研究は、国立衛生研究所、国立歯科頭蓋顔面研究 (DE025030) からの助成金によって支えられました。

下記プロトコルは機関動物ケアおよび使用委員会によって承認され、健康の国民の協会によって倫理的なガイドラインに従うこと。このレポートに表示されるすべてのデータは、10-12 週齢をした雌のマウスを使用して生成されました。マウスの次の系統が使用された: (B6XA/J) F1、129S、DBA1 BALB/c C57BL/6。すべてのマウスが特定病原体フリーの条件でバリア ケージ (檻ごと 5 動物) に収容され、飼料と水のアドリブ。
1. 準備
<ol><li>塩酸ピロカルピンの原液を準備するには、化合物の 10 mg の重量を量るし、ボルテックス 5.63 mg/mL の原液を与えることによって 1.776 mL 滅菌等張生理食塩水に溶かします。このソリューションを消毒する必要はありません。しかし、必要な場合は、0.2 μ M フィルターをフィルター処理します。3 ヶ月間-80 oC の冷凍庫に複数の因数でこの原液を格納します。各冷凍ストックは、1 つ使用します。解凍後、ピロカルピン ソリューションは再冷凍しないでください。</li>
	<li>0.6 mL の microfuge の管と温水 18 ゲージ針で慎重に各チューブの底に小さな穴をパンチします。2 mL の管にこれらの管を設定しました。チューブを滅菌する必要はありません。</li>
	<li>長さ約 2 cm の部分に円筒吸収性の綿棒をカット、シャープ、滅菌かみそりの刃を使用しています。斜めに 2 の円錐形をした綿棒を与える各 2 cm 部分をカットします。0.6 mL の microfuge の管のそれぞれに 1 つの綿棒を配置します。</li>
	<li>乾燥綿棒を含む 0.6 mL および microfuge の管の重量を量る。</li>
	<li>水のボトルと新しいきれいなケージに調査されるマウスを転送します。収集唾液の汚染から食品の粒子を防ぐために唾コレクションの開始前に少なくとも 2 時間の食べ物がなくてもマウスを維持します。 注: この手順のケージごと 1 マウスを維持する必要はありません。ただし、各ケージに置かれたマウスの数は特定の学校の規則の動物の使用のための規則に依存します。</li>
	<li>2 h の終わりの直前に滅菌生理食塩水で原液の 100 倍希釈することによって作業ピロカルピン液 (0.0563 mg/mL) を準備します。さらにフィルターする必要はありませんこのソリューションを滅菌します。氷上作業ピロカルピン ソリューションを常に保ちます。 注:表 1はピロカルピン体重 0.375 mg/kg の最終的な線量を与えるマウスの体重の範囲に注入する量を示します。</li>
</ol>2. 手続き
<ol><li>各マウスの重さし、表 1を使用して各マウスの麻酔のミックスの用量を決定します。麻酔のミックスの適切なボリュームと腹腔内のルートで最初のマウスを注入します。(ほとんどのマウス系統をこのプロトコルでテストは 2 分でスリープ状態に入る) 2 分間タイマーを設定します。マウスの麻酔正しく平らな面に置いたときの歩行の不足を確認します。マウスがまだ歩いている場合、は、次のステップに進む前にさらに 2 分を待ちます。乾燥を防ぐために両方の目に潤滑剤の眼軟膏のドロップを適用されます。 注:テーブル 1、麻酔のミックスの投与量 0.007 mL/g 体重です。この手順に最適な範囲に 0.008 0.006 mL/g 体重。しかし後に、4 分、マウスがまだ歩くかぎくしゃくした動きを示す場合適切に麻酔薬の投与量を増加させるため機関の獣医師と相談して。</li>
	<li>表 1を使用してマウスのピロカルピンの投与量の決定し、適切な量を注入して腹腔内のルート。2 分間タイマーを設定、切断端から頭と耳を出すまで、マウスを 50 mL 落管に挿入します。頭を下げ、45 度の角度で管と上向き腹側表面を配置します。移動からそれを維持する手順ボードにチューブをテープします。 注:表 1は、17 g 以下の重量を量るマウスにこの手順が試行されていないように 17 g 以上のマウスの投与量を提供します。</li>
	<li>2 分の最後に、優しくマイクロ鉗子を口の中に解離性の閉じたペアを挿入する、上向きに口を開くに下顎を持ち上げます。さらに 1-2 mm の鉗子を舌が鉗子のトップの腕に休息を見られることを確かめて、口の中に押し込みます。微細鉗子の別のペアに円錐形の先端に近い重量を量られた事前乾燥綿棒を保持します。</li>
	<li>口に綿棒の円錐形の先端をゆっくり押し込みます。口腔内に綿棒の先端を残しながら鉗子を撤回します。</li>
	<li>広い口の外を拡張する綿棒の端をつかみ、口が付いている接触の最大の領域を許可するように回します。綿棒を 15 分間この位置にしてください。 注: コレクションの期間の綿棒が口の中に残っているとこうなります。綿棒の円錐形の先端が芯として機能、綿棒の広い部分は口の外に注意してください。</li>
	<li>15 分の終わりには、ゆっくり吸収されていない唾液を収集するには綿棒を回転させると、湿式の綿棒に 0.6 mL および microfuge の管。管を閉じて、氷上に置いた 2 mL チューブでそれを設定します。 注: この時、口腔粘膜が完全に乾燥で表示されます。今、マウスも、麻酔からの回復のためのケージに戻って移動することができます。</li>
