描述的结果来自波兰国家科学中心根据2014/13/B/HS6/03155号赠款支持的项目。

SWPS 社会科学和人文伦理学大学委员会评估了此处描述的协议。根据《赫尔辛基宣言》，每位与会者都获得了书面知情同意。
1. 参加者征聘
<ol><li>为每个培训组招募至少36名志愿者。这一数字被证明足以观察作者先前的研究以及关于这一主题的文献的群体间影响。工作记忆训练研究中的典型效果大小介于 d=0.6 到 0.8 之间，具体取决于培训类型或目标组。基于这些值，并瞄准0.8与阿尔法在0.05的体面统计能力，在这类研究的最低样本量（根据索珀45提出的公式计算）是36（最好是更多）。<ol>
<li>使用以下包容标准:55岁以上，无神经或精神疾病史，上肢运动技能保存，无失明或听力损失，目前不参与任何其他认知（特别是记忆）训练。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>使用各种方法招募参与者:张贴在社交媒体个人资料、研究和工作平台或讨论小组上的在线广告，以及第三年龄的大学或涉及老年人野餐（也使用海报和传单）的活动期间的当面公告，以确保被招募者不仅仅是互联网用户。</li>
	<li>请记住，请在广告中充分描述您正在寻找什么类型的参与者。</li>
</ol>2. 道德委员会的评价
<ol><li>在开始研究之前，请获得当地道德委员会的评估表，包括:a） 包括积极干预人类行为的互动，旨在改变这种行为，而不直接干扰大脑，例如认知训练、心理治疗等（这也适用于旨在使被调查者受益的干预，例如改善他的记忆），b） 收集和处理参与者的个人数据，特别是允许识别受试者的数据。</li>
</ol>3. 初步筛查
<ol><li>首先进行简短的访谈，详细告知参与者项目的目标、退出的可能性以及个人数据保护。</li>
	<li>确保参与者不服用药物或从未患过任何可能影响中枢神经系统功能的疾病。同样，控制与影响认知功能的神经系统疾病无关的药物的摄入。如果筛查显示任何不需要的信息，请将志愿者排除在研究之外。</li>
	<li>筛选成功后，将书面知情同意书提交给参与者，并请他们阅读。书面知情同意书应涉及以下信息:a） 特定国家的数据收集和处理的法律基础，b） 有关数据所有者权利的信息（例如访问个人数据、补充不完整的个人数据的可能性、删除数据或处理限制）。<ol>
<li>要求参与者签署知情同意书。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>进行迷你精神状态检查 （MMSE）32， 以确保参与者没有轻微认知障碍的迹象 - 进入研究的下一阶段至少需要 27 分。<ol>
<li>向参与者阅读 MMSE 的介绍脚本，然后根据考试脚本提问。</li>
		<li>首先，通过提出一系列问题来评估地点和时间的方向:今天的完整日期是什么？今天是星期几？我们在哪里（什么城市，什么建筑，哪个楼层）？</li>
		<li>跟随记忆测试:要求参与者记住三个被你大声读取的对象:通过评估注意力、注意力和计算的七项任务系列，最后要求参与者回忆以前学到的三个对象。</li>
		<li>最后，根据考试脚本测试命名、重复和理解。</li>
		<li>评分答案如下:0=错误或缺乏答案，1=正确答案。</li>
		<li>管理 MMSE 测试的时间不超过 10 分钟。</li>
		<li>如果一个人没有达到要求的阈值（27分），通知他们结果。如果有任何怀疑临床上降低的认知功能水平，请将此人转介到专科单位（例如，神经中心的认证心理学家）。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>以符合当地法律和/或《一般数据保护条例》的方式存储文档。</li>
</ol>4. 培训组作业
<ol><li>随机将参与者分配到实验组或对照组（ 图 1）。为了确保过程的随机性，生成分配给一个和两个（培训组）的 50 个代号（ 图 2）的列表，并将每个参与者的招聘顺序与这些代码（保存在单独的文件中）连接起来。从现在起，将参与者数据替换为代号。</li>
</ol><img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60804/60804fig1.jpg"> 图1.学习设计与培训任务的例子。学员在为期5周的培训协议之前和之后经历了两次测量课程。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60804/60804fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击这里查看此数字的较大版本。</a>
<ol start="2"><li>确保群体分配在年龄、性别或教育水平方面没有偏见。将年龄、性别和教育组预先分配到每个培训组的代号列表（1 和 2），如 图 2所列。根据每个志愿者的特点将他们放入表格中。</li>
</ol><img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60804/60804fig2.jpg"> 图2.建议的小组分配编码表示例。
5. 认知功能初步评估
<ol><li>强调向参与者提供非常清晰和详细的指导，指导他们如何在每个程序开始时完成每个任务。在每个任务之前运行"训练块"（与培训任务相同），并观察参与者，如果他们的答案表明他们理解指示。 注:在下面每个任务的描述开头描述此类块的包含。</li>
	<li>在演示每个任务的指导和练习部分后，在开始程序的主要部分之前，再次询问参与者是否理解该程序的要求。</li>
	<li>确保每个参与者将完成以下任务的完整集。</li>
	<li>操作跨度任务 （OSPAN）<ol>
<li>运行一个培训块，以估计每个参与者计算简单数学方程所需的单独时间（单位数的添加、减法、除法和乘法（而不是更高的数字）。</li>
		<li>在白屏中间显示与参与者的方程。指示参与者思考结果，然后按箭头指向下一个屏幕，其中方程的结果被呈现。让参与者通过按 真 或 假 按钮来给出答案。</li>
