电脑前（如果使用字处理空白文档）。 </li><li>阅读下面的说明这个问题:"任务的这部分涉及一个简单的内存测试请写下你可以从你的最后一次会议听取了名单还记得的话你有10分钟召回所有的话，你可以。还有2分钟时离开，我会让你知道。有问题吗？" </li><li>回答这个问题的任何问题。 </li><li>启动定时器，并告知两分钟警示标记的主题。 </li><li>停止主语之后的时间到了。 </li></ol></li><li> 在计算机识别测试 <ol><li>与实验创作软件打开识别测试。 </li><li>问学科在电脑前坐。 </li><li>阅读下面的说明的主题:"这是一个简单的识别任务你会看到一个单词O操作。n个屏幕。使用键盘来回答每个单词是否是旧的（也就是，你听到了列表中的一个/先前看到的）或新的。如果你认为这个词是旧的和&#39;M&#39;键，如果你认为这个词是新的，你会用&#39;Z&#39;键。这是自定进度，但我们也测量你的反应时间，从而迅速，但准确，你可以接听。让我知道你做。任何问题？ "。 </li><li>回答这个问题的任何问题。 </li><li>启动识别测试，并等待接受完成。 </li></ol></li><li>听取汇报的主题和感谢他们参与这项研究。 </li></ol></li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

<html>在这份报告中，作者描述了可靠的生产基础依据，错误记忆在人类受试者使用频率高的认知任务。要注意的是，在目前的报告中，DRM任务在其最简单的形式，非常类似于由德泽1和洛蒂格与Mcdermott 2中使用的原始协议之一表示是非常重要的。在这里描述的实验中使用的原始协议的相似度具有一个特定的异常:编码和测试之间长时间的延迟（24，48小时），测试时的错误记忆持续超过真正记忆20或以下操作，可以是有用影响记忆的巩固，如睡眠25和压力26。与此相关的问题，在目前的实验中，识别试验立即自由回忆试验中，已经发现，增加识别率后施用<html>姑娘="外部参照"&gt; 2，18;因此，我们提醒读者据此解释我们的识别数据。此外，虽然有几个早期2的研究中，以及所提出的研究表明，临界字（假存储器）一致地记住比研究字（真存储器）较好，其他人已经表明相反的图案，特别是用于短期存储器测试17,18 。 则DRM任务有多个修饰（综述参见参考文献39。），范围为，但不限于:1）变化为编码处理，例如约的效果23，关系和关联处理指令45,46警告，吸47 ，附带的编码48，和快速演示字49; 2）更改为测试方法，如强迫选择测试类="外部参照"&gt; 50，加快识别测试51，和回忆与熟悉的判断2;和3）改变到关键字特征，诸如使用禁忌词52，长字53，并且具体词54。 有研究者应该使用DRM范式的时候考虑几个重要因素。在这里，我们建议使用从施泰德等人的工作。 （1999）40，以便选择字列出了编码来呈现。在由施泰德和他的同事在研究中，受试者回忆每个列表听完话后，立即然而毕竟名单已经提交，并回顾被赋予了识别测试。因此，召回，如果使用较长的时间间隔保留，识别率可能会有所不同，因为我们在我们的实验室已经完成。我们的平均召回假率分别为M = 0.20。跨越更短的延迟，像寿通过本身施泰德等人使用。 48平均虚假召回率可以更高（ 例如 ，M = 0.51为上方18列出48）。此外，我们建议使用听觉呈现，因为这是比较常见的两种模式（视觉或听觉）的。视觉呈现也已显示降低的DRM效果50,51。根据实验的问题，如果一个内存更详细的评估是需要的，个人的信心收视率可以在测试加入，既回忆和识别任务。对于识别测试，"记住"和"知道"的判断可以交替使用52。在我们的研究中，参与者分别给予10分钟的回忆任务，让他们获取尽可能多的单词可能，因为:1）180话是在编码介绍（15名单; 12个字/列表）和2）有24 - 48编码和TE之间小时的间隔刺痛，这是势必减少滞留。关于统计分析，尽管在目前的报告中，我们提出了未校正的识别率（为简单起见），读者可以考虑信号检测方法来分析识别测试数据53（参照Seamon 等人 21的与信号检测方法的好例子DRM任务）。关于工具和材料，在事件的实验创作软件无法使用，为表彰测试字文稿也可以用幻灯片制作软件（ 如 PowerPoint演示）完成，而其主题回答旧/新在一张纸上。 要记住对于未来的实验的一个特别重要的因素是增加在每个列表中的语义相关的字的数目提高假记忆效应55， 即为了提高假召回/识别的概率，它<html>至关重要的是实验者展示尽可能多的单词可能的（每个列表）编码时;见附录为完整的单词列表。同样地，使用数量不足词列表也可能会降低，观察效果清晰的能力，特别是有关的相关性（ 即具有统计学显著相关性更加难以观察时一个变量的范围小，因为是，如果几个DRM的情况下单词列表中包括在研究25）。与此相反，这是相对的，如果使用识别作为测试方法，不包括一些在编码列表中的项目，以便识别在测试过程中使用它们作为非提出箔的建议。与此相关，故建议包括来自非研究的DRM单词列表中的待识别的文字，18关键的诱惑，因为DRM关键的诱惑有较高的字频率和较高的基线误报率比研究（表）项目SS ="外部参照"&gt; 2，56。这是表示该地址响应偏差的高阈值校正一个过程。另一种可能的方法，用信号检测方法21。 则DRM并非没有其局限性。有些人认为，造成DRM任务简单的基于要点 - 错误与大脑中的蔓延在语义记忆网络激活，不得媲美假自传体记忆，比如虐待儿童的"康复"的回忆，从心理产生41。虽然解决这一长达十年之久的问题是这份报告的范围，作者与盖洛同意在"适当的问题要问是什么DRM错觉方面内容相关的自传体记忆方面"（第834; REF 7）。使用原来的DRM任务与此相关的窘境，在当前报告所述，可能会导致歧义，因为存在着规范此类基于要点假记忆的形成57多个激活/监控流程。从广义上讲，则DRM任务的未来的应用应当继续寻址存储器的重建性质，并且更具体地，单一发作的转化一般化，灵活的和有用的要旨抽象。不管研究的问题，采用了DRM虚假记忆任务以外，现实世界中，错误记忆的形式推广的研究结果时，谨慎总是必要的，因为DRM任务是一个不起眼的认知范式，然而，人们以极大的研究潜力。