	<li>ケージ内マウスを転送します。場所は、高速な再水和作用を助けるために唾液収集後ケージに餌ペレットを湿らせた。 注: マウスは、コレクションの終了後 10 分以内で目覚めます。0.2 mL に予め温めておいた等張生理食塩水の皮下注入は、回復を加速に与えられる可能性があります。</li>
	<li>次のマウスに進みます。すべての彼らが完全に回復するまで、マウスを監視する必要があり、外来。</li>
</ol>3. 測定
<ol><li>すべてのコレクションの最後に、ウェット綿棒と 0.6 mL の管の重量を量る。湿重量と唾液が生産の重量を得るための乾燥重量の差を計算します。2 mL チューブに唾液で 0.6 mL のチューブを配置します。</li>
	<li>2 ml チューブのキャップを切った。その後、唾液を回復するマイクロ遠心分離機で 4oC で 7500 x g で 2 分間 2 mL チューブを遠心分離機します。マイクロ ピペットを用いて唾液の量を測定します。</li>
	<li>唾重量 (mg)10 15 分以上、または唾重量 (mg) の比として結果を表現/体重 (g) をマウスします。 注: 綿棒から抽出の唾液の量を測定すると、唾液の回復 (mL) のボリュームまたは唾液の量 (mL) の比として結果を表現/体重 (g) をマウスします。</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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M., Bagavant, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+innate+immune+responses+through+Toll-like+receptor+3+causes+a+rapid+loss+of+salivary+gland+function.">Activation of innate immune responses through Toll-like receptor 3 causes a rapid loss of salivary gland function.</a> J Oral Pathol Med. 38 (1), 42-47 (2009).</li><li>Deshmukh, U. S., Ohyama, Y., Bagavant, H., Guo, X., Gaskin, F., Fu, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammatory+stimuli+accelerate+Sj&#246;gren's+syndrome-like+disease+in+(NZB+x+NZW)F1+mice.">Inflammatory stimuli accelerate Sj&#246;gren's syndrome-like disease in (NZB x NZW)F1 mice.</a> Arthritis Rheum. 58 (5), 1318-1323 (2008).</li><li>Szczerba, B. 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A., Hyldegaard, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+isoflurane+anesthesia+and+pilocarpine+on+rat+parotid+saliva+flow.">Effects of isoflurane anesthesia and pilocarpine on rat parotid saliva flow.</a> Radiat Res. 176 (1), 84-88 (2011).</li><li>Kohrs, R., Durieux, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ketamine:+teaching+an+old+drug+new+tricks.">Ketamine: teaching an old drug new tricks.</a> Anesth Analg. 87 (5), 1186-1193 (1998).</li><li>Kozaki, T., Hashiguchi, N., Kaji, Y., Yasukouchi, A., Tochihara, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+saliva+collection+using+cotton+swab+on+cortisol+enzyme+immunoassay.">Effects of saliva collection using cotton swab on cortisol enzyme immunoassay.</a> Eur J Appl Physiol. 107 (6), 743-746 (2009).</li></ol>

