Este trabajo fue apoyado por el NIH subvenciones EY019312 y EY021126 (VJK), EY002687 al Departamento de Oftalmología y Ciencias Visuales de la Universidad de Washington, y por la investigación para prevenir la ceguera.

Todos los protocolos experimentales fueron de acuerdo con la Guía para el Cuidado y Uso de Animales de Laboratorio y fueron aprobados por la Comisión de Estudios de Animales institucional de la Universidad de Washington. 1. Configuración de la perfusión y de muestras <ol><li> Preparar la solución para perfusión retina fresco en el día del experimento. Utilice agua destilada y desionizada. Utilice una de las tres soluciones siguientes. <ol><li> Prepare Bicarbonato que contiene &quot;solución (1 L): 1 botella de Ames Ames medios de comunicación y 1,9 g de NaHCO 3, </li><li> Preparar la solución de Locke (en mM): 112,5 NaCl, 3,6 KCl, 2,4 MgCl 2, 1,2 CaCl 2, 10,0 HEPES, 20,0 NaHCO 3, 3,0 Na succinato, 0,5 Na glutamato, 0,02 EDTA, y 10,0 glucosa, 0,1% de vitaminas MEM y amino ácidos </li><li> Solución de Ringer tamponada con HEPES Preparar (en mM): NaCl 133,3, KCl 3,3, 2,0 MgCl2, 1,0 CaCl 2, 10,0 glucosa, 0,01 EDTA, 12,0 HEPES, pHajustado a 7,5 con ~ 5,8 ml de NaOH 1 M, añadir 0,72 g / L de medio de cultivo Leibovitz L-15. Utilice 20 - 50 M DL-AP4 y 50 - 100 mM BaCl 2 para aislar la respuesta de los fotorreceptores con cualquier medio de perfusión. </li></ol></li><li> Preparar la solución para los electrodos 28 (en mM): NaCl 140,0, KCl 3,6, 2,4 MgCl2, 1,2 CaCl 2, 3, HEPES 0,01 EDTA y ajustar el pH a 7.4 a 7.5 con NaOH. Solución de electrodo se puede almacenar a temperatura ambiente durante varios meses. </li><li> Preparar y poner a prueba el soporte de la muestra. <ol><li> Pegue el papel de filtro negro / gris en la parte superior de las cúpulas de la parte inferior del soporte de la muestra (ver Figura 1 A). Spread de dos componentes 5 min pegamento epoxi cuidadosamente alrededor de los bordes de las tapas planas de las cúpulas. Si es necesario, hacerlo bajo microscopio de disección. </li><li> Espere hasta que el pegamento es casi seco (unos 4 minutos) y pulse el papel de filtro en las cúpulas utilizando un elemento plano. Papel de filtro pegamento al menos un día antes del experimento. Lospapel de filtro se puede utilizar varias veces, pero debe ser reemplazado después de un mes de grabaciones. Utilice etanol al 70% para limpiar cuidadosamente las cúpulas de cualquier residuo de pegamento antes de instalar el papel de sustitución. </li><li> Llenar los canales de electrodos con una solución de electrodo tratando de evitar las burbujas de aire y el tornillo electrodos de pellets cerrados con un adaptador roscado en los canales de los electrodos (ver figuras 1A y B). Conecte las piezas superior e inferior del soporte de la muestra con cuatro tornillos y llenar las líneas de perfusión con solución de electrodo. </li><li> Medir la resistencia y la tensión entre los conductores de cada par de electrodos con un multímetro (Figura 1B). La resistencia debe ser inferior a 100 Ωk y la tensión por debajo de 10 mV si los canales son sin burbujas y los electrodos están en buenas condiciones. </li></ol></li><li> Verter 400 a 700 ml de medio de perfusión en la botella de vidrio. Separar otros 300 ml a utilizar en la disección de las retinas y sla rompió en una nevera. Ajuste el tubo de perfusión en el bloque intercambiador de calor y coloque el bloque precalentado en la placa de calefacción (ver Figura 1D). </li><li> Incluya la botella con una tapa que tiene conexiones a CO 2 / O 2 gas (si se utiliza de Ames o Locke) y para la tubería de perfusión (ver Figura 1D). Precaliente la botella con los medios de comunicación a 37 o C y colocarlo en la placa de calentamiento o en la parte superior de la unidad de estimulación de la luz en el baño de agua a 37-39 ° C 17. <ol><li> Primer de las líneas de perfusión llenándolos de medios de perfusión para iniciar el flujo por gravedad. <ol><li> En el sistema de LKC, colocar la botella en la parte superior de la unidad estimuladora 17 para proporcionar un flujo gravitacional significativo que se ajusta entonces por los reguladores de caudal sin ser afectado por el nivel