Name: a method for the measurement of salivary gland function in mice
Uploaded: 2018-01-25T14:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Method for the Measurement of Salivary Gland Function in Mice at JoVE.com

The study was supported by a grant from National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (DE025030).

The protocol described below was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and it follows the ethical guidelines established by the National Institutes of Health. All data presented in this report were generated by using female mice that were 10-12 weeks of age. The following strains of mice were used: C57BL/6, BALB/c, DBA1, 129S, and (B6XA/J) F1. All mice were housed in barrier cages (5 animals per cage) in specific pathogen-free conditions and provided feed and water ad libitum.
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<ol>
	<li>Proctor, G. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+physiology+of+salivary+secretion.">The physiology of salivary secretion.</a> Periodontol 2000. 70 (1), 11-25 (2016).</li><li>Fox, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sj&#246;gren's+syndrome.">Sj&#246;gren's syndrome.</a> Lancet. 366 (9482), 321-331 (2005).</li><li>Eisbruch, A., Kim, H. M., Terrell, J. E., Marsh, L. H., Dawson, L. A., Ship, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Xerostomia+and+its+predictors+following+parotid-sparing+irradiation+of+head-and-neck+cancer.">Xerostomia and its predictors following parotid-sparing irradiation of head-and-neck cancer.</a> Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 50 (3), 695-704 (2001).</li><li>Marmary, Y., Fox, P. C., Baum, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluid+secretion+rates+from+mouse+and+rat+parotid+glands+are+markedly+different+following+pilocarpine+stimulation.">Fluid secretion rates from mouse and rat parotid glands are markedly different following pilocarpine stimulation.</a> Comp Biochem Physiol A Comp Physiol. 88 (2), 307-310 (1987).</li><li>Lin, A. L., Johnson, D. A., Wu, Y., Wong, G., Ebersole, J. L., Yeh, C. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+short-term+gamma-irradiation+effects+on+mouse+salivary+gland+function+using+a+new+saliva+collection+device.">Measuring short-term gamma-irradiation effects on mouse salivary gland function using a new saliva collection device.</a> Arch Oral Biol. 46 (11), 1085-1089 (2001).</li><li>Scofield, R. H., Asfa, S., Obeso, D., Jonsson, R., Kurien, B. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunization+with+short+peptides+from+the+60-kDa+Ro+antigen+recapitulates+the+serological+and+pathological+findings+as+well+as+the+salivary+gland+dysfunction+of+Sjogren's+syndrome.">Immunization with short peptides from the 60-kDa Ro antigen recapitulates the serological and pathological findings as well as the salivary gland dysfunction of Sjogren's syndrome.</a> J Immunol. 175 (12), 8409-8414 (2005).</li><li>Deshmukh, U. S., Nandula, S. R., Thimmalapura, P. R., Scindia, Y. M., Bagavant, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+innate+immune+responses+through+Toll-like+receptor+3+causes+a+rapid+loss+of+salivary+gland+function.">Activation of innate immune responses through Toll-like receptor 3 causes a rapid loss of salivary gland function.</a> J Oral Pathol Med. 38 (1), 42-47 (2009).</li><li>Deshmukh, U. S., Ohyama, Y., Bagavant, H., Guo, X., Gaskin, F., Fu, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammatory+stimuli+accelerate+Sj&#246;gren's+syndrome-like+disease+in+(NZB+x+NZW)F1+mice.">Inflammatory stimuli accelerate Sj&#246;gren's syndrome-like disease in (NZB x NZW)F1 mice.</a> Arthritis Rheum. 58 (5), 1318-1323 (2008).</li><li>Szczerba, B. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+between+innate+immunity+and+Ro52-induced+antibody+causes+Sj&#246;gren's+syndrome-like+disorder+in+mice.">Interaction between innate immunity and Ro52-induced antibody causes Sj&#246;gren's syndrome-like disorder in mice.</a> Ann Rheum Dis. 75 (3), 617-622 (2016).</li><li>Takakura, A., Moreira, T., Laitano, S., De Luca J&#250;nior, L., Renzi, A., Menani, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Central+muscarinic+receptors+signal+pilocarpine-induced+salivation.">Central muscarinic receptors signal pilocarpine-induced salivation.</a> J Dent Res. 82 (12), 993-997 (2003).</li><li>Yao, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipopolysaccharide-induced+elevation+and+secretion+of+interleukin-1beta+in+the+submandibular+gland+of+male+mice.">Lipopolysaccharide-induced elevation and secretion of interleukin-1beta in the submandibular gland of male mice.</a> Immunology. 116 (2), 213-222 (2005).</li><li>Knudsen, J., Nauntofte, B., Josipovic, M., Engelholm, S. A., Hyldegaard, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+isoflurane+anesthesia+and+pilocarpine+on+rat+parotid+saliva+flow.">Effects of isoflurane anesthesia and pilocarpine on rat parotid saliva flow.</a> Radiat Res. 176 (1), 84-88 (2011).</li><li>Kohrs, R., Durieux, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ketamine:+teaching+an+old+drug+new+tricks.">Ketamine: teaching an old drug new tricks.</a> Anesth Analg. 87 (5), 1186-1193 (1998).</li><li>Kozaki, T., Hashiguchi, N., Kaji, Y., Yasukouchi, A., Tochihara, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+saliva+collection+using+cotton+swab+on+cortisol+enzyme+immunoassay.">Effects of saliva collection using cotton swab on cortisol enzyme immunoassay.</a> Eur J Appl Physiol. 107 (6), 743-746 (2009).</li></ol>

