This work was supported by the COST action &#8216;Molecular pharming: Plants as a production platform for high-value proteins&#8217; FA0804. The Authors thank Dr Anatoli Giritch and Prof. Yuri Gleba for providing the MagnICON vectors for research purposes.

<ol>
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The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.

Dans cette étude, trois modes différents ont été comparés pour l&#39;expression d&#39;une protéine recombinante humaine: des cellules bactériennes, des cellules de baculovirus / insectes et de plantes. La plate-forme à base de plantes a été étudiée plus en exploitant trois technologies d&#39;expression largement utilisés (c.-à-transitoire - MagnICON et pK7WG2 base - et stables). La protéine cible choisie pour cette expérience, hGAD65mut, a déjà été exprimé dans différents systèmes 13...

Recombinant proteins are commercially mass-produced in heterologous expression systems with the aid of emerging biotechnology tools. Key factors that have to be considered when choosing the heterologous expression system include: protein quality, functionality, process speed, yield and cost.
In the recombinant protein field, the market for pharmaceuticals is expanding rapidly and, consequently, most biopharmaceuticals produced today are recombinant. Proteins can be expressed in cell cultures of bacteria, yeasts, molds, mammals, plants and insects, as well as in plant systems (either via stable- or transient-transformation) and transgenic animals; each expression system has its inherent advantages and limitations and for each target recombinant protein the optimal production system has to be carefully evaluated.
Plant-based platforms are arising as an important alternative to traditional fermenter-based systems for safe and cost-effective recombinant protein production. Although downstream processing costs are comparable to those of microbial and mammalian cells, the lower up-front investment required for commercial production in plants and the potential economy of scale, provided by cultivation over large areas, are key advantages.
We evaluated plants as bioreactors for the expression of the 65 kDa isoform of human glutamic acid decarboxylase (hGAD65), one of the major autoantigen in Type 1 autoimmune diabetes (T1D). hGAD65 is largely adopted as a marker, both for classifying and monitoring the progression of the disease and its role in T1D prevention is currently under investigation in clinical trials. If these trials are successful, the global demand for recombinant hGAD65 will increase dramatically.
Here, we focus on the expression of the enzymatically inactive counterpart of hGAD65, hGAD65mut, a mutant generated by substituting the lysine residue that binds the cofactor PLP (pyridoxal-5'-phosphate) with an arginine residue (K396R)1. 
hGAD65mut retains its immunogenicity and, in plant and insect cells, accumulates up to ten-fold higher than hGAD65, its wild-type counterpart. It was hypothesized that the enzymatic activity of hGAD65 interferes with plant cell metabolism to such an extent that it suppresses its own synthesis, whereas hGAD65mut, the enzymatically-inactive form, can be accumulated in plant cells to higher levels.
For the expression of hGAD65mut, the use of different technologies, widely used in plant biotechnology, was explored here and compared to traditional expression platforms (Escherichia coli and Baculovirus/insect cell-based).
In this work, the recombinant platforms developed for the expression of hGAD65mut comprising traditional and plant-based systems were reviewed and compared on the basis of process speed and yield, and of final product quality and functionality.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="667">
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		<tr height="40">
			<td dir="LTR" height="40" style="height:40px;width:191px;">SDS (Sodium dodecyl sulphate)</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">L3771</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:223px;">Flammable, toxic, corrosive &#8211; 10% stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td dir="LTR" height="20" style="height:20px;width:191px;">Glycerol</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">G5516</td>
			<td style="width:223px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td dir="LTR" height="20" style="height:20px;width:191px;">Brilliant Blue R-250</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">B7920</td>
			<td style="width:223px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td dir="LTR" height="20" style="height:20px;width:191px;">Isopropanol</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">24137</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:223px;">Flammable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td dir="LTR" height="20" style="height:20px;width:191px;">Acetic acid</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">27221</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:223px;">Corrosive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td dir="LTR" height="40" style="height:40px;width:191px;">Anti-Glutamic acid decarboxylase 65/67</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">G5163</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:223px;">Do not freeze/thaw too many times</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td dir="LTR" height="60" style="height:60px;width:191px;">Horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugate anti-rabbit antibody</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">A6154</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:223px;">Do not freeze/thaw too many times</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td dir="LTR" height="40" style="height:40px;width:191px;">Sf9 Cells</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">11496</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:223px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td dir="LTR" height="40" style="height:40px;width:191px;">BL21 Competent E.coli</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:111px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:143px;">C2530H</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:223px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:191px;">Protein A Sepharose</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">P2545</td>
			<td style="width:223px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:191px;">Cell culture plates&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">CLS3516</td>
			<td style="width:223px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Radio Immuno Assay kit</td>
			<td>Techno Genetics</td>
			<td>12650805</td>
			<td style="width:223px;">Radioactive material&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a comparative analysis of recombinant protein expression in different biofactories: bacteria, insect cells and plant systems