de reducción de la solución de perfusión en la botella durante el experimento. </li><li> En el sistema Ocuscience, coloque el perfusion botella dentro de la jaula de Faraday con el fin de minimizar el ruido y colocar líneas de salida largo de perfusión desde el portamuestras (véase el paso 2.8) muy por debajo del nivel del soporte de la muestra (y la botella de perfusión) para aumentar la unidad gravitatoria de la solución. Proteja estas líneas de salida y conectar el blindaje a tierra del amplificador para evitar el acoplamiento del ruido electromagnético a la señal de ERG. </li></ol></li></ol></li><li> Ajuste la perfusión de 3-5 ml / min mediante el uso de reguladores de caudal. Conecte 5% de CO 2/95% O 2 gas de un cilindro con regulador adecuado y ajustar el caudal para garantizar burbujeo constante de los medios de comunicación en la botella a través de un difusor de aire. </li></ol> Preparación 2. Muestra <ol><li> Ensamble instrumentos de disección limpias y afiladas incluyendo micro tijeras con filo recto, uno o dos de 45 o pinzas, cuchillas de afeitar y una pieza rectangular de papel de filtro. </li><li> Vierta aproximadamente 200 ml de perfu fríaSion solución en una gran placa de Petri de modo que toda la parte inferior del soporte de muestra (incluyendo las cúpulas) se puede sumergir en la solución. Este paso es importante cuando el montaje de las retinas de las cúpulas (véase el paso 2.6). Aunque algunas soluciones están diseñadas para ser saturado con carbógeno (5% de CO2 / 95% de O 2), esto no es esencial para los fines de disección y no se hizo en los experimentos descritos aquí. </li><li> Para un experimento típico, mantener a los animales en 12/12 horas ciclo de oscuridad / luz y la oscuridad-adaptarlos por 6 - 12 horas antes de las grabaciones. La eutanasia a los animales por inhalación de CO 2 seguido por dislocación cervical bajo tenue luz roja y hacer todos los siguientes procedimientos previstos en luz roja o infrarrojos dim (utilizar por ejemplo, el filtro rojo delante de la fuente de luz del microscopio). <ol><li> Tire de los ojos mediante el uso de pinzas y los puso en los medios de comunicación. Coloque un ojo a la vez en un pequeño pedazo de papel (por ejemplo, un poco de papel de filtro regular) y hacer comoiluminado aproximadamente en el nivel de ora serrata mientras sostiene el ojo con unas pinzas (esto se hace fuera de la solución aquí). </li></ol></li><li> Corte a lo largo de la ora serrata (o más cerca del ecuador del ojo) con micro tijeras y retire la córnea y el cristalino. Coloque el ocular en los medios de frío en la gran placa de Petri y repita el mismo procedimiento con el otro ojo. </li><li> Cortar una pequeña incisión de la parte superior de la copa para el ojo hacia el nervio óptico manteniendo las tijeras entre la retina y la esclerótica con el fin de mantener la retina tan intacto como sea posible. Grip la esclerótica de ambos lados de la incisión mediante el uso de dos pinzas y tire de las pinzas de distancia el uno del otro para separar la retina. <ol><li> Cortar el nervio óptico y tratar de aislar a la retina con una mínima cantidad de contacto físico con la superficie distal. RPE será principalmente separar automáticamente de la retina durante el proceso de disección. Es más importante para evitar la perturbación mecánica de la retina que para realizar ladisección rápidamente, generalmente retinas se puede incubar al menos 30 min en la solución sin efectos significativos sobre las propiedades de respuesta. </li></ol></li><li> Montar las retinas de las cúpulas del portamuestras (Figura 1C). Sumergir la parte inferior del portamuestras en la placa de Petri con las retinas disecadas. Deslizar la retina, lado fotorreceptor (la superficie convexa de la retina aislada) hacia arriba, por encima de la cúpula y levantar el soporte de la muestra de modo que la retina se fija en el papel de filtro. Repita el procedimiento para el otro retina. </li><li> Secar la placa de soporte con cuidado para evitar la diafonía eléctrica entre las retinas así como el ruido y la señal de derivación. Portamuestras tiene juntas tóricas alrededor de la parte inferior cúpulas para evitar