		<li>计算解方程所需的时间。使用最后一个块中所需的平均时间作为在任务的主要部分显示方程的时间。为估计方程结果的正确性而设定一个固定的时间限制:5s。</li>
		<li>在下一个训练块显示屏幕上的字母 - 一个接一个，每个500毫秒，并指示参与者记住他们。整套（3到9个字母）后，将12个字母的矩阵呈现给参与者，并要求按正确的顺序标记记忆中的字母。不要给出答案的时间限制。记录正确性。</li>
		<li>运行任务的主要部分。在最后一个方块中，将上述两个训练块混合在一起:每个部分与方程（记住时间限制！显示 2 到 5 对"方程 + 字母"，然后在呈现整个"方程 +字母"对序列后，显示参与者以正确的顺序标记记忆字母的字母矩阵。记录数学和记忆部分的正确性。 注:通过此测试，将评估工作内存的操作跨度（同时记住另一种信息时处理一种信息）。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>斯特恩伯格任务<ol>
<li>在黑屏上以白色字体显示数字的随机序列（一组 2 到 5 个），每个数字为 500 毫秒，间隔范围从 2500 毫秒到 3000 毫秒不等。</li>
		<li>显示2500毫秒的固定十字。</li>
		<li>在呈现序列的末尾，以黄色字体显示目标数字为 500 毫秒。</li>
		<li>让参与者通过按" 是/否 "按钮来决定黄色数字是否出现在前面的白色数字集中。如果参与者在 3000 毫秒内没有给出答案，请用固定点进入屏幕并开始下一次试用。将此尝试视为错误答案。</li>
		<li>重复步骤 5.5.1 到 5.5.4 120 次（试验），50% 的探头包含序列中的目标数字，50% 的探头不（随机）。</li>
		<li>记录每次试验的正确性和反应时间。 注意:此任务测试在内存中搜索信息的速度。反应时间的增加伴随着集的扩大，这被解释为存储器内容的串行搜索过程。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>运行内存跨度任务<ol>
<li>在屏幕上，显示有关要记住的字母数（3、4、5 或 6 个字母，具体取决于块的难度级别），并要求参与者按下一个屏幕。</li>
		<li>在白屏中央逐一呈现一系列黑色字体，每个字母为 0.25 s。</li>
		<li>要求参与者复制序列中最后字母的固定编号:固定编号:4:序列:K U J D S T W A:要记住的信件:S T W A。</li>
		<li>要接收参与者的回答，请在屏幕上显示 9 个字母 （3x3） 的矩阵，并要求参与者用鼠标标记适当的字母（以便出现字母）。不要给出答案的时间限制。</li>
		<li>记录正确性（注意序列错误）。 注:此测试测量工作内存的容量，使用额外的干扰，其形式是无法预测列表中的哪些字母是需要记住的部分。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>测试去不去<ol>
<li>在白色屏幕上显示试验组成: a） 250 毫秒 - 固定点 （白色十字架）， b） 1250 毫秒 - 刺激 （字母）， c） 2000 毫秒 - 固定的刺激间歇。</li>
		<li>当目标刺激 （字母 X ） 出现在屏幕上时，让参与者通过尽快按下键来做出反应。</li>
		<li>记录答案的反应时间和正确性。 注:该测试在两种条件下测量抑制效率:在较容易的情况下，字母 X 以 50/50 的比例呈现于其他字母，在较困难的条件下，目标刺激以 70/30 的比例显示。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>切换任务<ol>
<li>使用水平线将屏幕分成两部分。呈现由此行上方或下方的较小方块或矩形组成的红色方形或矩形。</li>
		<li>根据数字的显示位置，应用两种不同的规则让参与者做出反应 - 屏幕上半部分的"注意小数字"（本地）和屏幕下半部分"注意由较小数字组成的整个数字"（全球）。让参与者根据显示刺激的屏幕部分做出反应。</li>
		<li>添加一个提示，指示参与者应响应到哪个维度（全球或本地）。与局部尺寸相关的提示应包括目标刺激的一侧呈现的红色小方块和目标刺激的另一侧显示的红色小矩形。因此，与全球维度相关的提示应包括目标刺激的一侧显示的大红色方块和目标刺激的另一侧显示的大红色矩形。</li>
		<li>随机显示中线上方或下方的数字。</li>
		<li>让参与者按照之前提出的规则做出反应:使用左键回答"矩形"，按右按钮回答"方形"。</li>
		<li>记录反应时间和答案的正确性。 注:响应时间必须固定在3500毫秒。提示和目标刺激之间的时间间隔应该是 500 毫秒。响应和提示呈现之间的间隔应为 1000 毫秒。每个数字和每个提示应呈现给参与者通过按下其中一个键来做出反应所需的所有时间。切换任务测量认知流畅性，因为它需要在相关元素之间快速切换注意力。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>线性线性音素化任务
	<ol>
<li>屏幕上显示一组三个"前提"，它们共同构成了逻辑关系链:带有关于它们之间关系的信息的字母对:A >B、B =C 和 C > D。每个前提应在屏幕上显示 1500 毫秒，它们之间的间隔应持续 3000、3500 或 4000 毫秒（随机）。集成的心理模型表示32 这样的一组对将永远在线性顺序"A>B>C>D"。</li>
		<li>包括三对可能的前提关系在单独的试验:1） A > B， B > C， C > D （相邻对， 与在学习阶段看到的完全相同）， 2） A > C， B > D （两步关系， 以前看不到， 需要信息集成）， 3） A > D （终点关系， 以前从未见过， 需要信息集成） 。</li>