Systèmes à base de plantes sont considérées comme une plate-forme précieuse pour la production de protéines recombinantes en raison de leur potentiel bien documenté pour la production à faible coût flexible de haute qualité, produits bioactifs. Dans cette étude, nous avons comparé l&#39;expression d&#39;une protéine cible recombinante humaine dans les cultures traditionnelles à base de fermentation de cellules (bactériennes et d&#39;insectes) avec les systèmes d&#39;expression à base de plantes, à la fois transitoires et stables. Pour chaque plate-forme, nous avons décrit la mise en place, l&#39;optimisation et la longueur du processus de production, la qualité du produit final et les rendements et nous avons évalué les coûts de production provisoires, spécifiques de la protéine recombinante cible sélectionnée. Dans l&#39;ensemble, nos résultats indiquent que les bactéries ne sont pas appropriés pour la production de la protéine cible en raison de son accumulation dans les corps d&#39;inclusion insolubles. D&#39;autre part, les systèmes à base de plantes sont des plateformes polyvalentes tchapeau permet la production de la protéine choisie à plus faibles que les coûts-baculovirus / système de cellule d&#39;insecte. En particulier, les lignées transgéniques stables affichent le plus haut rendement du produit final et transitoires plantes exprimant le processus de développement plus rapide. Cependant, toutes les protéines recombinantes peuvent bénéficier de systèmes à base de plantes, mais la meilleure plate-forme de production devraient être déterminées empiriquement avec une approche au cas par cas, comme décrit ici.

Un modèle expérimental pour l&#39;expression hétérologue d&#39;une protéine recombinante cible dans différents systèmes de production est décrite ici. Le premier objectif était la mise en place des différentes plates-formes mettant en place les conditions optimales pour l&#39;expression de la protéine cible dans chaque système. L&#39;expression de la protéine cible, hGAD65mut, a été induite en triple E. coli cultures. A la suite de l&#39;expression 3 h à 37 ° C, les...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Comparative Analysis of Recombinant Protein Expression in Different Biofactories: Bacteria, Insect Cells and Plant Systems at JoVE.com

A Comparative Analysis of Recombinant Protein Expression in Different Biofactories: Bacteria, Insect Cells and Plant Systems | Biology | Video

A Comparative Analysis of Recombinant Protein Expression in Different Biofactories: Bacteria, Insect Cells and Plant Systems

In this study the expression of a target human recombinant protein in different production platforms was compared. We focused on traditional fermenter-based cultures and on plants, describing the set-up of each system and highlighting, on the basis of the reported results, the inherent limits and advantages for each platform.

Une analyse comparative des recombinant expression des protéines dans différents bio-usines: bactéries, cellules d&#39;insectes et Plant Systems

Plant-based systems are considered a valuable platform for the production of recombinant proteins as a result of their well-documented potential for the ...

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23.2K vues.  University of Verona, Verona, Italy. In this study the expression of a target human recombinant protein in different production platforms was compared. We focused on traditional fermenter-based cultures and on plants, describing the set-up of each system and highlighting, on the basis of the reported results, the inherent limits and advantages for each platform.

Vidéo: A Comparative Analysis of Recombinant Protein Expression in Different Biofactories: Bacteria, Insect Cells and Plant Systems

A Method For Production of Recombinant mCD1d Protein in Insect Cells.