derrame de solución entre la parte inferior y superior del soporte, así como para ayudar a la separación galvánica de los fotorreceptores y células ganglionares lados de las retinas individuales. Coloque la parte superior del soporte con los cuatro tornillos (véase la Figura 1B) y llenar los canales de perfusión con solución de perfusión utilizando una jeringa y una aguja. </li><li> Transferir el portamuestras junto al bloque intercambiador de calor y conectar las líneas de entrada y salida de perfusión en el soporte de la muestra (Figura 1D). Conectar los electrodos al amplificador ERG (electrodos superiores conectan al suelo / menos pasador en el amplificador) y adjuntar la unidad estimulador / control en el soporte de la muestra mediante el uso de un adaptador o deslice la almohadilla eléctrica en la unidad estimulador dependiendo de la in vivo se utiliza el sistema ERG. </li></ol> 3. Grabaciones <ol><li> Configure los ajustes del amplificador y de estímulo mediante el uso de software del sistema en vivo. Ajuste la frecuencia de adquisición a un valor entre 1 y 10 kHz y de paso bajo filtrando a 300 Hz. No utilizar el filtrado de paso alto. Utilice 60 Hz (o 50 Hz en Europa) muesca filtro si es necesario. </li><li> La línea de base de registro y sin estimulación de la luz y el ingenioh tenue estimulación (por ejemplo., luz verde de -35 dB o 0,3 mCd sm -2) para probar la buena conexión eléctrica entre los electrodos y muestra de retina. Espere 10 a 20 min antes de iniciar la recogida de datos de manera que la temperatura y la función de la retina llegan a un estado estable. <ol><li> Elija los parámetros de estímulo de acuerdo con cualquier experimento específico y comenzar la recolección de datos. Por ejemplo, utilice la luz verde de -40 hasta 0 dB o de 0,1 hasta 1000 mCd sm -2 para una familia respuesta escotópica. Utilice cerca de 2 a 3 log-unidades más brillantes destellos en grabaciones fotópicas donde las barras tienen que ser suprimida por la luz de fondo (3-30 Cdm -2) o un flash de la sonda (aproximadamente 1,3 Cd sm -2 = 1 dB, ver Figura 3). </li><li> Sin embargo, recuerde que los valores de intensidad de luz exactas podrían ser algo dependiente de la calibración del sistema y de las condiciones experimentales. Como regla general, las intensidades de escala hacia abajo por 5 a 10 veces en comparación con in vivo </em&gt; grabaciones cuando se utiliza luz verde 17. Una cubierta de negro con aberturas por encima de las retinas (incluidos en el sistema de adaptador comercial) se puede utilizar para reducir la dispersión de luz en el soporte de la muestra y facilitar la estimulación homogénea e igualitaria de ambas retinas por la esfera Ganzfeld del comercial en vivo sistemas. NOTA: Para grabaciones de retina adaptada a la oscuridad, las intensidades de destellos de prueba utilizados en un experimento típico blanqueador sólo una fracción insignificante del pigmento de modo que la falta de regeneración RPE-impulsado no es un problema. Además, se ha demostrado previamente que la regeneración pigmento cono todavía puede tener lugar en la retina aislado a través del ciclo celular Müller visual 20. </li></ol></li><li> Como experimentos duran típicamente de 30 min hasta varias horas, controlar la deriva de la línea de base, nivel de ruido y la estabilidad de respuesta durante el experimento como cambios en estos podrían indicar problemas técnicos. NOTA: El aumento o disminución de ruidoamplitudes de respuesta d pueden indicar burbujas de aire en los canales de perfusión o electrodos, demasiado baja o alta temperatura, solución de fugas / derrames o desplazamiento de la retina. </li></ol> 4. Limpieza <ol><li> Separe el soporte de la muestra de las líneas de perfusión, abrirla y vaciar las retinas del papel de filtro. Retire los electrodos y enjuague con agua destilada (no utilizar etanol). Limpiar el soporte de la muestra (incluyendo los canales de perfusión) con etanol y / o agua destilada. Tubo de perfusión Flush cuidadosamente etanol con&gt; 70%. </li><li> Enjuague la botella de perfusión con agua destilada (no usar detergentes). El etanol puede ser también utilizado para limpiar la botella. </li></ol>