An erratum was issued for: <a href="http://www.jove.com/video/54793">The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory</a>.&#160; Additional references have been added to the References section.

An erratum was issued for: <a href="http://www.jove.com/video/54793">The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory</a>. Additional references have been added to the References section.

Erratum: The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

<html>该德泽，洛蒂格和麦克德莫特（DRM）的任务最初由德泽1中创建，后来由洛蒂格和麦克德莫特2在实验室研究错误记忆的方便手段活力。虽然有些3,4认为这应该叫DRMRS任务，为读5和6索尔索的贡献，在文学中最常见的名字是DRM任务，我们用这个名字在这里调用它。由洛蒂格和麦克德莫特2发表了开创性的论文后，错误记忆的研究兴趣猛增7，导致该文章日期2800引文。据洛蒂格和麦克德莫特，他们通过复兴创造德泽因为没有可靠的实验范式诱发虚假召回的实验设计，而错误识别的证据"&gt; 8，9没有"小劝阻那些需要更多的自然，连贯的材料来证明强大的错误记忆效应的信仰"2。 "更自然"的范式的一个例子是误传范式10,11。在这个任务中，受试者都通过图片，幻灯片或视频的故事。后来，误导性信息提供，问题是主体是否将这一误导性的资料到他们的故事回味。则DRM任务比在若干方面的误传范例简单。 DRM编码仅需要快速呈现和词的列表的学习，可以在视觉上或听觉上。无论所使用的特定方法为DRM任务检索测试是同样方便。在识别测试参与者都带有日的一个子集Ë编码的话，关键的诱惑的话（ 例如 ，&#39;医生&#39;），以及不相关的诱惑的话，不得不使他们是否还记得每一个字或没有，而在回忆测试中，参与者要记下所有的话简单判断他们能记住。与此相反，对于误传范例自由回忆测试是不切实际的，因为它需要费时内容分析。此外，DRM任务不需要编码和检测之间的任何操作，因为DRM"假记忆&#39;是自发自我生成。误传误差，另一方面，通过外部建议诱导。虽然两者的DRM和误传范式被认为以评估假存储器，更新的研究已经发现小相关（r = 0.12）12或没有关系13,14的误传和DRM效果之间，这表明不同的机制可为播放为每种类型的虚假记忆。此外，DRM幻想被认为是的存储器15的建设性的性质，这可以被认为是一种进化上自适应处理16的副产物。 该DRM虚假记忆效应是不同的研究非常强劲（定量的评论见文献17，18），并有相当的证据表明，DRM任务是相当可靠的27，28。则DRM假记忆效应已经使用各种延迟间隔，包括那些短立即测试发现，这些延迟存储器测试直到60后19，20，21，22 D。警告DRM假象减少，但不会删除，效果14，23的主题。该DRM效果也已发现具有不同编码策略，例如在字显示持续时间24的变化，并可以由几个编码后处理，如睡眠25或应力26而增加。 此外，DRM任务已经用于通过许多实验室研究中的各种主题的人群，例如儿童29，30，31，32和老年人33的假记忆形成，并在各种研究领域，包括个体认知（ 例如 ，工作记忆28，34）和个性差异35，神经影像学36，37，和神经心理学38。尽管它的普及，然而，许多人认为抗T他的DRM任务的普遍性，以及是否DRM错误记忆创造可媲美自然创造的实验室，外假自传体记忆等心理治疗39，40，41恢复虐待儿童的回忆。尽管如此，一些研究发现，受试者认为更容易受到DRM错误记忆也更容易自传体记忆的扭曲42，梦幻般的自传体记忆（外星人绑架43;前世44），并回收自传体记忆45。 总之，DRM任务是调查（重新）的神经认知基础的存储器16，46建设性，无论正在进行的辩论的有关如何应用一个有用的工具ropriate和有关它在自传错误记忆7的研究。在目前的报告中，DRM任务程序最简单的形式中的定位记忆的巩固过程解释，重点（ 即实验操作，如睡眠和压力，编码已完成，因此被作为工具来评估合并后可能出现） ，因为这已在我们的实验室中的焦点。作者读者参考加洛，2013 47对DRM任务的一个很好的回顾，对编码和测试程序的不同变化一起。