CD1 proteins constitute a third class of antigen-presenting molecules. They are cell surface glycoproteins, expressed as approximately 50-kDa glycosylated heavy chains that are noncovalently associated with beta2-microglobulin. They bind lipids rather than peptides. Although their structure confirms the similarity of CD1 proteins to MHC class I and class II antigen presenting molecules, the mCD1d groove is relatively narrow, deep, and highly hydrophobic and it has two binding pockets instead of the several shallow pockets described for the classical MHC-encoded antigen-presenting molecules. Based upon their amino acid sequences, such a hydrobphobic groove provides an ideal environment for the binding of lipid antigens. The Natural Killer T (NKT) cells use their TCR to recognize glycolipids bound to or presented by CD1d. T cells reactive to lipids presented by CD1 have been involved in the protection against autoimmune and infectious diseases and in tumor rejection. Thus, the ability to identify, purify , and track the response of CD1-reactive NKT cell is of great importance . The generation of tetramers of alpha Galactosyl ceramide (a-Galcer) with CD1d has significant insight into the biology of NKT cells. Tetramers constructed from other CD1 molecules have also been generated and these new reagents have greatly expanded the knowledge of the functions of lipid-reactive T cells, with potential use in monitoring the response to lipid-based vaccines and in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and other treatments.

A Method to prepare Insect cells and infect them with baculovirus for the the purpose of production of recombinant mCD1d proteinand generating mCD1d tetramers.

Un procédé de production de protéine recombinante mCD1d en cellules d&#39;insectes.

CD1 proteins constitute a third class of antigen-presenting molecules. They are cell surface glycoproteins, expressed as approximately 50-kDa glycosylated ...

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Biologie

Staining of Proteins in Gels with Coomassie G-250 without Organic Solvent and Acetic Acid

In classical protein staining protocols using Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB), solutions with high contents of toxic and flammable organic solvents (Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol) and acetic acid are used for fixation, staining and destaining of proteins in a gel after SDS-PAGE. To speed up the procedure, heating the staining solution in the microwave oven for a short time is frequently used. This usually results in evaporation of toxic or hazardous Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol and a strong smell of acetic acid in the lab which should be avoided due to safety considerations. In a protocol originally published in two patent applications by E.M. Wondrak (US2001046709 (A1), US6319720 (B1)), an alternative composition of the staining solution is described in which no organic solvent or acid is used. The CBB is dissolved in bidistilled water (60-80mg of CBB G-250 per liter) and 35 mM HCl is added as the only other compound in the staining solution. The CBB staning of the gel is done after SDS-PAGE and thorough washing of the gel in bidistilled water. By heating the gel during the washing and staining steps, the process can be finished faster and no toxic or hazardous compunds are evaporating. The staining of proteins occurs already within 1 minute after heating the gel in staining solution and is fully developed after 15-30 min with a slightly blue background that is destained completely by prolonged washing of the stained gel in bidistilled water, without affecting the stained protein bands.

A short protocol for protein staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) G-250 in polyacrylamide gels is described without using organic solvents or acetic acid as in the classical staining procedures with CBB.

Coloration des protéines dans les gels de Coomassie G-250, sans solvant et l&#39;acide acétique organique

In classical protein staining protocols using Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB), solutions with high contents of toxic and flammable organic solvents ...

Induction and Analysis of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is essential for proper morphogenesis during development. Misregulation of this process has been implicated as a key event in fibrosis and the progression of carcinomas to a metastatic state. Understanding the processes that underlie EMT is imperative for the early diagnosis and clinical control of these disease states. Reliable induction of EMT in vitro is a useful tool for drug discovery as well as to identify common gene expression signatures for diagnostic purposes. Here we demonstrate a straightforward method for the induction of EMT in a variety of cell types. Methods for the analysis of cells pre- and post-EMT induction by immunocytochemistry are also included. Additionally, we demonstrate the effectiveness of this method through antibody-based array analysis and migration/invasion assays.

A straightforward method is described for the induction of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in a variety of cell types. Methods for the analysis of cells in EMT states by immunocytochemistry are included.

Induction et analyse des épithéliale à mésenchymateuses transition

Epithelial  to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is essential for proper morphogenesis during  development. Misregulation of this  process has been implicated ...