Saliva production is a complex process and is influenced by many factors. Therefore, measuring salivary gland function in laboratory animals can be a challenge. An additional challenge is that repeated measurements of salivary gland function in the same animal are required to establish the onset of disease or to demonstrate recovery following treatment.
The swab method described in this report is technically simple to perform with multiple options to represent the data. The results obtained ar...

The salivary glands produce saliva in response to a variety of neurological and mechanical stimuli1. The stimuli are carried through the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system to the adrenergic and cholinergic receptors in the gland. Pilocarpine is a cholinergic, para-sympathomimetic agent that acts predominantly on muscarinic receptors. In the salivary gland, it induces the production of saliva by acting on the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M31. Saliva production following pilocarpine administration is an indicator of the ability of the salivary glands to respond to stimulation and is commonly used as a measure of salivary gland function.
Accurate measurement of saliva production is critical in the study of salivary gland diseases including Sj&#246;gren&#39;s syndrome2 and radiation injury following head and neck cancer treatment3. Several different methods have been developed to measure saliva production in rodents. These include direct cannulation of the excretory salivary duct4, the collection of saliva from the oral cavity under vacuum5, and collection using glass capillaries6 or a micropipette7,8,9. Direct cannulation of the salivary duct provides the most accurate and pure saliva. However, this is a technically challenging procedure, and the potential for causing ductal injury precludes repetitive saliva collections from the same animal. Collecting saliva under vacuum can lead to variable results due to drying of the saliva from the tube. This loss is further exaggerated in mice with reduced salivation. Glass capillaries allow the collection of saliva for subsequent analyses, however, changes in viscosity of the saliva secreted in the diseased state prevents efficient filling of the capillary. Further, attempts to sweep the oral cavity to collect residual saliva can lead to injury. The pipet method allows for complete collection, and for the same operator, it is remarkably consistent between experiments. However, for unknown reasons, this method shows significant variation between different operators. Therefore, to allow appropriate comparisons, it becomes imperative that the same operator performs all the experiments related to a specific project. Clearly, this represents a major disadvantage for a laboratory.
To overcome these issues, a procedure was developed that combines saliva collection methods used for humans and rodents. The swab method, described below for measuring pilocarpine-induced saliva volume is simple, reproducible, not influenced by the operator, and can be performed repeatedly in the same animal. In addition, it allows collecting the saliva for subsequent analyses of proteins, immunoglobulins, or other biomolecules.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals for saliva collection</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pilocarpine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar, Tewksbury, MA, USA</td>
			<td>B21410</td>
			<td>Dilute in sterile isotonic saline. Store single use aliquots of 100X stock at -80oC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthesia Mix solution</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Mix 1 mL ketamine hydrochloride + 0.5 mL xylazine + 8.5 mL sterile isotonic saline in a sterile vial. Can be used for 3 months.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zetamine (Ketamine hydrochloride)</td>
			<td>Vet One, Boise, Idaho, USA</td>
			<td>C3N VT1</td>
			<td>Stock is 100 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anased (Xylazine)</td>
			<td>Med-Vet International, Mettawa, IL, USA</td>
			<td>RXANASED-20</td>
			<td>Stock is 20 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isotonic sterile saline</td>
			<td>Vet One, Boise, Idaho, USA</td>
			<td>501032</td>
			<td>Used as diluent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Artificial tears (lubricant ophthalmic ointment)</td>
			<td>Henry Schien, Dublin, OH, USA</td>
			<td>48272</td>