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N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=UV-+and+midwave-sensitive+cone-driven+retinal+responses+of+the+mouse:+a+possible+phenotype+for+coexpression+of+cone+photopigments.">UV- and midwave-sensitive cone-driven retinal responses of the mouse: a possible phenotype for coexpression of cone photopigments.</a> J. Neurosci. 19, 442-455 (1999).</li><li>Lyubarsky, A. L., Daniele, L. L., Pugh, E. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=From+candelas+to+photoisomerizations+in+the+mouse+eye+by+rhodopsin+bleaching+in+situ+and+the+light-rearing+dependence+of+the+major+components+of+the+mouse+ERG.">From candelas to photoisomerizations in the mouse eye by rhodopsin bleaching in situ and the light-rearing dependence of the major components of the mouse ERG.</a> Vision Res. 44, 3235-3251 (2004).</li><li>Azevedo, A. W., Rieke, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+protocols+alter+phototransduction:+the+implications+for+retinal+processing+at+visual+threshold.">Experimental protocols alter phototransduction: the implications for retinal processing at visual threshold.</a> J. Neurosci. 31, 3670-3682 (2011).</li><li>Carter-Dawson, L. D., LaVail, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rods+and+cones+in+the+mouse+retina.+I.+Structural+analysis+using+light+and+electron+microscopy.">Rods and cones in the mouse retina. I. Structural analysis using light and electron microscopy.</a> J. Comp. Neurol. 188, 245-262 (1979).</li><li>Fain, G. L., Matthews, H. R., Cornwall, M. C., Koutalos, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adaptation+in+vertebrate+photoreceptors.">Adaptation in vertebrate photoreceptors.</a> Physiol. Rev. 81, 117-151 (2001).</li><li>Calvert, P. D., Strissel, K. J., Schiesser, W. E., Pugh, E. N., Arshavsky, V. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-driven+translocation+of+signaling+proteins+in+vertebrate+photoreceptors.">Light-driven translocation of signaling proteins in vertebrate photoreceptors.</a> Trends Cell Biol. 16, 560-568 (2006).</li><li>Schneeweis, D. M., Schnapf, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+photovoltage+of+macaque+cone+photoreceptors:+adaptation,+noise,+and+kinetics.">The photovoltage of macaque cone photoreceptors: adaptation, noise, and kinetics.</a> J. Neurosci. 19, 1203-1216 (1999).</li><li>Heikkinen, H., Vinberg, F., Nymark, S., Koskelainen, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mesopic+background+lights+enhance+dark-adapted+cone+ERG+flash+responses+in+the+intact+mouse+retina:+a+possible+role+for+gap+junctional+decoupling.">Mesopic background lights enhance dark-adapted cone ERG flash responses in the intact mouse retina: a possible role for gap junctional decoupling.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 105, 2309-2318 (2011).</li><li>Gouras, P., MacKay, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+in+amplitude+of+the+human+cone+electroretinogram+with+light+adaptation.">Growth in amplitude of the human cone electroretinogram with light adaptation.</a> Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 30, 625-630 (1989).</li><li>Peachey, N. S., Goto, Y., al-Ubaidi, M. R., Naash, M. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Properties+of+the+mouse+cone-mediated+electroretinogram+during+light+adaptation.">Properties of the mouse cone-mediated electroretinogram during light adaptation.</a> Neurosci. Lett. 162, 9-11 (1993).</li></ol>