Metabolic Labeling and Membrane Fractionation for Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Suspension Cell Cultures

Plasma membrane microdomains are features based on the physical properties of the lipid and sterol environment and have particular roles in signaling processes. Extracting sterol-enriched membrane microdomains from plant cells for proteomic analysis is a difficult task mainly due to multiple preparation steps and sources for contaminations from other cellular compartments. The plasma membrane constitutes only about 5-20% of all the membranes in a plant cell, and therefore isolation of highly purified plasma membrane fraction is challenging. A frequently used method involves aqueous two-phase partitioning in polyethylene glycol and dextran, which yields plasma membrane vesicles with a purity of 95% 1. Sterol-rich membrane microdomains within the plasma membrane are insoluble upon treatment with cold nonionic detergents at alkaline pH. This detergent-resistant membrane fraction can be separated from the bulk plasma membrane by ultracentrifugation in a sucrose gradient 2. Subsequently, proteins can be extracted from the low density band of the sucrose gradient by methanol/chloroform precipitation. Extracted protein will then be trypsin digested, desalted and finally analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Our extraction protocol for sterol-rich microdomains is optimized for the preparation of clean detergent-resistant membrane fractions from Arabidopsis thaliana cell cultures.
We use full metabolic labeling of Arabidopsis thaliana suspension cell cultures with K15NO3 as the only nitrogen source for quantitative comparative proteomic studies following biological treatment of interest 3. By mixing equal ratios of labeled and unlabeled cell cultures for joint protein extraction the influence of preparation steps on final quantitative result is kept at a minimum. Also loss of material during extraction will affect both control and treatment samples in the same way, and therefore the ratio of light and heave peptide will remain constant. In the proposed method either labeled or unlabeled cell culture undergoes a biological treatment, while the other serves as control 4.

Metabolic Labeling and Membrane Fractionation for Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Suspension Cell Cultures

Here we describe a robust method for the fractionation of plant plasma membranes into detergent resistant and detergent soluble membranes based on a mixture of unlabeled and in vivo fully 15N labeled Arabidopsis thaliana cell cultures. The procedure is applied for comparative proteomic studies to understand signaling processes.

Marquage métabolique et la membrane de fractionnement pour comparative Analyse protéomique de<em&gt; Arabidopsis thaliana</em&gt; Cultures Suspension cellulaires

Plasma membrane microdomains are features based on the physical properties of the lipid and sterol environment and have particular roles in signaling ...

A New Approach for the Comparative Analysis of Multiprotein Complexes Based on 15N Metabolic Labeling and Quantitative Mass Spectrometry

The introduced protocol provides a tool for the analysis of multiprotein complexes in the thylakoid membrane, by revealing insights into complex composition under different conditions. In this protocol the approach is demonstrated by comparing the composition of the protein complex responsible for cyclic electron flow (CEF) in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, isolated from genetically different strains. The procedure comprises the isolation of thylakoid membranes, followed by their separation into multiprotein complexes by sucrose density gradient centrifugation, SDS-PAGE, immunodetection and comparative, quantitative mass spectrometry (MS) based on differential metabolic labeling (14N/15N) of the analyzed strains. Detergent solubilized thylakoid membranes are loaded on sucrose density gradients at equal chlorophyll concentration. After ultracentrifugation, the gradients are separated into fractions, which are analyzed by mass-spectrometry based on equal volume. This approach allows the investigation of the composition within the gradient fractions and moreover to analyze the migration behavior of different proteins, especially focusing on ANR1, CAS, and PGRL1. Furthermore, this method is demonstrated by confirming the results with immunoblotting and additionally by supporting the findings from previous studies (the identification and PSI-dependent migration of proteins that were previously described to be part of the CEF-supercomplex such as PGRL1, FNR, and cyt f). Notably, this approach is applicable to address a broad range of questions for which this protocol can be adopted and e.g. used for comparative analyses of multiprotein complex composition isolated from distinct environmental conditions.