			<td>Used to prevent eyes from drying during the procedure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials for saliva collection</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SalivaBio Children&#39;s swab</td>
			<td>Salimetrics, LLC Carlsbad, CA, USA</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Individually wrapped swabs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL polypropylene tubes</td>
			<td>VWR, Radnor, PA, USA</td>
			<td>89004-364</td>
			<td>Cut off the bottom 1 cm of the tube. Make sure that the cut edge is smooth.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tubes 0.6 mL</td>
			<td>VWR, Radnor, PA, USA</td>
			<td>87003-290</td>
			<td>Make holes in the bottom of tube with heated 18 gauge needles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tubes 2 mL</td>
			<td>VWR, Radnor, PA, USA</td>
			<td>87003-298</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin Syringes with permanently attached needles</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA</td>
			<td>324702</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>18 gauge regular bevel needles</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA</td>
			<td>305195</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile scalpel blade #11</td>
			<td>Integra York Inc PA, USA</td>
			<td>4-311</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdissecting forceps</td>
			<td>Roboz, Gaithersburg, MD, USA</td>
			<td>RS-5139</td>
			<td>Serrated angular 0.8 mm tip, 4&#34; length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Label tape</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Dallas, TX, USA</td>
			<td>sc-224487</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 channel timer</td>
			<td>Amazon.com, Seattle, WA, USA</td>
			<td>B06W2KCYVN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Analytical Balance</td>
			<td>Mettler Toledo, Columbus OH, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals/ reagents for inducing salivary dysfunction</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LPS</td>
			<td>Invivogen, San Deigo, CA, USA</td>
			<td>tlrl-b5lps</td>
			<td>Dissolve in endotoxin free water, and store stock solution at 5 mg/mL . dilute in sterile HBSS 100 ug/mL - inject 100 uL/ moue ip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imject Alum adjuvant</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>77161</td>
			<td>Dilute 1:1 in sterile saline. Inject intraperitoneally 0.1 mL/mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-Ro52 antiserum</td>
			<td>Generated in lab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Immunization of rabbits with recombinant mouse Ro52</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals/ Kits for saliva analyses</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary lysozyme estimation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EnzChek Lysozyme Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA</td>
			<td>E-22013</td>
			<td>Used as per manufacturer&#39;s instructions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary IgA estimation by sandwich ELISA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse IgA</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech, Birmingham, AL, USA</td>
			<td>0106-01</td>
			<td>Standards for sandwich ELISA - range 30 ng/mL to 0.5 ng/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti- mouse IgA unlabeled</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech, Birmingham, AL, USA</td>
			<td>1040-01</td>
			<td>Coat at 1 ug/mL in bicarbonate buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti- mouse IgA HRP</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech, Birmingham, AL, USA</td>
			<td>1040-05</td>
			<td>Detection antibody used at 1:4000 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TMB substrate</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA</td>
			<td>555214</td>
			<td>Used as per manufacturer&#39;s instructions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Immulon 4HBX Microtiter 96 well plates</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific, Rochester, NY, USA</td>
			<td>3855</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary protein estimation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bio-Rad Protein Assay Dye Reagent Concentrate</td>
			<td>BioRad, Hercules, CA, USA</td>
			<td>5000006</td>
			<td>For protein estimation as per manufacturer&#39;s instructions</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a method for the measurement of salivary gland function in mice