Universidad de Washington en St. Louis tiene un acuerdo de licencia con Xenotec, Inc. y puede recibir una regalía por la venta del adaptador ex vivo.

<html> Estamos aquí demostrar los pasos críticos para la obtención de alta calidad ex grabaciones ERG vivo simultáneamente desde dos retinas de ratones aislados mediante el uso de componentes en vivo del sistema ERG, junto con un adaptador ex vivo ERG. En este estudio se perfundidos ambas retinas del animal con la misma solución (ya sea Ames &#39;, Locke o de Ringer), pero también es posible para perfundir cada retina con una solución diferente, por ejemplo, para fines ...

Electrorretinograma (ERG) es una técnica bien establecida que puede utilizarse para registrar la actividad eléctrica de la retina provocado por la luz. La señal de ERG se genera principalmente por cambios de voltaje causadas por las corrientes radiales (a lo largo del eje de los fotorreceptores y células bipolares) que fluye en el espacio extracelular resistiva de la retina. La primera señal de ERG fue grabado en 1865 por Holmgren desde la superficie de un ojo de pez 1. Einthoven y Jolly 1908 2 dividen la respuesta ERG a la aparición de la luz en tres ondas diferentes, llamado a-, b-, y c-ondas, que ahora se conoce para reflejar principalmente la actividad de los fotorreceptores, células bipolares EN, y el epitelio de pigmento células, respectivamente 3-8. ERG se puede grabar desde los ojos de animales o humanos (in vivo) anestesiados, desde aislada preparación ojo 9, a través de la retina intacta aislada (ex vivo) 3,10-15 oa través de las capas de la retina específicas con microelectrodos (localERG) 4,16. De estos, in vivo ERG es actualmente el método más utilizado para evaluar la función de la retina. Es una técnica no invasiva que se puede utilizar con fines de diagnóstico o para seguir la progresión de enfermedades de la retina en animales o pacientes. Sin embargo, en vivo grabaciones ERG producen una señal compleja con varios componentes superpuestos, a menudo contaminados por el ruido extraoculares fisiológico (por ejemplo, la respiración y la actividad cardíaca). ERG local se puede utilizar para grabar la señal a través de capas específicas de la retina, pero es el más invasivo y tiene la relación más baja de señal a ruido (SNR) en comparación con las otras configuraciones de grabación de ERG. ERG local también es técnicamente exigente y requiere equipos costosos (por ejemplo, microscopio y micromanipuladores). Transretinal ERG de la intacto, aislado retina (ex vivo ERG) ofrece un compromiso entre in vivo y métodos locales ERG permitiendo estable y higgrabaciones h SNR de retinas intactas de animales o seres humanos 17. Recientemente, este método ha sido utilizado con éxito para estudiar varilla y fotorreceptor cono función en retinas de mamíferos, primates y humanos 18-20. Además, debido a la ausencia de epitelio pigmentario de la retina ex vivo, se retira el componente de la onda c positivo de la señal de ERG y un componente prominente PIII lento negativo se revela en las grabaciones ex vivo. El componente lento PIII se ha demostrado que proceden de la actividad de las células gliales de Müller en la retina 21-23. Por lo tanto, ex vivo ERG método también podría ser usado para estudiar las células de Müller en la retina intacta. Varios estudios también han demostrado que los ex vivo grabaciones ERG se podrían utilizar para medir la concentración de agentes farmacológicos alrededor de la retina 24 y probar la seguridad y eficacia de los fármacos 25-27. Comercial múltiple en sistemas in vivo están disponibles yutilizado en muchos laboratorios que no necesariamente tienen amplia experiencia electrofisiología. En contraste, los dispositivos ex vivo no han estado disponibles hasta hace poco 17 y como resultado sólo muy pocos laboratorios están tomando actualmente ventaja de esta técnica de gran alcance. Sería beneficioso para hacer grabaciones ex vivo ERG a disposición de más laboratorios con el fin de avanzar en nuestro conocimiento sobre la fisiología de la retina y la patología, y desarrollar nuevas terapias para enfermedades que causan ceguera. Se demuestra aquí una sencilla y asequible dispositivo ex vivo ERG 17 y mostrar cómo se puede utilizar en combinación con varios sistemas vivo ERG disponibles en el mercado para grabar en la señalización de varilla y el cono mediada (a- y b-ondas) y la función de las células de Müller (lento PIII) desde intactas las retinas de ratones de tipo salvaje.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>In vivo ERG system</td>
			<td>OcuScience</td>
			<td>HMsERG</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.ocuscience.us/id77.html">www.ocuscience.us/id77.html</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>In vivo ERG system</td>
			<td>LKC Technologies</td>
			<td>UTAS-E 3000</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.lkc.com/products/UTAS/bigshot.html">www.lkc.com/products/UTAS/bigshot.html</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ex vivo adapter</td>
			<td>OcuScience</td>
			<td>Ex VIVO ERG adapter</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.ocuscience.us/id107.html">www.ocuscience.us/id107.html</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection microscope</td>
			<td>North Central Instruments</td>
			<td>Leica M80</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.ncimicro.com/store/ListProduct.asp?bSub=T&amp;idCategory=27">May use any brand</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IR emitter</td>
			<td>Opto Diode Corp.</td>
			<td>OD-50L</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.optodiode.com/">www.optodiode.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prowler Night Vision Scopes</td>
			<td>B.E. Meyers Electro Optics</td>
			<td>D4300-I</td>
			<td>Military grade product.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Red filter</td>
			<td>Rosco Laboratories</td>
			<td>Roscolux #27 Medium Red</td>
			<td>May be used instead of IR system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Red head light</td>
			<td>OcuScience</td>
			<td>ERGX011</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.ocuscience.us/catalog/i29.html">www.ocuscience.us/catalog/i29.html</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscissors</td>
			<td>WPI, Inc.</td>
			<td>500086</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.wpiinc.com/">www.wpiinc.com/</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont tweezers #5</td>
			<td>WPI, Inc.</td>
			<td>14101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor blades</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>72000</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.emsdiasum.com/">www.emsdiasum.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scale</td>
			<td>Metler Toledo</td>
			<td>AB54-S/FACT</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/">May use any brand</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH meter and electrode</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>pHI 350</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/">May use any brand</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>60129</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/">May use any brand</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>63020</td>
			<td>1.0 M solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>21114</td>
			<td>1.0 M solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>431788</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S6297</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ames medium</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A1420</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BaCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>B0750</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DL-AP4</td>
			<td>Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td>101</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Succinic acid disodium salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>224731</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Glutamic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G2834</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-(+)-Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7528</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leibovitz culture medium L-15</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L4386</td>
			<td>May use any brand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEM vitamins</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M6895</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEM amino acids</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M5550</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbogen</td>
			<td>Airgas</td>
			<td>UN3156</td>
			<td>5% CO2</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

simultaneous ex vivo functional testing of two retinas by in vivo electroretinogram system

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Se registraron las respuestas de flash de tipo salvaje adaptada a la oscuridad (WT) C57BL / 6 retinas de ratones siguiendo los protocolos experimentales descritos anteriormente e ilustrados en la Figura 1 mediante el uso de diferentes soluciones de perfusión estándar (Figura 2). Las formas de onda y la cinética de respuesta, así como la sensibilidad de los fotorreceptores de varilla parecían similares en Ames y los medios de Locke (Figura 2A y B). ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System at JoVE.com

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

Simultáneo<em&gt; Ex vivo</em&gt; Pruebas funcionales de dos retinas por<em&gt; In vivo</em&gt; Sistema Electrorretinograma

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

simultaneous-ex-vivo-functional-testing-two-retinas-vivo

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

9.0K vistas.  Washington University in St. Louis. Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