A New Approach for the Comparative Analysis of Multiprotein Complexes Based on 15N Metabolic Labeling and Quantitative Mass Spectrometry

The described comparative, quantitative proteomic approach aims at obtaining insights into the composition of multiprotein complexes&#160;under different conditions and is demonstrated by comparing genetically different strains. For quantitative analysis equal volumes of different fractions from a sucrose density gradient are mixed and analyzed by mass spectrometry.

Une nouvelle approche pour l&#39;analyse comparative des complexes multiprotéiques Basé sur<sup&gt; 15</sup&gt; N Marquage métabolique et spectrométrie de masse quantitative

The introduced protocol provides a tool for the analysis of multiprotein complexes in the thylakoid membrane, by revealing insights into complex ...

Efficient Production and Purification of Recombinant Murine Kindlin-3 from Insect Cells for Biophysical Studies

Kindlins are essential coactivators, with talin, of the cell surface receptors&#160;integrins and also participate in integrin outside-in signalling, and the control of gene transcription in the cell nucleus. The kindlins are ~75 kDa multidomain proteins and bind to an NPxY motif and upstream T/S cluster of the integrin &#946;-subunit cytoplasmic tail. The hematopoietically-important kindlin isoform, kindlin-3, is critical for platelet aggregation during thrombus formation, leukocyte rolling in response to infection and inflammation and osteoclast podocyte formation in bone resorption. Kindlin-3&#39;s role in these processes has resulted in extensive cellular and physiological studies. However, there is a need for an efficient method of acquiring high quality milligram quantities of the protein for further studies. We have developed a protocol, here described, for the efficient expression and purification of recombinant murine kindlin-3 by use of a baculovirus-driven expression system in Sf9 cells yielding sufficient amounts of high purity full-length protein to allow its biophysical characterization. The same approach could be taken in the study of the other mammalian kindlin isoforms.

Kindlins are fundamental to cell adhesion through integrins but studies of them have been hampered by the difficulty encountered in expressing them recombinantly in bacterial hosts. We describe here methods for their efficient production in baculovirus-infected insect cells.

La production efficace et purification de recombinant murin Kindlin-3 à partir de cellules d&#39;insectes pour les études biophysiques

Kindlins are essential coactivators, with talin, of the cell surface receptors&#160;integrins and also participate in integrin outside-in signalling, and ...

siRNA Screening to Identify Ubiquitin and Ubiquitin-like System Regulators of Biological Pathways in Cultured Mammalian Cells

Post-translational modification of proteins with ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like molecules (UBLs) is emerging as a dynamic cellular signaling network that regulates diverse biological pathways including the hypoxia response, proteostasis, the DNA damage response and transcription.&#160; To better understand how UBLs regulate pathways relevant to human disease, we have compiled a human siRNA &#8220;ubiquitome&#8221; library consisting of 1,186 siRNA duplex pools targeting all known and predicted components of UBL system pathways. This library can be screened against a range of cell lines expressing reporters of diverse biological pathways to determine which UBL components act as positive or negative regulators of the pathway in question.&#160; Here, we describe a protocol utilizing this library to identify ubiquitome-regulators of the HIF1A-mediated cellular response to hypoxia using a transcription-based luciferase reporter.&#160; An initial assay development stage is performed to establish suitable screening parameters of the cell line before performing the screen in three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary/deconvolution screening. &#160;The use of targeted over whole genome siRNA libraries is becoming increasingly popular as it offers the advantage of reporting only on members of the pathway with which the investigators are most interested.&#160; Despite inherent limitations of siRNA screening, in particular false-positives caused by siRNA off-target effects, the identification of genuine novel regulators of the pathways in question outweigh these shortcomings, which can be overcome by performing a series of carefully undertaken control experiments.

Here, we describe a methodology to perform a targeted siRNA &#8220;ubiquitome&#8221; screen to identify novel ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like regulators of the HIF1A-mediated cellular response to hypoxia.&#160; This can be adapted to any biological pathway where a robust read out of reporter activity is available.

siRNA contrôle pour la ubiquitine et les régulateurs du système ubiquitine-comme des voies biologiques dans des cellules de mammifères en culture

Post-translational modification of proteins with ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like molecules (UBLs) is emerging as a dynamic cellular signaling network that ...