Patients with Sj&#246;gren&#39;s syndrome, an autoimmune disease affecting the exocrine glands, develop salivary gland inflammation and have reduced saliva production. Similarly, saliva production is severely compromised in patients receiving radiation treatment for head and neck cancers. Rodent models, developed to mimic these clinical conditions, facilitate an understanding of the disease pathogenesis and allow for the development of new therapeutic strategies. Therefore, the ability to accurately, reproducibly, and repeatedly measure salivary gland function in animal models is critical. Building on procedures previously described in the literature, a method was developed that meets these criteria and was used to evaluate salivary gland function in mice. An additional advantage of this new method is that it is easily mastered, and has little inter-operator variation. Salivary gland function is evaluated as the amount (weight or volume) or rate (mL/min) of saliva produced in response to pilocarpine stimulation. The collected saliva is a good source for the analyses of protein content, immunoglobulin concentrations, and other biomolecules.

In the experimental mouse model systems, the ability to produce saliva in response to pilocarpine stimulation is used as an indicator of salivary gland function. Saliva production was measured in 11-week-old C57BL/6 female mice by the swab method. In Figure 1A, the results are expressed as the amount of saliva (mg) collected following increasing doses of pilocarpine. At the dose of 1 mg/kg body weight, some of the mice started exhibiting distress (involuntary...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Method for the Measurement of Salivary Gland Function in Mice at JoVE.com

A Method for the Measurement of Salivary Gland Function in Mice

Salivary gland hypofunction is a frequent consequence of autoimmune disease and radiation therapy. Reproducible evaluation of salivary gland function in mouse models of these diseases is a technical challenge. Here, a simple method for accurate and reproducible measurement of saliva production in mice is described.