Video: Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural connectivity form during development. In mice, retinofugal projections are arranged in a topographic manner and form eye-specific layers in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (dLGN) of the thalamus and the Superior Colliculus (SC). The development of these precise patterns of retinofugal projections has typically been studied by labeling populations of RGCs with fluorescent dyes and tracers, such as horseradish peroxidase1-4. However, these methods are too coarse to provide insight into developmental changes in individual RGC axonal arbor morphology that are the basis of retinotopic map formation. They also do not allow for the genetic manipulation of RGCs.
Recently, electroporation has become an effective method for providing precise spatial and temporal control for delivery of charged molecules into the retina5-11. Current retinal electroporation protocols do not allow for genetic manipulation and tracing of retinofugal projections of a single or small cluster of RGCs in postnatal mice. It has been argued that postnatal in vivo electroporation is not a viable method for transfecting RGCs since the labeling efficiency is extremely low and hence requires targeting at embryonic ages when RGC progenitors are undergoing differentiation and proliferation6. 
In this video we describe an in vivo electroporation protocol for targeted delivery of genes, shRNA, and fluorescent dextrans to murine RGCs postnatally. This technique provides a cost effective, fast and relatively easy platform for efficient screening of candidate genes involved in several aspects of neural development including axon retraction, branching, lamination, regeneration and synapse formation at various stages of circuit development. In summary we describe here a valuable tool which will provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying sensory map development.

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

We demonstrate an in vivo electroporation protocol for transfecting single or small clusters of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and other retinal cell types in postnatal mice over a wide range of ages. The ability to label and genetically manipulate postnatal RGCs in vivo is a powerful tool for developmental studies.

La transfección de células de ratón del ganglio de la retina por In vivo La electroporación

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

Neuroimagen Funcional Utilizando ultrasonidos hematoencefálica perturbación de la barrera y la RM-manganeso mayor

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

Nerve endings in skin are involved in physiological processes such as sensing1 as well as in pathological processes such as neuropathic pain2. Their close-to-surface positioning facilitates microscopic imaging of skin nerve endings in living intact animal. Using multiphoton microscopy, it is possible to obtain fine images overcoming the problem of strong light scattering of the skin tissue. Reporter transgenic mice that express EYFP under the control of Thy-1 promoter in neurons (including periphery sensory neurons) are well suited for the longitudinal studies of individual nerve endings over extended periods of time up to several months or even life-long. Furthermore, using the same femtosecond laser as for the imaging, it is possible to produce highly selective lesions of nerve fibers for the studies of the nerve fiber restructuring. Here, we present a simple and reliable protocol for longitudinal multiphoton in vivo imaging and laser-based microsurgery on mouse skin nerve endings.

In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

The protocol for dynamic longitudinal imaging and selective laser lesion of nerve endings in reporter transgenic mice is presented.&#160;

En Vivo De dos fotones microscopía de terminaciones nerviosas individuales en la piel

Nerve endings in skin are involved in physiological processes such as sensing1 as well as in pathological processes such as neuropathic pain2. Their ...

In vivo Interrogation of Central Nervous System Translatome by Polyribosome Fractionation

Multiple processes are involved in gene expression including transcription, translation and stability of mRNAs and proteins. Each of these steps are tightly regulated, affecting the final dynamics of protein abundance. Various regulatory mechanisms exist at the translation step, rendering mRNA levels alone an unreliable indicator of gene expression. In addition, local regulation of mRNA translation has been particularly implicated in neuronal functions, shifting &#39;translatomics&#39; to the focus of attention in neurobiology. The presented method can be used to bridge transcriptomics and proteomics.
Here we describe essential modifications to the technique of polyribosome fractionation, which interrogates the translatome based on the association of actively translated mRNAs to multiple ribosomes and their differential sedimentation in sucrose gradients. Traditionally, working with in vivo samples, particularly of the central nervous system (CNS), has proven challenging due to the restricted amounts of material and the presence of fatty tissue components. In order to address this, the described protocol is specifically optimized for use with minimal amount of CNS material, as demonstrated by the use of single mouse spinal cord and brain. Briefly, CNS tissues are extracted and translating ribosomes are immobilized on mRNAs with cycloheximide. Myelin flotation is then performed to remove lipid rich components. Fractionation is performed on a sucrose gradient where mRNAs are separated according to their ribosomal loading. Isolated fractions are suitable for a range of downstream assays, including new genome wide assay technologies.

In vivo Interrogation of Central Nervous System Translatome by Polyribosome Fractionation

This protocol illustrates essential modifications of polyribosome fractionation in order to study the translatome of in vivo CNS samples. It allows global assessment of translation and transcription regulation through the isolation and comparison of total RNA to ribosome bound RNA fractions.

En Interrogatorio vivo del Sistema Nervioso Central Translatome por Polyribosome Fraccionamiento

Multiple processes are involved in gene expression including transcription, translation and stability of mRNAs and proteins. Each of these steps are ...