<table><tbody><tr><td>Computer</td><td></td><td></td><td>No particular brand/type required.</td></tr><tr><td>Headphones</td><td></td><td></td><td>No particular brand/type required.</td></tr><tr><td>RODE NT1-A 1&quot; cardioid condenser microphone</td><td>Rode</td><td>http://www.rode.com/microphones/nt1-a</td><td>recording equipment used to record the wordlists</td></tr><tr><td>Audacity</td><td>Audacity</td><td>http://www.audacityteam.org/</td><td>for editing the recording of the wordlists</td></tr><tr><td>E-Prime&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Psychology Software Tools, Inc.</td><td>https://www.pstnet.com/eprime.cfm</td><td>for stimuli presentation and/or testing</td></tr><tr><td>MS PowerPoint (optional)</td><td>Microsoft</td><td></td><td>for stimuli presentation and/or testing</td></tr><tr><td>MS Word (optional)</td><td>Microsoft</td><td></td><td>for free recall testing. Any word processor application will work.</td></tr></tbody></table>

the deese-roediger-mcdermott (drm) task: a simple cognitive paradigm to investigate false memories in the laboratory

该德泽，洛蒂格和麦克德莫特（DRM）的任务是假内存范例，其中科目都带有的语义相关的词（ 例如 ，护士，医院等 ），在编码列表。延时后，科目要求召回或识别这些词。在任务的识别记忆版本，受检者被问及他们是否还记得以前提交的话，以及相关的（但从未提交）关键诱字（&#39;医生&#39;）。通常情况下，临界字被识别以高概率和信心。这种虚假的记忆效应已经在整个短（ 例如 ，立竿见影，20分钟）和长期（ 如 1，7，60天）的编码和测试内存之间的延迟得到有力证明。使用此任务来研究错误记忆的优势在于它的简单性和持续时间短。如果任务的编码和提取成分发生在同一个会议上，整个任务可以低至2 - 30分钟。然而，人虽然DRM任务被广泛认为是"虚假记忆"的范式，一些研究者认为基于语义记忆网络在大脑中的激活的DRM幻想，认为这种基于语义要点假的内存错误可能实际上是一些有用的场景（ 例如 ，记住树木不见森林;记住一个单词列表是关于"医生"，即使实际单词"医生"从来没有提出学习）。记忆经验的要旨（代替或与个别细节一起）可以说是一个自适应过程，此任务提供知识了大量有关的存储器的建设性，自适应性质。因此，在使用此任务时，研究"虚假记忆"，因为DRM内存错误可能无法充分反映在现实世界中虚假记忆，比如在目击者的证词错误记忆讨论整体的覆盖面和他们的实验意义时，研究者应谨慎使用，还是假的性虐待的回忆。