著者はある利益相反を開示します。

唾液の分泌は複雑なプロセスであり、多くの要因に影響されます。したがって、測定実験動物の唾液腺機能は、挑戦をすることができます。追加の課題は、同じ動物の唾液腺機能の繰り返し測定が病気の発症を確立する次の治療回復を示す、または必要なことです。
このレポートで説明した綿棒方法は技術的にデータを表す複数のオプションを実行する簡単です。得ら?...

唾液腺は、様々 な神経学的および力学的刺激1に対して唾を生成します。刺激は、腺のアドレナリン作動性およびコリン作動性受容体に交感神経と副交感神経の神経系を介して実行されます。ピロカルピンは、ムスカリン受容体に作用する主にコリン作動性、パラ交感神経エージェントです。唾液腺には、M31ムスカリン性アセチルコリン受容体に作用して唾液の生産を誘発します。ピロカルピン投与唾液の分泌唾液腺の刺激に応答する能力の指標であるし、唾液腺の機能の尺度として使用されます。
シェーグレン症候群2頭頸部がん治療3放射線障害などの唾液腺疾患における唾液の生産の正確な測定が欠かせません。齧歯動物の唾液の分泌を測定するさまざまな方法が開発されています。排泄の唾液腺導管4、5真空下で口腔内から唾液のコレクション、ガラス毛細管6またはピペット7,8,を使用して、コレクションの直接穿刺が含まれます9. 直接唾液腺導管の穿刺が最も正確かつ純粋な唾を提供します。ただし、これは技術的に挑戦的な手順、管の損傷を引き起こす可能性を排除する同じ動物から反復唾液コレクション。真空下で唾液を収集管から唾液の乾燥により、変数の結果につながることができます。この損失は、減らされた唾液を持つマウスでさらに誇張されています。ただし、病気の状態で分泌される唾液の粘度の変化により、毛細血管の効率的な充填、ガラス管許可以降の解析のための唾液のコレクション。さらに、残留唾液を収集するために口腔内を掃除しようは、怪我につながることができます。ピペット法は、完全なコレクションと同じ演算子の実験間非常に一貫しています。しかし、未知の理由のためこのメソッドは差の異なる演算子を示しています。したがって、適切に比較できるように、同じ演算子は、特定のプロジェクトに関連するすべての実験を実行することが不可欠なります。明らかに、これは実験室の主要な不利な点を表します。
これらの問題を克服するためにプロシージャを組み合わせた唾コレクション メソッドを人間および齧歯動物の使用をしました。ピロカルピン誘導唾液量を測定するため下記綿棒の方法は、簡単に再現できる、オペレーターによって影響されないと同じ動物で繰り返し実行することができます。さらに、タンパク質や他の生体分子、免疫グロブリン、以降の解析に唾液を収集できます。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals for saliva collection</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pilocarpine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar, Tewksbury, MA, USA</td>
			<td>B21410</td>
			<td>Dilute in sterile isotonic saline. Store single use aliquots of 100X stock at -80oC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthesia Mix solution</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Mix 1 mL ketamine hydrochloride + 0.5 mL xylazine + 8.5 mL sterile isotonic saline in a sterile vial. Can be used for 3 months.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zetamine (Ketamine hydrochloride)</td>
			<td>Vet One, Boise, Idaho, USA</td>
			<td>C3N VT1</td>
			<td>Stock is 100 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anased (Xylazine)</td>
			<td>Med-Vet International, Mettawa, IL, USA</td>
			<td>RXANASED-20</td>
			<td>Stock is 20 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isotonic sterile saline</td>
			<td>Vet One, Boise, Idaho, USA</td>
			<td>501032</td>
			<td>Used as diluent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Artificial tears (lubricant ophthalmic ointment)</td>
			<td>Henry Schien, Dublin, OH, USA</td>
			<td>48272</td>
			<td>Used to prevent eyes from drying during the procedure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials for saliva collection</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SalivaBio Children&#39;s swab</td>
			<td>Salimetrics, LLC Carlsbad, CA, USA</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Individually wrapped swabs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL polypropylene tubes</td>
			<td>VWR, Radnor, PA, USA</td>
			<td>89004-364</td>
			<td>Cut off the bottom 1 cm of the tube. Make sure that the cut edge is smooth.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tubes 0.6 mL</td>
			<td>VWR, Radnor, PA, USA</td>
			<td>87003-290</td>
			<td>Make holes in the bottom of tube with heated 18 gauge needles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tubes 2 mL</td>
			<td>VWR, Radnor, PA, USA</td>
			<td>87003-298</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin Syringes with permanently attached needles</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA</td>
			<td>324702</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>18 gauge regular bevel needles</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA</td>
			<td>305195</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile scalpel blade #11</td>
			<td>Integra York Inc PA, USA</td>
			<td>4-311</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdissecting forceps</td>
			<td>Roboz, Gaithersburg, MD, USA</td>
			<td>RS-5139</td>
			<td>Serrated angular 0.8 mm tip, 4&#34; length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Label tape</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Dallas, TX, USA</td>
			<td>sc-224487</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 channel timer</td>
			<td>Amazon.com, Seattle, WA, USA</td>
			<td>B06W2KCYVN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Analytical Balance</td>
			<td>Mettler Toledo, Columbus OH, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals/ reagents for inducing salivary dysfunction</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LPS</td>
			<td>Invivogen, San Deigo, CA, USA</td>
			<td>tlrl-b5lps</td>
			<td>Dissolve in endotoxin free water, and store stock solution at 5 mg/mL . dilute in sterile HBSS 100 ug/mL - inject 100 uL/ moue ip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imject Alum adjuvant</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>77161</td>
			<td>Dilute 1:1 in sterile saline. Inject intraperitoneally 0.1 mL/mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-Ro52 antiserum</td>
			<td>Generated in lab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Immunization of rabbits with recombinant mouse Ro52</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals/ Kits for saliva analyses</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary lysozyme estimation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EnzChek Lysozyme Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA</td>
			<td>E-22013</td>
			<td>Used as per manufacturer&#39;s instructions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary IgA estimation by sandwich ELISA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse IgA</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech, Birmingham, AL, USA</td>
			<td>0106-01</td>
			<td>Standards for sandwich ELISA - range 30 ng/mL to 0.5 ng/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti- mouse IgA unlabeled</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech, Birmingham, AL, USA</td>
			<td>1040-01</td>
			<td>Coat at 1 ug/mL in bicarbonate buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti- mouse IgA HRP</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech, Birmingham, AL, USA</td>
			<td>1040-05</td>
			<td>Detection antibody used at 1:4000 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TMB substrate</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA</td>
			<td>555214</td>
			<td>Used as per manufacturer&#39;s instructions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Immulon 4HBX Microtiter 96 well plates</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific, Rochester, NY, USA</td>
			<td>3855</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary protein estimation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bio-Rad Protein Assay Dye Reagent Concentrate</td>
			<td>BioRad, Hercules, CA, USA</td>
			<td>5000006</td>
			<td>For protein estimation as per manufacturer&#39;s instructions</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a method for the measurement of salivary gland function in mice