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first neural circuit in the AOS pathway, called the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), plays an important role in establishing sex-typical behaviors such as territorial aggression and mating. This small (&#60;1 mm3) circuit possesses the capacity to distinguish unique behavioral states, such as sex, strain, and stress from chemosensory cues in the secretions and excretions of conspecifics. While the compact organization of this system presents unique opportunities for recording from large portions of the circuit simultaneously, investigation of sensory processing in the AOB remains challenging, largely due to its experimentally disadvantageous location in the brain. Here, we demonstrate a multi-stage dissection that removes the intact AOB inside a single hemisphere of the anterior mouse skull, leaving connections to both the peripheral vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) and local neuronal circuitry intact. The procedure exposes the AOB surface to direct visual inspection, facilitating electrophysiological and optical recordings from AOB circuit elements in the absence of anesthetics. Upon inserting a thin cannula into the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which houses the VSNs, one can directly expose the periphery to social odors and pheromones while recording downstream activity in the AOB. This procedure enables controlled inquiries into AOS information processing, which can shed light on mechanisms linking pheromone exposure to changes in behavior.

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) has been difficult to study in the context of sensory coding. Here, we demonstrate a dissection that produces an ex vivo preparation in which AOB neurons remain functionally connected to their peripheral inputs, facilitating research into information processing of mouse pheromones and kairomones.

Ex vivo la Producción de la Bombilla órgano vomeronasal y accesorios olfativa Intacto

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first ...

Simultaneous Two-photon In Vivo Imaging of Synaptic Inputs and Postsynaptic Targets in the Mouse Retrosplenial Cortex

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in the mouse retrosplenial cortex (RSC) using in vivo two-photon microscopy in Thy1-GFP transgenic mouse line. This approach creates a possibility to investigate the correlation of behavioural manipulations with changes in neuronal morphology in vivo.
The cranial window implantation procedure was considered to be limited only to the easily accessible cortex regions such as the barrel field. Our approach allows visualization of neurons in the highly vascularized RSC. RSC is an important element of the brain circuit responsible for spatial memory, previously deemed to be problematic for in vivo two-photon imaging.
The cranial window implantation over the RSC is combined with an injection of mCherry-expressing recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAVmCherry) into the dorsal hippocampus. The expressed mCherry spreads out to axonal projections from the hippocampus to RSC, enabling the visualization of changes in both presynaptic axonal boutons and postsynaptic dendritic spines in the cortex. 
This technique allows long-term monitoring of experience-dependent structural plasticity in RSC.

Simultaneous Two-photon In Vivo Imaging of Synaptic Inputs and Postsynaptic Targets in the Mouse Retrosplenial Cortex

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in mouse retrosplenial cortex using in vivo two photon microscopy in Thy1-GFP transgenic line. This approach is combined with injection of mCherry-expressing adeno-associated virus into dorsal hippocampus. These techniques allow long-term monitoring of experience-dependent structural plasticity in RSC.

Simultánea de dos fotones<em&gt; En Vivo</em&gt; Imágenes de entradas sinápticas y Objetivos postsinápticos en la corteza del ratón retroesplenial

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in the mouse retrosplenial cortex (RSC) using in vivo two-photon ...

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Optogenetic approaches are now widely used to study the function of neural populations and circuits by combining targeted expression of light-activated proteins and subsequent manipulation of neural activity by light. Channelrhodopsins (ChRs) are light-gated cation-channels and when fused to a fluorescent protein their expression allows for visualization and concurrent activation of specific cell types and their axonal projections in defined areas of the brain. Via stereotactic injection of viral vectors, ChR fusion proteins can be constitutively or conditionally expressed in specific cells of a defined brain region, and their axonal projections can subsequently be studied anatomically and functionally via ex vivo optogenetic activation in brain slices. This is of particular importance when aiming to understand synaptic properties of connections that could not be addressed with conventional electrical stimulation approaches, or in identifying novel afferent and efferent connectivity that was previously poorly understood. Here, a few examples illustrate how this technique can be applied to investigate these questions to elucidating fear-related circuits in the amygdala. The amygdala is a key region for acquisition and expression of fear, and storage of fear and emotional memories. Many lines of evidence suggest that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) participates in different aspects of fear acquisition and extinction, but its precise connectivity with the amygdala is just starting to be understood. First, it is shown how ex vivo optogenetic activation can be used to study aspects of synaptic communication between mPFC afferents and target cells in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Furthermore, it is illustrated how this ex vivo optogenetic approach can be applied to assess novel connectivity patterns using a group of GABAergic neurons in the amygdala, the paracapsular intercalated cell cluster (mpITC), as an example.

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Optogenetic approaches are widely used to manipulate neural activity and assess the consequences for brain function. Here, a technique is outlined that&#160;upon in vivo expression of the optical activator Channelrhodopsin, allows for ex vivo analysis of synaptic properties of specific long range and local neural connections in fear-related circuits.

Ex Vivo Optogenética Disección de circuitos del miedo en rodajas de cerebro

Optogenetic approaches are now widely used to study the function of neural populations and circuits by combining targeted expression of light-activated ...