		<li>构建任务，使其包含两个条件:一个简单的条件，其中前提应按它们形成逻辑字符串的顺序一个接一个地显示（例如字符串:问答:前提订单:问答、W>E、E>R、R>T）:条件困难时，应更改房地的顺序（例如房地订单:W>E、问答、研发、E>R）。</li>
		<li>通过显示参与者需要尽快评估的真实（答案:右键）或错误（答案:左按钮）的陈述（每个陈述 1500 毫秒），立即对参与者进行测试。为答案设定时间限制 - 6000 毫秒，并在给出每个答案后再等待 1000 毫秒，然后再显示下一个问题。每个语句应仅包含一对字母及其之间的关系（"lt;"或">"），以正确（例如，"W & gt; E？"）或错误设置（例如，"E > W？"）。</li>
		<li>随机排列字母，以尽量减少由字母的隐含字母顺序引起的可能干扰。</li>
		<li>使用大写字母作为刺激而不是整个句子，以避免语言内涵和符号"+"来表示元素之间的关系。</li>
		<li>收集有关每个问题回答的准确性和反应时间的数据。 注:有关相邻对的问题用于估计内存，有关前提的问题按混合顺序呈现，以及询问逻辑序列的远要素之间的关系的问题，请测量信息集成的能力。</li>
	</ol></li>
</ol>6. 培训协议
<ol><li>对于实验（n-back）和控制（Quiz）培训，参与者可以访问 Internet 平台（登录和密码）， 允许他们每 24 小时进入网站一次，以避免参与者每天训练不止一次的情况。</li>
	<li>确保参与者了解任务以及培训方案。</li>
	<li>指示参与者每次在类似的条件下，在平静和安静的地方训练，外部干扰器可能水平较低。</li>
	<li>实验训练:工作记忆范式 注:自适应双n-back任务作为工作记忆培训计划。这项任务由Jaeggi等人介绍 ，同时招募听觉和视觉注意力、维护和更新过程。<ol>
<li>在 N+2 级别指导参与者执行任务（见图 1B）。</li>
		<li>使用字母表字母作为听觉刺激和绿色方块，作为视觉刺激呈现在 3x3 矩阵中的 9 个位置之一。</li>
		<li>呈现一个项目为 500 毫秒， 然后是 2500 毫秒间隔， 在此期间， 参与者应该回应。当前刺激可以匹配目标视觉（左手响应）或听觉刺激（右手响应）或两者（双手同时响应）。</li>
		<li>单节训练<ol>
<li>在任务的第一个块中设置 N 到 2 的级别。每个块之后，评估答案的正确性，并在此基础上调整下一个块中的 N 级。如果精度超过85%，难度水平应提高（增加1分），如果精度低于60%，则降低难度水平。在其他情况下，N 保持不变。</li>
			<li>对于第一个块，将 n 背任务级别固定在 N+2。稍后，根据上一块中答案的正确性确定当前块的 N 级。如果精度超过85%，则提高难度水平。如果精度低于 60%，则应降低难度级别。在其他情况下，N 级应保持不变。</li>
			<li>为 15 轮（15 个任务块）设置单个双 n 背会话，每个回合有 20 + N 次试验，整个训练集为 25 次。</li>
			<li>记录每次试验的反应时间 （RTs） 和准确度 （ACC） 措施。</li>
		</ol>
</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>控制训练:偶发性记忆范式<ol>
<li>从互联网收集材料，以构建涉及语义记忆的测验任务（例如，匈牙利的首都是什么？</li>
		<li>测验任务的每个培训课中提出 15 个问题（从第二节开始，5 个问题来自上一期，10 个问题应该是新的），阅读时间没有限制。指示参与者在选择"答案"按钮后，他们必须在 40 秒内选择四个给出的可能性之一。为答案的正确性提供反馈。</li>
		<li>将整个培训设置为 25 个课程。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>7. 培训监督
<ol><li>在培训过程中，验证每个参与者的训练进度。向每位参与者分配一名负责检查（在线）培训进度的实验者。</li>
	<li>如果课间休息时间超过两天，请让实验者通过短信联系参与者，并鼓励他或她恢复培训。</li>
</ol>8. 认知功能训练后评估
<ol><li>以训练前会议的确切方式进行训练后课程。</li>
	<li>以 150 PLN（约 40 美元）补偿完成整个协议的每个参与者。</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Baddeley, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Working+memory%3A+Looking+back+and+looking+forward%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature+Reviews+Neuroscience%22%5BJournal%5D)">Working memory: Looking back and looking forward.</a> Nature Reviews Neuroscience. , (2003).</li>
<li>Au, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Improving+fluid+intelligence+with+training+on+working+memory%3A+a+meta-analysis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Psychonomic+Bulletin+and+Review%22%5BJournal%5D)">Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin and Review. 22, 366-377 (2015).</li>
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作者没有什么可透露的。