外分泌腺に影響を与える自己免疫疾患シェーグレン症候群患者唾液腺の炎症を起こすし、唾液の生産を減らした。同様に、唾液の分泌は、頭頸部がんの放射線治療を受けている患者の侵害が深刻です。齧歯動物モデル、これらの臨床条件を模倣するために開発は疾患の病態の理解を容易にして新しい治療戦略の開発を可能にします。したがって、正確に、再現性をもって、繰り返し動物モデルで唾液腺の機能を測定する能力は重要です。以前文献で説明されている手順を踏まえ、方法はこれらの基準を満たしているとマウスの唾液腺機能の評価に使用されたを開発しました。この新しいメソッドの追加の利点は、それが簡単に習得し、そしてオペレーター間の変動が小さいをことです。唾液腺機能は、数量 (重量又は容積) または唾液ピロカルピン刺激に反応して生成率 (mL/分) として評価されます。採取唾液タンパク質含有量、免疫グロブリン濃度と他の生体分子の解析のためのよい源であります。

実験的マウス モデル システムにおけるピロカルピン刺激への応答の唾液を生産する能力、唾液腺機能の指標として使用されます。唾液の分泌は、綿棒法による 11 週齢の c57bl/6 雌マウスで測定しました。図 1 aで結果は唾液 (mg) 収集したピロカルピンの用量増加を次の量として表されます。1 mg/kg 体重の投与量でマウスのいくつかで遭難 (不本意?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Method for the Measurement of Salivary Gland Function in Mice at JoVE.com

A Method for the Measurement of Salivary Gland Function in Mice

唾液腺機能低下は自己免疫病と放射線療法の頻繁に結果です。これらの疾患のマウスモデルにおける唾液腺機能の再現性の評価は、技術的な挑戦です。ここでは、マウスの唾液の分泌の正確かつ再現可能な測定のための簡単な方法を説明します。

マウスの唾液腺機能の測定法

Patients with Sj&#246;gren&#39;s syndrome, an autoimmune disease affecting the exocrine glands, develop salivary gland inflammation and have reduced ...