用这里介绍的过程中，作者已经能够可靠地产生在两个独立的实验的DRM效果;也就是说，受试者回忆和认识，与可以被视为虚假记忆的单词列表的"要点"高概率，不提出微词。 结果实验1（ 见图1和图 2）已在其他地方26日公布。在这个实验中，受试者67到达实验室，听（通过耳机），以15 DRM的单词列表，然后提交涉及公众演讲（特里尔社会压力测试）或任务的控制版本心理压力的任务。受试者返回24小时后，完成自由回忆测试，随后立即识别测试，如上所述。关联到目前的报告，整体比例的也就是说召回并承认是关键的话较高（假召回M = 0.20，错误识别M = 0.71）比呈现话（真回忆M = 0.09，真正识别M = 0.65），T（66）= 8.61，P &lt;0.001 ，科恩的D = 1.22召回[ 图1]; T（66）= 2.42，P = 0.02，科恩的D = 0.29承认[ 图2]）。重要的是，识别关键的话也比承认无关箔字（M = 0.36）显著较高，T（66）= 12.88，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 1.57。 <img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54793/54793fig1.jpg" /> 图 1:（Pardilla-Delgado等 ，2016）召回率从实验一20。条代表装置和误差棒代表平均值的标准误差。有关这份报告，虚假召回的整体内存（最后两棒）是significantly内存比真正的回忆和识别高。 *** P &lt;0.001。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54793/54793fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/54793/54793fig2.jpg" /> 图 2:（Pardilla-Delgado等 ，2016）识别率从实验一20。条代表装置和误差棒代表平均值的标准误差。有关这份报告，虚假识别的整体内存比内存真实，箔识别（最后3条）显著高。 * P &lt;0.05; *** P &lt;0.001。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54793/54793fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> 见图3和4）。在这项研究中，117科目在晚上16编码DRM的单词列表或者，睡觉前，或在早上，前一段清醒来。受试者回到24或48小时后完成自由回忆测试其次是识别测试。字的总比例召回，并承认是关键的话较高（假召回M = 0.20，错误识别M = 0.72）比呈现话（真回忆M = 0.09，真正识别M = 0.65），T（116）= 12.4 ，p &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 1.36召回[ 图3]; T（116）= 3.66，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 0.39承认[ 图4]）。重要的是，识别关键的话也比承认无关箔字（M = 0.37）显著较高，T（116）= 15.68，P &lt;0.001，科恩的D = 1.44。 图3: 回想价格从实验2条代表装置和误差棒代表平均值的标准误差。组:S24:睡眠1 日 / 24小时的延迟，W24:唤醒1 日 / 24小时的延迟，S48:睡眠1 日 / 48小时的延迟，W48:唤醒1 日 / 48小时的延迟。有关这份报告，虚假回忆（最后两杆）的总内存比内存真正的召回显著高。 *** P &lt;0.001。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54793/54793fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图4" src="/files/ftp_upload/54793/54793fig4.jpg" /> 图4:识别率从实验2条代表装置和误差棒代表平均值的标准误差。组:S24:睡眠1ST / 24小时的延迟，W24:唤醒1 日 / 24小时的延迟，S48:睡眠1 日 / 48小时的延迟，W48:唤醒1 日 / 48小时的延迟。有关这份报告，虚假识别（最后三道杠）的总内存大于内存的真实，箔识别显著高。 *** P &lt;0.001。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54793/54793fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> 的是，在我们的实验室中进行的这两个独立的研究中，假存储器（临界字）被成比例地更经常想起不是真正的存储器（研究字）编码后24和48小时的事实是与早期研究显示了类似的假存储器的持久性一致效果在长期拖延19 - 21。这些结果强调跨越漫长的延迟间隔引发虚假回忆，乐在DRM任务的疗效AST为假存储器可以被广义地定义为不实际的对象经历记住事件。 <table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">假召回的概率根据施泰德等人从排名最高到最低。 ，1999年</td></tr><tr><td>窗口</td><td> 65 </td></tr><tr><td>睡觉</td><td> 61 </td></tr><tr><td>闻</td><td> 60 </td></tr><tr><td>医生</td><td> 60 </td></tr><tr><td>甜</td><td> 54 </td></tr><tr><td>椅子</td><td> 54 </td></tr><tr><td>抽烟</td><td> 54 </td></tr><tr><td>粗</td><td> 53 </td></tr><tr><td>针</td><td> 52 </td></tr><tr><td>愤怒</td><td> 49 </td></tr><tr><td>垃圾</td><td> 49 </td></tr><tr><td>柔软的</td><td> 46 </td></tr><tr><td>市</td><td> 46 </td></tr><tr><td>杯子</td><td> 45 </td></tr><tr><td>冷</td><td> 42 </td></tr><tr><td>山</td><td> 42 </td></tr><tr><td>慢</td><td> 42 </td></tr><tr><td>河</td><td> 51 </td></tr></tbody></table> 表1:从最高到最低排名根据施泰德等人虚假召回的概率。 ，1999年41。施泰德和他的同事发现，41与这些关键的词相关的列表有一个自由回忆测试产生错误记忆的概率最高。这里介绍的是关键的话只（ 即 nonpresented词，是错误地在检索测试记忆）。请参阅附录中每个完整列表。 <table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">从排名最高到最低交流误认概率盘带到施泰德等人的 ，1999年</td></tr><tr><td>窗口</td><td> 84 </td></tr><tr><td>闻</td><td> 84 </td></tr><tr><td>冷</td><td> 84 </td></tr><tr><td>粗</td><td> 83 </td></tr><tr><td>杯子</td><td> 82 </td></tr><tr><td>柔软的</td><td> 81 </td></tr><tr><td>睡觉</td><td> 80 </td></tr><tr><td>愤怒</td><td> 79 </td></tr><tr><td>甜</td><td> 78 </td></tr><tr><td>垃圾</td><td> 78 </td></tr><tr><td>椅子</td><td> 74 </td></tr><tr><td>抽烟</td><td> 73 </td></tr><tr><td>高</td><td> 72 </td></tr><tr><td>医生</td><td> 71 </td></tr><tr><td>贼</td><td> 70 </td></tr><tr><td>山</td><td> 69 </td></tr><tr><td>慢</td><td> 69 </td></tr><tr><td>音乐</td><td> 69 </td></tr></tbody></table><strong&gt;表2:假识别概率从最高到最低排名根据施泰德等人 ，1999年41。施泰德和他的同事41发现，这些关键的诱惑词相关联的名单必须在一个旧/新识别测试产生错误记忆的概率最高。