在此处介绍的研究中，我们调查了老年人是否可以从工作记忆培训中受益，以及培训是否与他们的基本认知的初始水平有关。我们使用 n 背任务作为实验干预和工作记忆能力（用 OSPAN 任务测量）是探索参与者智力功能初始水平的方法。我们在协议中有两个关键步骤。第一个也是最重要的一个是评估最初的WM水平。第二种是仔细匹配两种训练方案，除了"认知内容"（即工作记忆和语义记忆）。通过?...

在许多认知训练研究中，双n背任务被用作工作记忆（WM）训练的方法。WM是认知干预的共同目标，因为它对其他更高层次的智力功能很重要。然而，这种培训的有效性及其在认知方面创造更普遍改进的潜力，一直备受争议（对于元分析，见2、3、4、5、6、7、14和审查，见4、8、9、10、11、12、13）。虽然一些研究人员声称"...没有令人信服的证据可以证明工作记忆训练被概括为其他技能的'4，其他人则提供元分析数据，显示WM培训2，3，5，6，11的显著效果。另一个问题是WM在老年人口中的有效性。多项WM培训研究显示，与15岁、16岁、17岁、18岁、19岁、20岁的长者相比，年轻人的益处更大，而其他研究则显示，在21岁、22岁、23岁、24岁、25岁这两个年龄组，亦有类似的效果。
各种元素被认为预测记忆训练的好处26。其中一些因素似乎是WM培训有效性21的潜在版主。心理能力，被描述为基线认知能力或一般认知资源，似乎是这个位置最有力的选择之一。为了评估初始智力水平的作用，我们在应用培训方案之前特别强调了认知能力的测量（此处描述的方法）。数据显示，与最初认知功能较低的27人相比，在训练开始时认知能力较高的参与者取得了更好的训练效果。在教育研究中也观察到类似的现象，它被称为"马修效应28"，这种观察表明，与那些最初能力水平较低的人相比，最初技能更好的人进步更大。
然而，关于这一主题的报告没有太多，这发人深省。此外，在数据分析和解释30中，即使是个人差异也很大，特别是在老年人口方面，往往无人看管。在本研究中，我们考察了工作记忆能力的初始水平对健康老年人群体WM培训成功的影响。为了保持实验组和对照组之间尽可能相似的训练方案的每一个元素，我们采用了主动对照组设计。因此，培训内容（WM 与语义记忆）仍然是决定训练结果预期差异的一个关键因素。这两个小组都进行了计算机化的、基于家庭的培训。实验组的成员被分配到一个适应性双n-back训练计划和一个主动对照组训练，任务基于语义记忆测验。这里的新方法是强调通过评估参与者的工作记忆能力（WMC）对参与者的认知水平进行初步评估。此外，评估本文中我们目前的初始 WMC 级别的方法已被证明是区分在随后的工作记忆培训中将成功和不会成功的人的有效工具。我们先前曾描述并公布这项研究的结果。因此，在本文中，我们重点介绍了我们使用的协议的详细描述。