Recombinant Protein Expression for Structural Biology in HEK 293F Suspension Cells: A Novel and Accessible Approach

The expression and purification of large amounts of recombinant protein complexes is an essential requirement for structural biology studies. For over two decades, prokaryotic expression systems such as E. coli have dominated the scientific literature over costly and less efficient eukaryotic cell lines. Despite the clear advantage in terms of yields and costs of expressing recombinant proteins in bacteria, the absence of specific co-factors, chaperones and post-translational modifications may cause loss of function, mis-folding and can disrupt protein-protein interactions of certain eukaryotic multi-subunit complexes, surface receptors and secreted proteins. The use of mammalian cell expression systems can address these drawbacks since they provide a eukaryotic expression environment. However, low protein yields and high costs of such methods have until recently limited their use for structural biology. Here we describe a simple and accessible method for expressing and purifying milligram quantities of protein by performing transient transfections of suspension grown HEK (Human Embryonic Kidney) 293F cells.

The expression of recombinant proteins by mammalian systems is becoming an attractive method for producing protein complexes for structural biology. Here we present a simple yet highly efficient expression system using suspension grown mammalian cells to purify protein complexes for structural studies.

Expression de protéines recombinantes pour la Biologie Structurale HEK 293F cellules en suspension: une approche nouvelle et accessible

The expression and purification of large amounts of recombinant protein complexes is an essential requirement for structural biology studies. For over two ...

Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Electrophysiological recording of action potentials from sensory neurons of mosquitoes provides investigators a glimpse into the chemical perception of these disease vectors. We have recently identified a bitter sensing neuron in the labellum of female Aedes aegypti that responds to DEET and other repellents, as well as bitter quinine, through direct electrophysiological investigation. These gustatory receptor neuron responses prompted our sequencing of total mRNA from both male and female labella and tarsi samples to elucidate the putative chemoreception genes expressed in these contact chemoreception tissues. Samples of tarsi were divided into pro-, meso- and metathoracic subtypes for both sexes. We then validated our dataset by conducting qRT-PCR on the same tissue samples and used statistical methods to compare results between the two methods. Studies addressing molecular function may now target specific genes to determine those involved in repellent perception by mosquitoes. These receptor pathways may be used to screen novel repellents towards disruption of host-seeking behavior to curb the spread of harmful viruses.

Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Using two methods to estimate gene expression in the major gustatory appendages of Aedes aegypti, we have identified the set of genes putatively underlying the neuronal responses to bitter and repulsive compounds, as determined by electrophysiological examination.

Physiologiques Recordings et ARN séquençage des annexes gustatives du Mosquito fièvre jaune<em&gt; Aedes aegypti</em

Electrophysiological recording of action potentials from sensory neurons of mosquitoes provides investigators a glimpse into the chemical perception of ...

A Graphical User Interface for Software-assisted Tracking of Protein Concentration in Dynamic Cellular Protrusions

Filopodia are dynamic, finger-like cellular protrusions associated with migration and cell-cell communication. In order to better understand the complex signaling mechanisms underlying filopodial initiation, elongation and subsequent stabilization or retraction, it is crucial to determine the spatio-temporal protein activity in these dynamic structures. To analyze protein function in filopodia, we recently developed a semi-automated tracking algorithm that adapts to filopodial shape-changes, thus allowing parallel analysis of protrusion dynamics and relative protein concentration along the whole filopodial length. Here, we present a detailed step-by-step protocol for optimized cell handling, image acquisition and software analysis. We further provide instructions for the use of optional features during image analysis and data representation, as well as troubleshooting guidelines for all critical steps along the way. Finally, we also include a comparison of the described image analysis software with other programs available for filopodia quantification. Together, the presented protocol provides a framework for accurate analysis of protein dynamics in filopodial protrusions using image analysis software.

We present a software solution for semi-automated tracking of relative protein concentration along the length of dynamic cellular protrusions.

Une interface utilisateur graphique pour le suivi assisté par logiciel de la concentration de protéines dans les protrusions cellulaires dynamiques

Filopodia are dynamic, finger-like cellular protrusions associated with migration and cell-cell communication. In order to better understand the complex ...