这里介绍的是关键的诱惑只（ 即 nonpresented词，是错误地在检索测试记忆）。请参阅附录中每个完整列表。 <table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always"><tbody><tr><td colspan="9">关键字（按字母顺序）列表项的前18名单（按联想实力位居）免费召回</td></tr><tr><td> 愤怒 </td><td> 椅子 </td><td> 市 </td><td> 冷 </td><td> 杯子 </td><td> 医生 </td><td> 山 </td><td> 针 </td><td> 粗 </td></tr><tr><td>狂</td><td>表</td><td>镇</td><td>热</td><td>杯</td><td>护士</td><td>爬坡道</td><td>线</td><td>光滑</td></tr><tr><td>恐惧</td><td>坐</td><td>挤</td><td>雪</td><td>茶托</td><td>生病</td><td>谷</td><td>松树</td><td>颠簸</td></tr><tr><td>讨厌</td><td>腿</td><td>州</td><td>暖</td><td>茶</td><td>律师</td><td>爬</td><td>眼</td><td>路</td></tr><tr><td>愤怒</td><td>座位</td><td>首都</td><td>冬季</td><td>测量</td><td>医学</td><td>首脑</td><td>针线活</td><td>强硬</td></tr><tr><td>脾气</td><td>长椅</td><td>街道</td><td>冰</td><td>杯垫</td><td>健康</td><td>最佳</td><td>尖锐</td><td>砂纸</td></tr><tr><td>愤怒</td><td>台</td><td>地铁</td><td>湿</td><td>盖</td><td>醫院</td><td>小题大做</td><td>点</td><td>盘陀</td></tr><tr><td>忿怒</td><td>躺椅</td><td>国家</td><td>寒冷</td><td>处理</td><td>牙医</td><td>峰</td><td>刺</td><td>红润</td></tr><tr><td>愤怒</td><td>沙发</td><td>纽约</td><td>寒冷</td><td>咖啡</td><td>医师</td><td>朴素</td><td>顶针</td><td>粗</td></tr><tr><td>快乐</td><td>木</td><td>村</td><td>热</td><td>稻草</td><td>生病</td><td>冰川</td><td>草垛</td><td>不均匀的</td></tr><tr><td>斗争</td><td>坐垫</td><td>都会</td><td>天气</td><td>高脚杯</td><td>患者</td><td>山羊</td><td>刺</td><td>车手</td></tr><tr><td>仇</td><td>旋转</td><td>大</td><td>冻结</td><td>汤</td><td>办公室</td><td>自行车</td><td>伤害</td><td>崎岖</td></tr><tr><td>意思</td><td>粪便</td><td>芝加哥</td><td>空气</td><td>斯坦</td><td>听筒</td><td>登山者</td><td>注射</td><td>砂</td></tr><tr><td>冷静</td><td>坐在</td><td>市郊</td><td>发抖</td><td>喝</td><td>外科医生</td><td>范围</td><td>注射器</td><td>板</td></tr><tr><td>情感</td><td>摇摆</td><td>县</td><td>北极</td><td>塑料</td><td>诊所</td><td>陡</td><td>布</td><td>地面</td></tr><tr><td>激怒</td><td>长凳</td><td>城市的</td><td>霜</td><td>啜</td><td>治愈</td><td>滑雪</td><td>针织</td><td>碎石</td></tr><tr><td> 河 </td><td> 睡觉 </td><td> 慢 </td><td> 闻 </td><td> SMOKE &lt;/ STRONG&gt; </td><td> 柔软的 </td><td> 甜 </td><td> 垃圾 </td><td> 窗口 </td></tr><tr><td>水</td><td>床</td><td>快速</td><td>鼻子</td><td>香烟</td><td>硬</td><td>酸</td><td>垃圾</td><td>门</td></tr><tr><td>流</td><td>休息</td><td>昏睡的</td><td>呼吸</td><td>噗</td><td>光</td><td>糖果</td><td>浪费</td><td>玻璃</td></tr><tr><td>湖</td><td>苏醒</td><td>停止</td><td>吸气</td><td>火焰</td><td>毛茸茸</td><td>糖</td><td>能够</td><td>窗格</td></tr><tr><td>密西西比州</td><td>累</td><td>蔫</td><td>香气</td><td>波澜</td><td>枕头</td><td>苦</td><td>垃圾</td><td>阴</td></tr><tr><td>船</td><td>梦想</td><td>蜗牛</td><td>听</td><td>污染</td><td>长毛绒</td><td>好</td><td>污水</td><td>窗台</td></tr><tr><td>浪潮</td><td>唤醒</td><td>谨慎</td><td>看到</td><td>灰烬</td><td>响</td><td>味道</td><td>袋</td><td>窗台</td></tr><tr><td>游泳</td><td>打盹</td><td>延迟</td><td>鼻孔</td><td>雪茄</td><td>棉</td><td>齿</td><td>破烂</td><td>屋</td></tr><tr><td>流</td><td>毯</td><td> TRAFIC </td><td>喷气</td><td>烟囱</td><td>毛皮</td><td>不错</td><td>垃圾</td><td>打开</td></tr><tr><td>跑</td><td>瞌睡</td><td>龟</td><td>香味</td><td>火</td><td>触摸</td><td>蜜糖</td><td>扫</td><td>窗帘</td></tr><tr><td>驳船</td><td>睡眠</td><td>踟</td><td>腐臭</td><td>烟草</td><td>蓬松</td><td>苏打</td><td>下脚料</td><td>帧</td></tr><tr><td>溪</td><td>鼾</td><tD&gt;速度</td><td>恶臭</td><td>臭</td><td>羽毛</td><td>巧克力</td><td>桩</td><td>视图</td></tr><tr><td>溪</td><td>小憩</td><td>快</td><td>香味</td><td>管</td><td>柔和的</td><td>心</td><td>倾倒</td><td>微风</td></tr><tr><td>鱼</td><td>和平</td><td>迟缓</td><td>香水</td><td>肺</td><td>小猫</td><td>蛋糕</td><td>垃圾填埋场</td><td>窗扇</td></tr><tr><td>桥</td><td>打哈欠</td><td>等待</td><td>盐</td><td>火焰</td><td>皮肤</td><td>酸</td><td>废墟</td><td>屏幕</td></tr><tr><td>曲折</td><td>昏昏欲睡</td><td>糖蜜</td><td>玫瑰</td><td>弄脏</td><td>投标</td><td>馅饼</td><td>窝</td><td>快门</td></tr></tbody></table> 附录:批评话语（按字母顺序）与我列出TEMS顶级18列出了自由回忆（由联想实力位居）。在顶部粗体字表示的列表中的&#39;要点&#39;和被认为是关键字（假存储器）;这些话是不是在编码介绍。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Deese-Roediger-McDermott DRM Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory at JoVE.com