<table><tbody><tr><td>GEx</td><td>n/a</td><td>authorial online platform:&lt;br/&gt; used for N-back training, Quiz</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0</td><td>IBM Corporation</td><td>SPSS software was used to compute statistical analysis.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Inquisit version 4.0.8.0</td><td>Millisecond Software</td><td>software: tool for designing and administering experiments&lt;br/&gt; used for: The Sternberg Task, The Linear Syllogism Task and presenting the instructions for baseline EEG recording</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MATLAB R2018b</td><td>The MathWorks, Inc</td><td>MATLAB software was used to compute statistics and to export databases and&amp;nbsp; visualisation of the results</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PsychoPy version 2 v.1.83.04</td><td>Jonathan Peirce; supported by University of Nottingham</td><td>open-source software&lt;br/&gt; used for: Go/no Go Task, The Switching Task, Running Memory Span Taskckage based on Python</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sublime Text (version 2.0.2)</td><td>n/a</td><td>open-source software: HTML editor&lt;br/&gt; used for: online OSPAN Task</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

working memory training for older participants: a control group training regimen and initial intellectual functioning assessment

认知训练干预措施的有效性最近备受争议。对于哪种培训方案最有效，没有达成共识。此外，作为培训结果预测因素的个人特征仍在调查中。在本文中，我们展示了通过不仅检查工作记忆 （WM） 培训对老年人认知有效性的影响，以及初始 WM 能力 （WMC） 对培训结果的影响来解决这个问题的尝试。我们详细描述了如何与主动对照组（记忆测验）一起进行5周的自适应双n背训练。我们在此重点介绍培训的技术方面以及参与者 WMC 的初步评估。对其他认知维度的训练前后表现的评估基于记忆更新、抑制、注意力转移、短期记忆（STM）和推理测试的结果。我们发现，WMC 的初始水平预测了 n 背式培训干预的效率。我们还注意到，我们测量的认知功能几乎所有方面的培训后改进，但这些影响大多是独立干预。

与培训相关的影响
85名受试者参加了这项研究（29名是男性），他们平均66.7岁。由于技术问题，没有记录n-back培训组一名参与者的数据。最后分析了来自n-back培训组43名参与者和测验培训组42名参与者的数据。通过反复措施对方差（MANOVA）进行多变量分析，分析培训对两个培训组随时间（训练前、训练后）的具体影...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment at JoVE.com

Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment

介绍了对老年人口的认知训练干预以及对培训前认知能力的评估。我们展示了两个版本的训练 - 实验和主动控制 - 并演示它们对认知测试阵列的影响。

老年学员工作记忆培训:对照组培训方案和初始智力功能评估

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. ...