Ex Vivo Pressurized Hippocampal Capillary-Parenchymal Arteriole Preparation for Functional Study

From subtle behavioral alterations to late-stage dementia, vascular cognitive impairment typically develops following cerebral ischemia. Stroke and cardiac arrest are remarkably sexually dimorphic diseases, and both induce cerebral ischemia. However, progress in understanding the vascular cognitive impairment, and then developing sex-specific treatments, has been partly limited by challenges in investigating the brain microcirculation from mouse models in functional studies. Here, we present an approach to examine the capillary-to-arteriole signaling in an ex vivo hippocampal capillary-parenchymal arteriole (HiCaPA) preparation from mouse brain. We describe how to isolate, cannulate, and pressurize the microcirculation to measure arteriolar diameter in response to capillary stimulation. We show which appropriate functional controls can be used to validate the HiCaPA preparation integrity and display typical results, including testing potassium as a neurovascular coupling agent and the effect of the recently characterized inhibitor of the Kir2 inward rectifying potassium channel family, ML133. Further, we compare the responses in preparations obtained from male and female mice. While these data reflect functional investigations, our approach can also be used in molecular biology, immunochemistry, and electrophysiology studies.

The present manuscript details how to isolate hippocampal arterioles and capillaries from the mouse brain and how to pressurize them for pressure myography, immunofluorescence, biochemistry, and molecular studies.

Ex Vivo Presurizado Hippocampal Capillary-Parenchymal Arteriole Preparación para Estudio Funcional

From subtle behavioral alterations to late-stage dementia, vascular cognitive impairment typically develops following cerebral ischemia. Stroke and ...

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent and cause visual impairment and blindness. Understanding how such diseases progress is critical to formulating new treatments. In vivo&#160;microscopy in animal models of disease is a powerful tool for understanding neurodegeneration and has led to important progress towards treatments of conditions ranging from Alzheimer&#39;s disease to stroke. Given that the retina is the only central nervous system structure inherently accessible by optical approaches, it naturally lends itself towards in vivo imaging. However, the native optics of the lens and cornea present some challenges for effective imaging access.
This protocol outlines methods for in vivo two-photon imaging of cellular cohorts and structures in the mouse retina at cellular resolution, applicable for both acute- and chronic-duration imaging experiments. It presents examples of retinal ganglion cell (RGC), amacrine cell, microglial, and vascular imaging using a suite of labeling techniques including adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, transgenic mice, and inorganic dyes. Importantly, these techniques extend to all cell types of the retina, and suggested methods for accessing other cellular populations of interest are described. Also detailed are example strategies for manual image postprocessing for display and quantification. These techniques are directly applicable to studies of retinal function in health and disease.

In vivo imaging is a powerful tool for the study of biology in health and disease. This protocol describes transpupillary imaging of the mouse retina with a standard two-photon microscope. It also demonstrates different in vivoimaging methods to fluorescently label multiple cellular cohorts of the retina.

Imágenes transpupilares de dos fotones in vivo de la retina del ratón

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent ...

Optimizing the Setup and Conditions for Ex Vivo Electroretinogram to Study Retina Function in Small and Large Eyes

Measurements of retinal neuronal light responses are critical to investigating the physiology of the healthy retina, determining pathological changes in retinal diseases, and testing therapeutic interventions. The ex vivo electroretinogram (ERG) allows the quantification of contributions from individual cell types in the isolated retina by addition of specific pharmacological agents and evaluation of tissue-intrinsic changes independently of systemic influences. Retinal light responses can be measured using a specialized ex vivo ERG specimen holder and recording setup, modified from existing patch clamp or microelectrode array equipment. Particularly, the study of ON-bipolar cells, but also of photoreceptors, has been hampered by the slow but progressive decline of light responses in the ex vivo ERG over time. Increased perfusion speed and adjustment of the perfusate temperature improve ex vivo retinal function and maximize response amplitude and stability. The ex vivo ERG uniquely allows the study of individual retinal neuronal cell types. In addition, improvements to maximize response amplitudes and stability allow the investigation of light responses in retina samples from large animals, as well as human donor eyes, making the ex vivo ERG a valuable addition to the repertoire of techniques used to investigate retinal function.

Optimizing the Setup and Conditions for Ex Vivo Electroretinogram to Study Retina Function in Small and Large Eyes

Modification of existing multielectrode array or patch clamp equipment makes the ex vivo electroretinogram more widely accessible. Improved methods to record and maintain ex vivo light responses facilitate the study of photoreceptor and ON-bipolar cell function in the healthy retina, animal models of eye diseases, and human donor retinas.

Optimización de la configuración y las condiciones del electrorretinograma ex vivo para estudiar la función de la retina en ojos pequeños y grandes

Measurements of retinal neuronal light responses are critical to investigating the physiology of the healthy retina, determining pathological changes in ...

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