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott DRM Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

在这里，我们目前的德泽，洛蒂格和麦克德莫特（DRM）的任务，研究错误记忆的实验工具。学科研究的语义相关的词（ 如护士，生病等 ）列表，以后记得虚假表示的要点，或主题，字表的字未学（医生）。

该德泽 - 洛蒂格 - 麦克德莫特（DRM）任务:一个简单的认知范式来研究实验室错误记忆

The Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words ...

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The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

Memory

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37.8K 次观看.  University of Notre Dame. 在这里，我们目前的德泽，洛蒂格和麦克德莫特（DRM）的任务，研究错误记忆的实验工具。学科研究的语义相关的词（ 如护士，生病等 ）列表，以后记得虚假表示的要点，或主题，字表的字未学（医生）。 

视频: The Deese-Roediger-McDermott DRM Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Emotional Autobiographical Recollection

Recollection of emotional autobiographical memories (AMs) is important to healthy cognitive and affective functioning 1 - remembering positive AMs is associated with increased personal well-being and self-esteem 2, whereas remembering and ruminating on negative AMs may lead to affective disorders 3. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the brain mechanisms underlying AM retrieval in general (reviewed in 4, 5), less is known about the effect of emotion on the subjective re-experience of AMs and the associated neural correlates. This is in part due to the fact that, unlike the investigations of the emotion effect on memory for laboratory-based microevents (reviewed in 6, 7-9), often times AM studies do not have a clear focus on the emotional aspects of remembering personal events (but see 10). Here, we present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of recollecting emotional AMs using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Cues for these memories are collected prior to scanning by means of an autobiographical memory questionnaire (AMQ), therefore allowing for proper selection of emotional AMs based on their phenomenological properties (i.e., intensity, vividness, personal significance). This protocol can be used in healthy and clinical populations alike.

We present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of recollecting emotional autobiographical memories, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. This protocol can be used with both healthy and clinical participants.

情感自传回忆的神经关联的脑成像研究

Recollection of emotional autobiographical memories (AMs) is important to healthy cognitive and affective functioning 1 - remembering positive AMs is ...

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神经科学

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Impairing Effect of Emotion on Cognition

Emotions can impact cognition by exerting both enhancing (e.g., better memory for emotional events) and impairing (e.g., increased emotional distractibility) effects (reviewed in 1). Complementing our recent protocol 2 describing a method that allows investigation of the neural correlates of the memory-enhancing effect of emotion (see also 1, 3-5), here we present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of the detrimental impact of emotion on cognition. The main feature of this method is that it allows identification of reciprocal modulations between activity in a ventral neural system, involved in 'hot' emotion processing (HotEmo system), and a dorsal system, involved in higher-level 'cold' cognitive/executive processing (ColdEx system), which are linked to cognitive performance and to individual variations in behavior (reviewed in 1). Since its initial introduction 6, this design has proven particularly versatile and influential in the elucidation of various aspects concerning the neural correlates of the detrimental impact of emotional distraction on cognition, with a focus on working memory (WM), and of coping with such distraction 7,11, in both healthy 8-11 and clinical participants 12-14.

We present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural mechanisms mediating the detrimental impact of emotion on cognition, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. This protocol can be used with both healthy and clinical participants.

脑成像的情感对认知损害的影响调查

Emotions can impact cognition by exerting both enhancing (e.g., better memory for emotional events) and impairing (e.g., increased emotional ...

An Experimental Analysis of Children's Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting false testimonies and interviewing children have restricted the generalizability of the findings. The primary aim of the current study is to provide an easy-to-administer and ecologically valid method for measuring the veracity and quality of school-aged children's (ages 6-11) testimonies when they are asked to provide different types of true and false reports. Moreover, the methodology enables researchers to examine the social and developmental factors that could influence the credibility of a child's testimony. In the current study, children will witness a theft, and are then asked to either falsely deny the transgression, falsely accuse a researcher of the theft, or tell the truth. Afterwards, children are to be interviewed by a second researcher using a thorough and ecologically valid interview protocol that requires children to provide closed-ended and free-recall responses about the events with the instigator (E1). Coders then evaluate the length and number of theft-related details the children give throughout the interview, as well as their ability to maintain their true and false reports. The representative results indicate that the truth and lie-telling conditions elicit the intended behaviors from the children. The open-ended interview questions encouraged children to provide free-recall information about their experiences with E1. Moreover, findings from the closed-ended questions suggest that children are significantly better at maintaining their lies with age, and when producing a false denial compared to a false accusation. Results from the current study can be used to develop a greater understanding of the characteristics of children's true and false testimonies about crime, which can potentially benefit law enforcement, legal staff and professionals who interview children.

The current methodology is designed to provide an ecologically relevant approach for measuring the veracity, length and quality of children's true and false testimonies. Implications of the current methodology for future research and professionals who interview children will also be discussed.

儿童能够提供有关犯罪虚假报告的实验分析

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting ...