working-memory-training-for-older-participants-control-group-training

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

4.6K 次观看.  SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities. 介绍了对老年人口的认知训练干预以及对培训前认知能力的评估。我们展示了两个版本的训练 - 实验和主动控制 - 并演示它们对认知测试阵列的影响。

视频: Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment

Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognitive functions across the lifespan in a sample of 378 healthy subjects (age range 18-89 years). Consistent with previous findings we found an age-related cognitive decline across a wide range of neuropsychological domains (memory, attention, executive functions), thereby proving the usability of our tablet-based application. Regardless of prior computer experience, subjects of all age groups were able to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter. Increased motivation and compliance proved to be beneficial for task performance, thereby potentially increasing the validity of the results. Our promising findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

We tested the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognition. Results show an age-related cognitive decline, thereby proving the usability of our application. Findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

与年龄相关的变化认知功能使用EmoCogMeter，新型平板计算机基础法评估

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on ...

科研

行为学

A Method for Investigating Age-related Differences in the Functional Connectivity of Cognitive Control Networks Associated with Dimensional Change Card Sort Performance

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional Change Card Sort task, participants switch from sorting cards one way, such as shape, to sorting them a different way, such as color. Adjusting behavior in this way exacts a small performance cost, or switch cost, such that responses are typically slower and more error-prone on switch trials in which the sorting rule changes as compared to repeat trials in which the sorting rule remains the same. The ability to flexibly adjust behavior is often said to develop gradually, in part because behavioral costs such as switch costs typically decrease with increasing age. Why aspects of higher-order cognition, such as behavioral flexibility, develop so gradually remains an open question. One hypothesis is that these changes occur in association with functional changes in broad-scale cognitive control networks. On this view, complex mental operations, such as switching, involve rapid interactions between several distributed brain regions, including those that update and maintain task rules, re-orient attention, and select behaviors. With development, functional connections between these regions strengthen, leading to faster and more efficient switching operations. The current video describes a method of testing this hypothesis through the collection and multivariate analysis of fMRI data from participants of different ages.

This video presents a method of examining age-related changes in functional connectivity of cognitive control networks engaged by targeted tasks/processes. The technique is based on multi-variate analysis of fMRI data.

针对调查中的认知控制网络与关联维度变化卡片分类性能的功能连通性年龄相关性差异的方法

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional ...

A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that one attempts to ignore, or by interrupting information that demands attention as part of another (secondary) task goal. Both forms of external interference have been shown to detrimentally impact the ability to maintain information in working memory (WM). Emerging evidence suggests that these different types of external interference exert different effects on behavior and may be mediated by distinct neural mechanisms. Better characterizing the distinct neuro-behavioral impact of irrelevant distractions versus attended interruptions is essential for advancing an understanding of top-down attention, resolution of external interference, and how these abilities become degraded in healthy aging and in neuropsychiatric conditions. This manuscript describes a novel cognitive paradigm developed the Gazzaley lab that has now been modified into several distinct versions used to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference, by to-be-ignored distractors versus to-be-attended interruptors. Details are provided on variants of this paradigm for investigating interference in visual and auditory modalities, at multiple levels of stimulus complexity, and with experimental timing optimized for electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. In addition, data from younger and older adult participants obtained using this paradigm is reviewed and discussed in the context of its relationship with the broader literatures on external interference and age-related neuro-behavioral changes in resolving interference in working memory.

A novel cognitive paradigm is developed to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference by to-be-ignored distractors versus interference by to-be-attended interruptors during a working memory task. In this manuscript, several variants of this paradigm are detailed, and data obtained with this paradigm in younger/older adult participants is reviewed.

认知范式调查干扰工作记忆的干扰和中断

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that ...

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of four mountains within a computer-generated landscape is tested using a delayed match-to-sample paradigm. Allocentric spatial memory is assessed by altering the viewpoint, colors and textures between the initially presented and target images.
Allocentric spatial memory is a key function of the hippocampus, one of the earliest brain regions to be affected in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and impairment of hippocampal function predates the onset of dementia. It was hypothesized that performance on the 4MT would aid the diagnosis of predementia AD, which manifests clinically as Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI).
The 4MT was applied to patients with MCI, stratified further based on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarker status (10 MCI biomarker positive, 9 MCI biomarker negative), and with mild AD dementia, as well as healthy controls. Comparator tests included tests of episodic memory and attention widely accepted as sensitive measures of early AD. Behavioral data were correlated with quantitative MRI measures of the hippocampus, precuneus and posterior cingulate gyrus.
4MT scores were significantly different between the two MCI groups (p = 0.001), with a test score of &#8804;8/15 associated with 100% sensitivity and 78% specificity for the classification of MCI with positive AD biomarkers, i.e., predementia AD. 4MT test scores correlated with hippocampal volume (r = 0.42) and cortical thickness of the precuneus (r = 0.55).
In conclusion, the 4MT is effective in identifying the early stages of AD. The short duration, easy application and scoring, and favorable psychometric properties of the 4MT fulfil the need for a simple but accurate diagnostic test for predementia AD.