a-method-for-the-measurement-of-salivary-gland-function-in-mice

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

18.3K ビュー.  Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation. 唾液腺機能低下は自己免疫病と放射線療法の頻繁に結果です。これらの疾患のマウスモデルにおける唾液腺機能の再現性の評価は、技術的な挑戦です。ここでは、マウスの唾液の分泌の正確かつ再現可能な測定のための簡単な方法を説明します。

ビデオ: A Method for the Measurement of Salivary Gland Function in Mice

Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis in SJL Mice

Autoimmune hypophysitis can be reproduced experimentally by the injection of pituitary proteins mixed with an adjuvant into susceptible mice1. Mouse models allow us to study how diseases unfold, often providing a good replica of the same processes occurring in humans. For some autoimmune diseases, like type 1A diabetes, there are models (the NOD mouse) that spontaneously develop a disease similar to the human counterpart. For many other autoimmune diseases, however, the model needs to be induced experimentally. A common approach in this regard is to inject the mouse with a dominant antigen derived from the organ being studied. For example, investigators interested in autoimmune thyroiditis inject mice with thyroglobulin2, and those interested in myasthenia gravis inject them with the acetylcholine receptor3. If the autoantigen for a particular autoimmune disease is not known, investigators inject a crude protein extract from the organ targeted by the autoimmune reaction. For autoimmune hypophysitis, the pathogenic autoantigen(s) remain to be identified4, and thus a crude pituitary protein preparation is used. In this video article we demonstrate how to induce experimental autoimmune hypophysitis in SJL mice.

This video shows how to induce autoimmune hypophysitis in SJL mice and how to assess its severity by histopathology.

SJLマウスにおける実験的自己免疫性下垂体炎の誘導

Autoimmune hypophysitis can be reproduced experimentally by the injection of pituitary proteins mixed with an adjuvant into susceptible mice1. Mouse ...

免疫・感染学

Using Bioluminescent Imaging to Investigate Synergism Between Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza A Virus in Infant Mice

During the 1918 influenza virus pandemic, which killed approximately 50 million people worldwide, the majority of fatalities were not the result of infection with influenza virus alone. Instead, most individuals are thought to have succumbed to a secondary bacterial infection, predominately caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus). The synergistic relationship between infections caused by influenza virus and the pneumococcus has subsequently been observed during the 1957 Asian influenza virus pandemic, as well as during seasonal outbreaks of the virus (reviewed in 1, 2). Here, we describe a protocol used to investigate the mechanism(s) that may be involved in increased morbidity as a result of concurrent influenza A virus and S. pneumoniae infection. We have developed an infant murine model to reliably and reproducibly demonstrate the effects of influenza virus infection of mice colonised with S. pneumoniae. Using this protocol, we have provided the first insight into the kinetics of pneumococcal transmission between co-housed, neonatal mice using in vivo imaging 3.

Using Bioluminescent Imaging to Investigate Synergism Between Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza A Virus in Infant Mice

A concurrent infection with influenza A virus is one of the factors implicated in the induction of invasive pneumococcal disease during asymptomatic Streptococcus pneumoniae carriage. Here we describe a mixed infection method using infant mice to investigate the synergism between these two respiratory pathogens.

の間に相乗効果を調査するために生物発光イメージングを使用して肺炎球菌幼児マウスで>とインフルエンザウイルス

During the 1918 influenza virus pandemic, which killed approximately 50 million people worldwide, the majority of fatalities were not the result of ...

A Method for Labeling Vasculature in Embryonic Mice

The establishment of a functional blood vessel network is an essential part of organogenesis, and is required for optimal organ function. For example, in the thymus proper vasculature formation and patterning is essential for thymocyte entry into the organ and mature T-cell exit to the periphery. The spatial arrangement of blood vessels in the thymus is dependent upon signals from the local microenvironment, namely thymic epithelial cells (TEC). Several recent reports suggest that disruption of these signals results in thymus blood vessel defects 1,2. Previous studies have described techniques used to label the neonatal and adult thymus vasculature 1,2. We demonstrate here a technique for labeling blood vessels in the embryonic thymus. This method combines the use of FITC-dextran or Griffonia (Bandeiraea) Simplicifolia Lectin I (GSL 1 - isolectin B4) facial vein injections and CD31 antibody staining to identify thymus vascular structures and PDGFR-&beta; to label thymic perivascular mesenchyme 3-5. The option of using cryosections or vibratome sections is also provided. This protocol can be used to identify thymus vascular defects, which is critical for defining the roles of TEC-derived molecules in thymus blood vessel formation. As the method labels the entire vasculature, it can also be used to analyze the vascular networks in multiple organs and tissues throughout the embryo including skin and heart 6-10.