Patients with Sj&#246;gren&#39;s syndrome, an autoimmune disease affecting the exocrine glands, develop salivary gland inflammation and have reduced ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to accurately and reproducibly collect and measure mouse saliva following Pilocarpine stimulation. Measuring saliva production in rodents is a challenging procedure, and is prone to high variability. This method is simple and it can be repeated on the same animal in the multiple time points of the whole study.This method can not only measure the volume of the saliva produced, it can also be used to collect the saliva to further analysis of bioactive molecules that may be secreted in saliva. Ultimately, this will be of a great use when investigating Sjogren Syndrome, salivary gland fibrosis, or salivary gland regeneration in rodent model systems. For this procedure, have Pilocarpine hydrochloride aliquots prepared and frozen, not more than three months old.Do not re-freeze any thawed aliquots. Begin with preparing 0.6 mL microfuge tubes. Carefully punch a small hole in the bottom of the tubes with a heated 18 gauge needle.Make one tube per mouse. Then, set these tubes into 2 mL tubes. Sterility is not a concern.Next, using aseptic methods, cut cylindrical absorbent swabs into two centimeter lengths. Then, cut each two centimeter piece diagonally to make two conically shaped swabs. Place one conical swab into each of the prepared microfuge tubes.Then, weigh each 0.6 mL tube with its dry swab. Now, transfer the mice for the study into a new clean cage. They may be housed together.For the next two hours, give them ice water, but no food. Just before the two hour period ends, prepare the working Pilocarpine solution by diluting an aliquot of 100x stock in sterile saline down to 1x. Vortex the tube, and keep the solution on ice.To begin, weigh each mouse to calculate doses. Then, anesthetize the mice with intraperitoneal injections of ketamine plus xylazine. If after four minutes a mouse is not anesthetized, then adjust the dosage.Now, apply a thalmic ointment to both eyes to prevent drying. Next, deliver the calculated dose of pilocarpine to the mouse using an intraperitoneal route, and set the timer for two minutes. During this two minute interval, insert the mouse into a 50 mL restrainer tube, so only the head and ears stick out.Position the tube at a 45 degree angle, with the mouse's head down, and the ventral surface facing upwards. Then, secure the tube with tape. Just after the two minutes, lift the lower jaw to open the mouth, and gently insert a closed dissecting forceps, one to two millimeters into the mouth.Ensure that the tongue is resting on the top arm of the forceps. With the other hand, use a pair of fine forceps to hold the pre-weighed dry swab close to its conical tip. Then, gently slide the conical tip of the swab into the mouth, and withdraw the forceps while leaving the tip of the swab in the oral cavity.Now, grip and rotate the swab until it is making maximum contact with the mouth, and so that it will not fall out. The wide end of the swab must remain outside the mouth. Keep the swab in this position for fifteen minutes.After fifteen minutes, gently rotate the swab to collect any saliva that has not been absorbed. Then, transfer the saliva soaked swab in the 0.6 mL microfuge tube. Cap the tube and set it into the 2 mL tube, placed on ice.Now, transfer the mouse back to a recovery cage. Provide diet gel or moistened food pellets in the cage to help it re-hydrate. A subcutaneous injection of 0.2 mL isotonic saline may also be given to accelerate recovery.After collecting all the saliva samples, weigh them to determine the mass of collected saliva. Cut off the caps from the 2 mL tubes containing the smaller tube of saliva sample, and then load them into a refrigerated centrifuge, and spin them down for two minutes at 7, 500 g, and at four degrees Celsius. The saliva will pool into the two mL tube.Then, measure the volumes of the samples using a micropipette. Saliva production was measured in eleven week old C57 black six female mice using the described method. At the dose of 1 microgram of pilocarpine per gram of body weight, some of the mice started exhibiting signs of distress.There was a good dose response relationship between pilocarpine and saliva production. There was also a significant concordance between saliva weight and volume. Using the described technique, strain to strain differences in saliva were found.The 129 S6 strain of mice produced the least amount of saliva. In an experiment to detect salivary gland hypofunction, lipopolysaccharides were injected to activate an innate immune response. During the response, mice produced less saliva.Another tactic to induce salivary gland hypofunction was to inject the mice with an adjuvant Alum plus anti-Ro52 antibodies. The vehicle control was treated only with Alum. This was also detectable with the described technique.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to accurately and reproducibly measure saliva production in mice. Once mastered, ten mice can be assessed in about two and a half hours. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember to be extremely consistent at every step, right from intraperitoneal injections, to placing the swab, and managing time intervals for each step.Don't forget that pilocarpine hydrochloride acts on the cardiovascular system, causing bradycardia and hypotension. Therefore, injecting pilocarpine in the mice should be done with care.

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Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

A complex interaction between the immune response and  host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in  particular, is known ...

Preparation of Murine Submandibular Salivary Gland for Upright Intravital Microscopy

The submandibular salivary gland (SMG) is one of the three major salivary glands, and is of interest for many different fields of biological research, ...

A Silver Nanoparticle Method for Ameliorating Biliary Atresia Syndrome in Mice

Biliary atresia (BA) is a severe type of cholangitis with high mortality in children of which the etiology is still not fully understood. Viral infections ...

Measurement of Specific Mycobacterial Mistranslation Rates with Gain-of-function Reporter Systems

The translation of genes into proteins is prone to errors. Although the average rate of translational error in model systems is estimated to be 1/10,000 ...