This article describes the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a hippocampus-dependent test of working allocentric spatial memory. The hippocampus is affected early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and this article outlines the 4MT methodology and results of patient testing, which demonstrates the value of the 4MT in the diagnosis of pre-dementia AD.

四山测试:空间记忆的一个简短的测试与高灵敏度的预痴呆诊断阿尔茨海默氏病

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

评估儿童工作记忆:儿童综合评估电池 - 工作记忆（CABC-WM）

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

Lexical Decision Task for Studying Written Word Recognition in Adults with and without Dementia or Mild Cognitive Impairment

Older adults are slower at recognizing visual objects than younger adults. The same is true for recognizing that a letter string is a real word. People with Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) or Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) demonstrate even longer responses in written word recognition than elderly controls. Despite the general tendency towards slower recognition in aging and neurocognitive disorders, certain characteristics of words influence word recognition speed regardless of age or neuropathology (e.g., a word&#8217;s frequency of use). We present here a protocol for examining the influence of lexical characteristics on word recognition response times in a simple lexical decision experiment administered to younger and older adults and people with MCI or AD. In this experiment, participants are asked to decide as quickly and accurately as possible whether a given letter string is an actual word or not. We also describe mixed-effects models and principal components analysis that can be used to detect the influence of different types of lexical variables or individual characteristics of participants on word recognition speed.

This article describes how to implement a simple lexical decision experiment to assess written word recognition in neurologically healthy participants and in individuals with dementia and cognitive decline. We also provide a detailed description of reaction time analysis using principal components analysis (PCA) and mixed-effects modeling.

研究成人有无痴呆症或轻度认知障碍的文字识别的词汇决策任务

Older adults are slower at recognizing visual objects than younger adults. The same is true for recognizing that a letter string is a real word. People ...

Highlighting and Reducing the Impact of Negative Aging Stereotypes During Older Adults' Cognitive Testing

As life expectancy increases, aging has become a major health challenge, resulting in a huge effort to better discriminate between normal and pathological cognitive decline. It is thus essential that cognitive tests and their administration are as fair as possible. However, an important source of bias during cognitive testing comes from negative aging stereotypes that can impair the memory performance of older adults and inflate age differences on cognitive tasks. The fear of confirming negative aging stereotypes creates an extra pressure among older adults which interferes with their intellectual functioning and leads them to perform below their true abilities. Here, we present a protocol that highlights simple but efficient interventions to alleviate this age-based stereotype threat effect. The first study showed that simply informing older participants about the presence of younger participants (threat condition) led older adults to underperform on a standardized memory test compared with younger participants, and that this performance difference was eliminated when the test was presented as age-fair (reduced-threat condition). The second study replicated these findings on short cognitive tests used to screen for predementia in clinical settings and showed that teaching older adults about stereotype threat inoculated them against its effects. These results provide useful recommendations about how to improve older adults' memory assessment both in Iab studies and in clinical settings.

Here, we present a protocol designed to show how negative aging stereotypes can impair memory performance of older adults during cognitive testing and how to reduce this deleterious effect. This method can help older people to perform at an optimal level during testing in both lab studies and clinical settings.

在老年人认知测试中突出和减少消极衰老成见的影响

As life expectancy increases, aging has become a major health challenge, resulting in a huge effort to better discriminate between normal and pathological ...