This article describes a method for labeling embryonic skin and thymus blood vessels.

マウス胎児の血管系を標識する方法

The establishment of a functional blood vessel network is an essential part of organogenesis, and is required for optimal organ function. For example, in ...

Measurement of &#947;HV68 Infection in Mice

&gamma;-Herpesviruses (&gamma;-HVs) are notable for their ability to establish latent infections of lymphoid cells1. The narrow host range of human &gamma;-HVs, such as EBV and KSHV, has severely hindered detailed pathogenic studies. Murine &gamma;-herpesvirus 68 (&gamma;HV68) shares extensive genetic and biological similarities with human &gamma;-HVs and is a natural pathogen of murid rodents2. As such, evaluation of &gamma;HV68 infection of mice inbred strains at different stages of viral infection provides an important model for understanding viral lifecycle and pathogenesis during &gamma;-HVs infection.
Upon intranasal inoculation, &gamma;HV68 infection results in acute viremia in the lung that is later resolved into a latent infection of splenocytes and other cells, which may be reactivated throughout the life of the host3,4. In this protocol, we will describe how to use the plaque assay to assess infectious virus titer in the lung homogenates on Vero cell monolayers at the early stage (5 - 7 days) of post-intranasal infection (dpi). While acute infection is largely cleared 2 - 3 weeks postinfection, a latent infection of &gamma;HV68 is established around 14 dpi and maintained later on in the spleen of the mice. Latent infection usually affects a very small population of cells in the infected tissues, whereby the virus stays dormant and shuts off most of its gene expression. Latently-infected splenocytes spontaneously reactivate virus upon explanting into tissue culture, which can be recapitulated by an infectious center (IC) assay to determine the viral latent load. To further estimate the amount of viral genome copies in the acutely and/or latently infected tissues, quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) is used for its maximal sensitivity and accuracy. The combined analyses of the results of qPCR and plaque assay, and/or IC assay will reveal the spatiotemporal profiles of viral replication and infectivity in vivo.

&#947;-Herpesviruses (&#947;-HVs) establish life-long persistency in their host. Infection of mice with &#947;-HV68 provides a genetically tractable in vivo model for the characterization of the lifecycle/pathogenesis of &#947;HVs. This protocol describes the detection and quantitation of &#947;HV68 infection at acute and latent stages following infection by plaque-forming, infectious center, and qPCR assays.

マウスにおけるγHV68感染の測定

&gamma;-Herpesviruses (&gamma;-HVs) are notable for their ability to establish latent infections of lymphoid cells1. The narrow host range of human ...

Hybridization in situ of Salivary Glands, Ovaries, and Embryos of Vector Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes are vectors for a diverse set of pathogens including arboviruses, protozoan parasites and nematodes. Investigation of transcripts and gene regulators that are expressed in tissues in which the mosquito host and pathogen interact, and in organs involved in reproduction are of great interest for strategies to reduce mosquito-borne disease transmission and disrupt egg development. A number of tools have been employed to study and validate the temporal and tissue-specific regulation of gene expression. Here, we describe protocols that have been developed to obtain spatial information, which enhances our understanding of where specific genes are expressed and their products accumulate. The protocol described has been used to validate expression and determine accumulation patterns of transcripts in tissues related to mosquito-borne pathogen transmission, such as female salivary glands, as well as subcellular compartments of ovaries and embryos, which relate to mosquito reproduction and development. 
 The following procedures represent an optimized methodology that improves the efficiency of various steps in the protocol without loss of target-specific hybridization signals. Guidelines for RNA probe preparation, dissection of soft tissues and the general procedure for fixation and hybridization are described in Part A, while steps specific for the collection, fixation, pre-hybridization and hybridization of mosquito embryos are detailed in Part B.

Hybridization in situ of Salivary Glands, Ovaries, and Embryos of Vector Mosquitoes

Temporal and spatial gene expression analyses have a crucial role in functional genomics. Whole-mount hybridization in situ is useful for determining the localization of transcripts within tissues and subcellular compartments. Here we outline a hybridization in situ protocol with modifications for specific target tissues in mosquitoes.

ハイブリダイゼーション<em&gt;その場で</em&gt;唾液腺、卵巣、および媒介蚊の胚の

Mosquitoes are vectors for a diverse set of pathogens including arboviruses, protozoan parasites and nematodes.  Investigation of transcripts and gene ...