行为学

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic memories are about events in their spatiotemporal context and are typically visuospatial, rather than verbal. Yet often, tests of episodic memory use verbal material to be recalled (word lists, stories). The Real-World What-Where-When memory test requires participants to hide a total of 16 different objects in 16 different locations over two temporal occasions, 2 h apart. Another two hours later, they are then asked to recall which objects (What) they had hidden in which locations (Where) and on which of the two occasions (When). In addition to counting the number of correctly recalled complete what-where-when combinations, this task can also be used to test real-world spatial memory and object memory. This task is sensitive to normal cognitive aging, and correlates well with performance on other episodic memory tasks, while at the same time providing more ecological validity and being cheap and easy to run.

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

The Real-World What-Where-When memory test is a novel episodic memory test, in which participants need to recall which objects have been hidden in which locations on which of two distinct occasions. It is easy to run and is sensitive to normal cognitive aging.

一个现实世界<em&gt;什么，在哪里，当</em&gt;记忆测试

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic ...

Testing for Metacognitive Responding Using an Odor-based Delayed Match-to-Sample Test in Rats

Metamemory involves the cognitive ability to assess the strength of one&#39;s memories. To explore the possibility of metamemory in non-human animals, numerous behavioral tasks have been created, many of which utilize an option to decline memory tests. To assess metamemory in rats, we utilized this decline-test option paradigm by adapting previous visual delayed-match-to-sample tests (DMTS)1,2 developed for primate species to an odor-based test suitable for rodents. First,&#160;rats are given a sample to remember by digging in a cup of scented sand. After a delay, the rat is presented with four distinctly scented cups, one of which contains the identical scent experienced during the sample; if this matching cup is selected, then the rat obtains a preferred, larger reward. Selection of any of the other three non-matching sand-filled scented cups results in no reward. Retention intervals are individually titrated such that subjects perform between 40 and 70% correct, therefore ensuring rats sometimes remember and sometimes forget the sample. Here, the operational definition of metamemory is the ability to distinguish between the presence and absence of memory through behavioral responding. Towards this end, on two-thirds of trials, a decline option is presented in addition to the four choice cups (choice trials). If the decline-test option- an unscented colored sand cup, is selected, the subject receives a smaller less-preferred reward and avoids the memory test. On the remaining third of trials, the decline-test option is not available (forced trials), causing subjects to guess the correct cup when the sample is forgotten. On choice tests, subjects that know when they remember should select the decline option when memory is weak rather than take the test and choose incorrectly. Therefore, significantly higher performance on chosen tests as compared to forced memory tests is indicative of the adaptive use of the decline-test response and metacognitive responding.

This protocol describes a method for investigating the possibility of metamemory, or memory awareness, in rodents. The odor-based delayed-matching-to-sample paradigm is a novel, ecologically-relevant behavioral test useful for determining the extent to which rodents can adaptively respond based on cognitively monitoring the strength of their memory states.

用基于气味的延迟配对试验对大鼠元认知应答的测试

Metamemory involves the cognitive ability to assess the strength of one&#39;s memories. To explore the possibility of metamemory in non-human animals, ...

Using a Classroom-Based Deese Roediger McDermott Paradigm to Assess the Effects of Imagery on False Memories

Associated word list procedures can elicit false memories in predictable ways by inducing associative processing, thus making it harder to monitor the accuracy of memories. The purpose of the method presented here was to induce false memories using lists of either semantically or phonologically related words and to assess the effects of imagery instructions on the recall and recognition of those false memories. To do this, we used a modified version of the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm. We adapted word lists from previous DRM studies to suit imagery procedures and created an automated presentation to present the word lists in classroom settings. We then recruited undergraduate classes and instructed some of the classes to create mental images of the list words as they were being presented, while instructing the other classes to simply remember the words. The automated presentation presented word lists to participants, one word at a time, alternating between phonologically and semantically related lists. Participants used paper-pencil recall packets to immediately recall list items, complete a distractor activity, and take a subsequent final recognition test. Often, participants immediately recalled and later recognized words that were related to the list items but were not actually presented; these are known as critical lures and indicate a false memory. The protocol detailed here describes a four-step procedure - list presentation, immediate recall, distractor phase, and final recognition - that can assess the effects of list type and imagery instruction within the DRM paradigm on memory. The automated nature of the list presentation provides the ability to systematically vary variables of interest, and the paper and pencil method of data collection affords an easily accessible method for collecting data in classroom settings. The protocol also offers options to modify the procedure to a more traditional DRM paradigm without imagery and/or list type manipulations. The use of this protocol can provide results relevant to both classroom learning and cognitive science principles.

The method presented here induced false memories using lists of related words and also assessed the effects of imagery instructions on the recall and recognition of those false memories. This protocol details a modified version of the Deese Roediger McDermott (DRM) paradigm.

利用基于课堂的 deese roediger mcdermott 范式评估意象对虚假记忆的影响

Associated word list procedures can elicit false memories in predictable ways by inducing associative processing, thus making it harder to monitor the ...