A Computerized Functional Skills Assessment and Training Program Targeting Technology Based Everyday Functional Skills

Today, many functional skills are technology-based, so development of a technology-based training program has broad importance. Here we present a computerized functional skills training program that was paired in half of the participants with a commercially available cognitive training (CCT) program.
Non-impaired older individuals (NC) aged 60+ (n=45) and similarly aged individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI; n=50) were randomized to receive 12 weeks of twice-weekly computerized functional skills training (CFST) or 12 weeks of twice-weekly sessions split between CCT and CFST. Skills trained were use of an ATM; internet banking; ticket kiosk; telephone and internet prescription refill; medication management; and internet shopping. As with previous functional capacity assessments, we focus on completion time for each simulation.
51 participants completed the training program, either by mastering all 6 tasks (34) or completing 12 weeks of training. 44 more participants completed 4 or more training sessions so they were also analyzed for improvement up to their last training session. Completion time for all 6 tests significantly improved from the baseline assessment to the final training session in both groups of participants (all p&#60;0.001 with an average improvement in task completion time of 45%). Further, there was no differential improvement in MCI and NC in the 6 tests from baseline to end of training (all t&#60;1.66, all p&#62;0.12). Finally, combined CCT plus CFST did not differ from CSFT alone on any of the percent-change score measures (all t&#60;1.64, all p&#62;0.11).
Both NC and MCI groups evidenced substantial improvements in performance. CCT supplementation led to similar functional gains with half as many training sessions. The NC participants proceeded through the training fairly rapidly even without CCT supplementation; MCI participants required more training but learned equivalently. These findings suggest that even in cases with memory impairments, functional skills can be efficiently learned with training.

This training protocol uses computerized training to teach technology-related everyday functional skills. These skills include financial skills, travel and transit, as well as medication management.

以基于技术的日常功能技能为目标的计算机化功能技能评估和培训计划

Today, many functional skills are technology-based, so development of a technology-based training program has broad importance. Here we present a ...

医学

Anterograde Amnesia

Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form new memories. This can be distinguished from retrograde amnesia, which is the loss of old memories. Anterograde amnesia can result from damage to structures in the brain that are involved in the formation of new memories. Patients who have damage to the structures of the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and the surrounding cortices, often have severe deficits in the formation of certain kinds of memories. These cases can be informative as to how memory is organized in the brain, and how different systems support different kinds of memories. 
In this video, we will test a patient with medial temporal lobe damage on a series of memory tasks designed to distinguish between different forms of memory. First, we will test short-term or working memory, which is the process we use to keep information in mind temporarily. Next, we will test two different forms of long-term memory: explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memories are conscious and easy to verbalize. For example, memories of facts or episodes from our lives are explicit memories. We can easily tell someone what we ate for breakfast, or what city is the capital of France. Implicit memory involves knowledge we gain from experience but that is not easily expressible. For example, knowing how to do things, or becoming habituated to a stimulus are forms of implicit memory. 
These procedures are based in part on studies of the famous patient Henry Molaison, also known by his initials H.M., who had severe anterograde amnesia as a result of a surgery for intractable epilepsy in which parts of both temporal lobes were resected.1 We will perform a test of digit span, which measures short-term memory, a test of paired-associate learning, which measures explicit or declarative memory, and mirror-drawing, a test of implicit skill learning.2

Testing Short- and Long-term Memories in Patients with Brain Injuries

顺行性遗忘症

Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form ...

教育

JoVE Science Education

心理学

神经心理学

Measuring Verbal Working Memory Span

Source: Laboratory of Jonathan Flombaum&#8212;Johns Hopkins University

Why is it relatively hard to remember everything on a shopping list if it includes more than just a handful of items? Why is it possible to remember a phone number that one just heard, but not two or three phone numbers at once? Why is it difficult to remember names when several new people are introduced at the same time?
The answer has to do with the fact that over short-durations people rely on a specialized memory system called working memory. Unlike long-term memory, working memory has a very limited capacity. It is there so that information can be kept in mind, studied, manipulated, and then transferred to other memory and cognitive systems. But in order to serve in this active role, it needs to be selective, admitting only limited amounts of information at a time.
Experimental psychologists tend to think that people possess independent working memory systems for different kinds of information, with a major division between verbal and visual information. Each of these systems has an independent capacity limit.
To measure a person&#8217;s verbal working memory capacity limit&#8212;often called, his or her memory span&#8212;experimental psychologists often use a verbal list paradigm.
This video will demonstrate the measurement of verbal working memory span using a verbal list paradigm.

测量言语工作记忆广度

Source: Laboratory of Jonathan Flombaum&#8212;Johns Hopkins University

Why is it relatively hard to remember everything on a shopping list if it includes ...