Saliva, Salivary Gland, and Hemolymph Collection from Ixodes scapularis Ticks

Ticks are found worldwide and afflict humans with many tick-borne illnesses. Ticks are vectors for pathogens that cause Lyme disease and tick-borne relapsing fever (Borrelia spp.), Rocky Mountain Spotted fever (Rickettsia rickettsii), ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia chaffeensis and E. equi), anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum), encephalitis (tick-borne encephalitis virus), babesiosis (Babesia spp.), Colorado tick fever (Coltivirus), and tularemia (Francisella tularensis) 1-8. To be properly transmitted into the host these infectious agents differentially regulate gene expression, interact with tick proteins, and migrate through the tick 3,9-13. For example, the Lyme disease agent, Borrelia burgdorferi, adapts through differential gene expression to the feast and famine stages of the tick's enzootic cycle 14,15. Furthermore, as an Ixodes tick consumes a bloodmeal Borrelia replicate and migrate from the midgut into the hemocoel, where they travel to the salivary glands and are transmitted into the host with the expelled saliva 9,16-19.
As a tick feeds the host typically responds with a strong hemostatic and innate immune response 11,13,20-22. Despite these host responses, I. scapularis can feed for several days because tick saliva contains proteins that are immunomodulatory, lytic agents, anticoagulants, and fibrinolysins to aid the tick feeding 3,11,20,21,23. The immunomodulatory activities possessed by tick saliva or salivary gland extract (SGE) facilitate transmission, proliferation, and dissemination of numerous tick-borne pathogens 3,20,24-27. To further understand how tick-borne infectious agents cause disease it is essential to dissect actively feeding ticks and collect tick saliva. This video protocol demonstrates dissection techniques for the collection of hemolymph and the removal of salivary glands from actively feeding I. scapularis nymphs after 48 and 72 hours post mouse placement. We also demonstrate saliva collection from an adult female I. scapularis tick.

Saliva, Salivary Gland, and Hemolymph Collection from Ixodes scapularis Ticks

The collection of infected tick hemolymph, salivary glands, and saliva is important to study how tick-borne pathogens cause disease. In this protocol we demonstrate how to collect hemolymph and salivary glands from feeding Ixodes scapularis nymphs. We also demonstrate saliva collection from female I. scapularis adults.

マダニScapularisダニの唾液、唾液腺、および体液コレクション

Ticks are found worldwide and afflict humans with many tick-borne illnesses. Ticks are vectors for pathogens that cause Lyme disease and tick-borne ...

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

A complex interaction between the immune response and host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in particular, is known to occur as a response to infection in mammals 1 and has also recently been described in Drosophila melanogaster2. It is generally accepted that sleep is beneficial to the host during an infection and that it is important for the maintenance of a robust immune system3,4. However, experimental evidence that supports this hypothesis is limited4, and the function of excess sleep during an immune response remains unclear. We have used a multidisciplinary approach to address this complex problem, and have conducted studies in the simple genetic model system, the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. We use a standard assay for measuring locomotor behavior and sleep in flies, and demonstrate how this assay is used to measure behavior in flies infected with a pathogenic strain of bacteria. This assay is also useful for monitoring the duration of survival in individual flies during an infection. Additional measures of immune function include the ability of flies to clear an infection and the activation of NF&kappa;B, a key transcription factor that is central to the innate immune response in Drosophila. Both survival outcome and bacterial clearance during infection together are indicators of resistance and tolerance to infection. Resistance refers to the ability of flies to clear an infection, while tolerance is defined as the ability of the host to limit damage from an infection and thereby survive despite high levels of pathogen within the system5. Real-time monitoring of NF&kappa;B activity during infection provides insight into a molecular mechanism of survival during infection. The use of Drosophila in these straightforward assays facilitates the genetic and molecular analyses of sleep and the immune response and how these two complex systems are reciprocally influenced.

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

To understand a link between the immune response and behavior, we describe a method to measure locomotor behavior in Drosophila during bacterial infection as well as the ability of flies to mount an immune response by monitoring survival, bacterial load, and real-time activity of a key regulator of innate immunity, NF&kappa;B.

免疫応答やスリープ中の定量的測定<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em

A complex interaction between the immune response and  host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in  particular, is known ...