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers

Maladaptive reward memories (MRMs) can become unstable following retrieval under certain conditions, allowing their modification by subsequent new learning. However, robust (well-rehearsed) and chronologically old MRMs, such as those underlying substance use disorders, do not destabilize easily when retrieved. A key determinate of memory destabilization during retrieval is prediction error (PE). We describe a retrieval procedure for alcohol MRMs in hazardous drinkers that specifically aims to maximize the generation of PE and therefore the likelihood of MRM destabilization. The procedure requires explicitly generating the expectancy of alcohol consumption and then violating this expectancy (withholding alcohol) following the presentation of a brief set of prototypical alcohol cue images (retrieval + PE). Control procedures involve presenting the same cue images, but allow alcohol to be consumed, generating minimal PE (retrieval-no PE) or generate PE without retrieval of alcohol MRMs, by presenting orange juice cues (no retrieval + PE). Subsequently, we describe a multisensory disgust-based counterconditioning procedure to probe MRM destabilization by re-writing alcohol cue-reward associations prior to reconsolidation. This procedure pairs alcohol cues with images invoking pathogen disgust and an extremely bitter-tasting solution (denatonium benzoate), generating gustatory disgust. Following retrieval + PE, but not no retrieval + PE or retrieval-no PE, counterconditioning produces evidence of MRM rewriting as indexed by lasting reductions in alcohol cue valuation, attentional capture, and alcohol craving.

This manuscript describes a memory retrieval procedure for destabilizing robust reward memories and rewriting them with counterconditioning prior to their reconsolidation.

危险饮酒者适应奖赏记忆的预测误差驱动检索方法

Maladaptive reward memories (MRMs) can become unstable following retrieval under certain conditions, allowing their modification by subsequent new ...

Anterograde Amnesia

Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form new memories. This can be distinguished from retrograde amnesia, which is the loss of old memories. Anterograde amnesia can result from damage to structures in the brain that are involved in the formation of new memories. Patients who have damage to the structures of the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and the surrounding cortices, often have severe deficits in the formation of certain kinds of memories. These cases can be informative as to how memory is organized in the brain, and how different systems support different kinds of memories. 
In this video, we will test a patient with medial temporal lobe damage on a series of memory tasks designed to distinguish between different forms of memory. First, we will test short-term or working memory, which is the process we use to keep information in mind temporarily. Next, we will test two different forms of long-term memory: explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memories are conscious and easy to verbalize. For example, memories of facts or episodes from our lives are explicit memories. We can easily tell someone what we ate for breakfast, or what city is the capital of France. Implicit memory involves knowledge we gain from experience but that is not easily expressible. For example, knowing how to do things, or becoming habituated to a stimulus are forms of implicit memory. 
These procedures are based in part on studies of the famous patient Henry Molaison, also known by his initials H.M., who had severe anterograde amnesia as a result of a surgery for intractable epilepsy in which parts of both temporal lobes were resected.1 We will perform a test of digit span, which measures short-term memory, a test of paired-associate learning, which measures explicit or declarative memory, and mirror-drawing, a test of implicit skill learning.2

Testing Short- and Long-term Memories in Patients with Brain Injuries

顺行性遗忘症

Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form ...

教育

JoVE Science Education

心理学

神经心理学

Learning and Memory: The Remember-Know Task

Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Our experience of memory is varied and complex. Sometimes we remember events in vivid detail, while other times we may only have a vague sense of familiarity. Memory researchers have made a distinction between memories that are recollected versus those that are familiar. A recollected item is one that is not only remembered, but carries with it details of the time at which it was learned or encoded. Like a recollected item, a familiar item is also remembered, but is void of any details about the circumstances surrounding its encoding. Many studies of recollection and familiarity have focused on the medial temporal lobe (MTL), specifically the hippocampus, since its involvement in memory encoding, consolidation, and retrieval is well-known and well-studied.1-3
This video shows how to administer the Remember-Know task4 to compare brain activation in these two types of memory retrieval. In this context, remember is another term for recollection, while know refers to memories that are familiar but not explicitly recollected. In this version of the Remember-Know task, participants are exposed to a series of color images, and asked to remember what they see. Inside an fMRI scanner, they will be exposed to both images that were studied and to novel images, and they will make a "remember," "know," or "new" judgment about each image, indicating what kind of memory they have for that item. Following the scan, whole brain and hippocampal activity will be examined to determine differential activity related to recollection and familiarity. This study is based on a study performed by Gimbel and Brewer.5

The Remember-Know Task: Memory Recall and Brain Activation

学习和记忆: 记得知道任务

Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Our experience of memory is varied and complex. ...

Memory Development: Demonstrating How Repeated Questioning Leads to False Memories

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
A person is defined as a unique individual based on the people and events they encounter in their lives. Thus, creating, storing, and recalling memories are essential elements of the human experience. However, memory, as adults experience it, takes time to develop. Although young children can learn facts and remember details of their lives from moment-to-moment and day-to-day, they do not create autobiographical memories or detailed memories of events that happen in their lives until age 3 or older.
Even after age 3, children&#8217;s memories differ from those of adults in important ways. Children are less effective at evaluating their own memories than adults, which makes it difficult for them to determine, for example, whether or not their memories are accurate. False memories are a problem for both children and adults, as it is quite easy to create a false memory with a poorly-worded question or a story repeated over and over. However, young children are more susceptible to creating false memories than either older children or adults.
This video demonstrates children&#8217;s vulnerability to false memories using a method developed by Steven Ceci and his collaborators.1-2

Demonstrating How Repeated Questioning Leads to False Memories

内存发展: 展示如何反复质疑导致虚假记忆

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
A person is defined as a unique individual based on the people ...