Preparation of Murine Submandibular Salivary Gland for Upright Intravital Microscopy

The submandibular salivary gland (SMG) is one of the three major salivary glands, and is of interest for many different fields of biological research, including cell biology, oncology, dentistry, and immunology. The SMG is an exocrine gland comprised of secretory epithelial cells, myofibroblasts, endothelial cells, nerves, and extracellular matrix. Dynamic cellular processes in the rat and mouse SMG have previously been imaged, mostly using inverted multi-photon microscope systems. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the surgical preparation and stabilization of the murine SMG in anesthetized mice for in vivo imaging with upright multi-photon microscope systems. We present representative intravital image sets of endogenous and adoptively transferred fluorescent cells, including the labeling of blood vessels or salivary ducts and second harmonic generation to visualize fibrillar collagen. In sum, our protocol allows for surgical preparation of mouse salivary glands in upright microscopy systems, which are commonly used for intravital imaging in the field of immunology.

We describe a protocol to surgically expose and stabilize the murine submandibular salivary gland for intravital imaging using upright intravital microscopy. This protocol is easily adaptable to other exocrine glands of the head and neck region of mice and other small rodents.

マウス顎下腺唾液腺の直立した生体顕微鏡検査のための準備

The submandibular salivary gland (SMG) is one of the three major salivary glands, and is of interest for many different fields of biological research, ...

A Silver Nanoparticle Method for Ameliorating Biliary Atresia Syndrome in Mice

Biliary atresia (BA) is a severe type of cholangitis with high mortality in children of which the etiology is still not fully understood. Viral infections may be one possible cause. The typical animal model used for studying BA is established by inoculating a neonatal mouse with a rhesus rotavirus. Silver nanoparticles have been shown to exert antibacterial and antiviral effects; their function in the BA mouse model is evaluated in this study. Currently, in BA animal experiments, the methods used to improve the symptoms of BA mice are generally symptomatic treatments given via food or other drugs. The aim of this study is to demonstrate a new method for ameliorating BA syndrome in mice by the intraperitoneal injection of silver nanoparticles and to provide detailed methods for preparing the silver nanoparticle gel formulation. This method is simple and widely applicable and can be used to research the mechanism of BA, as well as in clinical treatments. Based on the BA mouse model, when the mice exhibit jaundice, the prepared silver nanoparticle gel is injected intraperitoneally to the surface of the lower liver. The survival status is observed, and biochemical indicators and liver histopathology are examined. This method allows a more intuitive understanding of both the establishment of the BA model and novel BA treatments.

This article describes in detail a method based on silver nanoparticles for ameliorating biliary atresia syndrome in an experimental biliary atresia mouse model. A solid understanding of the reagent preparation process and the neonatal mouse injection technique will help familiarize researchers with the method used in neonatal mouse model studies.

マウスにおける胆道閉鎖症症候群を改善するための銀ナノ粒子法

Biliary atresia (BA) is a severe type of cholangitis with high mortality in children of which the etiology is still not fully understood. Viral infections ...

Measurement of Specific Mycobacterial Mistranslation Rates with Gain-of-function Reporter Systems

The translation of genes into proteins is prone to errors. Although the average rate of translational error in model systems is estimated to be 1/10,000 per codon, the actual error rates vary widely, depending on the species, environment, and codons being studied. We have previously shown that mycobacteria use a two-step pathway for the generation of aminoacylated glutamine and asparagine tRNAs and that this is specifically associated with relatively high error rates due to the modulation of mistranslation rates by an essential component of the pathway, the amidotransferase GatCAB. We modified a previously employed Renilla-Firefly dual-luciferase system that had been used to measure mistranslation rates in Escherichia coli for use in mycobacteria to measure specific mistranslation rates of glutamate at glutamine codons and aspartate for asparagine codons. Although this reporter system was suitable for the accurate estimation of specific error rates, lack of sensitivity and requirements for excessive manipulation steps made it unsuitable for high-throughput applications. Therefore, we developed a second gain-of-function reporter system, using Nluc luciferase and green fluorescent protein (GFP), which is more amenable to medium/high-throughput settings. We used this system to identify kasugamycin as a small molecule that can decrease mycobacterial mistranslation. Although the reporters that we describe here have been used to measure specific types of mycobacterial mistranslation, they may be modified to measure other types of mistranslation in a number of model systems.

In this article, we present two complementary methods to measure specific rates of translational error and mistranslation in the model mycobacterium, Mycobacterium smegmatis, using gain-of-function reporter systems. The methods can be employed to measure accurate error rates in low throughput or relative error rates in a more high-throughput setting.

機能向上レポーター・システムによる特異的マイコバクテリア・誤訳率の測定

The translation of genes into proteins is prone to errors. Although the average rate of translational error in model systems is estimated to be 1/10,000 ...

マウスの唾液腺機能の測定法

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