Name: peptide-based identification of functional motifs and their binding partners
Uploaded: 2013-06-30T17:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Peptide-based Identification of Functional Motifs and their Binding Partners at JoVE.com

This work was supported by NIH/NIGMS/MBRS (Grant 58268), NIH/NCRR/RCMI (Grant G12-RR03034), Georgia Research Alliance funding grant GRA.VAC08.W, NIH/NIAID/NRSA grant F31AI091484, Emory CFAR grant P30 A1050409. This investigation was conducted in a facility constructed with support from Research Facilities Improvement Grant #C06 RR18386 from NIH/NCRR. The Jurkat cells, the set of 20 HIV-1 Nef peptides, as well as the rabbit anti-HIV-1 Nef antiserum were obtained from the NIH AIDS Research &amp; Reference Reagent Program, (Rockville, MD).

I. Use of Short Peptides in Biological Analysis
I.1. Mapping Biologically Functional Motifs Using Peptides
<ol>
 <li>Treating cells with Nef scanning peptides
 <ol>
 <li>Procure a set of peptides scanning the region of interest. For our experiments, 20mer peptides, with 10 amino acid overlap, spanning the entire HIV-1 Nef protein (205 aa), were obtained from the AIDS Reagent Program. The peptides are assayed individually as follows:</li>
 <li>Add 10 ng/ml of peptide to the cell culture medium...

<ol>
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Invest. 116 (6), 1514-1524 (2006).</li><li>Mueller, Y. M., Do, D. H., Altork, S. R., Artlett, C. M., Gracely, E. J., Katsetos, C. D., Legido, A., Villinger, F., Altman, J. D., Brown, C. R., Lewis, M. G., Katsikis, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=IL-15+treatment+during+acute+simian+immunodeficiency+virus+(SIV)+infection+increases+viral+set+point+and+accelerates+disease+progression+despite+the+induction+of+stronger+SIV-specific+CD8++T+cell+responses.">IL-15 treatment during acute simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection increases viral set point and accelerates disease progression despite the induction of stronger SIV-specific CD8+ T cell responses.</a> J. Immunol. 180 (1), 350-360 (2008).</li><li>Ali, S. A., Huang, M. B., Campbell, P. E., Roth, W. W., Campbell, T., Khan, M., Newman, G., Powell, F., Powell, M. D., Bond, V. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+Characterization+of+HIV+Type+1+Nef-Induced+Vesicle+Secretion.">Genetic Characterization of HIV Type 1 Nef-Induced Vesicle Secretion.</a> AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 26 (2), 173-192 (2010).</li><li>Raymond, A. D., Campbell-Sims, T. C., Khan, M., Lang, M., Huang, M. B., Bond, V. C., Powell, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HIV+Type+1+Nef+Is+Released+from+Infected+Cells+in+CD45++Microvesicles+and+Is+Present+in+the+Plasma+of+HIV-Infected+Individuals.">HIV Type 1 Nef Is Released from Infected Cells in CD45+ Microvesicles and Is Present in the Plasma of HIV-Infected Individuals.</a> AIDS. 27 (2), 167-178 (2011).</li><li>James, C. O., Huang, M. -. B., Khan, M., Garcia-Barrio, M., Powell, M. D., Bond, V. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+Nef+Protein+Targets+CD4++T+Cells+for+Apoptosis+by+Interacting+with+CXCR4+Surface+Receptors.">Extracellular Nef Protein Targets CD4+ T Cells for Apoptosis by Interacting with CXCR4 Surface Receptors.</a> J. Virol. 78 (6), 3099-3109 (2004).</li><li>Huang, M. B., Jin, L. L., James, C. O., Khan, M., Powell, M. D., Bond, V. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+Nef-CXCR4+Interactions+Important+for+Apoptosis+Induction.">Characterization of Nef-CXCR4 Interactions Important for Apoptosis Induction.</a> J. Virol. 78 (20), 11084-11096 (2004).</li><li>Heveker, N., Montes, M., Germeroth, L., Amara, A., Trautmann, A., Alizon, M., Schneider-Mergener, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dissociation+of+the+signalling+and+antiviral+properties+of+SDF-1-derived+small+peptides.">Dissociation of the signalling and antiviral properties of SDF-1-derived small peptides.</a> Curr. Biol. 8 (7), 369-376 (1998).</li><li>Shelton, M. N., Huang, M. B., Ali, S. A., Powell, M. D., Bond, V. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SMR-derived+peptide+disrupts+HIV-1+Nef's+interaction+with+mortalin+and+blocks+virus+and+Nef+exosome+release.">SMR-derived peptide disrupts HIV-1 Nef's interaction with mortalin and blocks virus and Nef exosome release.</a> J. Virol. 86 (1), 406-419 (2012).</li><li>Ptak, R. G., Fu, W., Sanders-Beer, B. E., Dickerson, J. E., Pinney, J. W., Robertson, D. L., Rozanov, M. N., Katz, K. S., Maglott, D. R., Pruitt, K. D., Dieffenbach, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cataloguing+the+HIV+type+1+human+protein+interaction+network.">Cataloguing the HIV type 1 human protein interaction network.</a> AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 24 (12), 1497-1502 (2008).</li><li>Shugars, D. C., Smith, M. S., Glueck, D. H., Nantermet, P. V., Seillier-Moiseiwitsch, F., Swanstrom, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+human+immunodeficiency+virus+type+1+nef+gene+sequences+present+in+vivo.">Analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 nef gene sequences present in vivo.</a> J. Virol. 67 (8), 4639-4650 (1993).</li></ol>

Understanding the mechanisms underlying Nef's ability to manipulate the exosomal trafficking pathway will be useful in engineering novel inhibitors of exNef secretion. Inhibition of exNef secretion should diminish the CD4 T-cell depletion and CIA that drive HIV/AIDS pathogenesis. Towards this goal, we developed a number of novel reagents and methodologies that allowed us to analyze the genetics of exNef secretion, and begin to determine the cellular proteins involved. This approach also led to the development of the firs...

With the advent of anti-retroviral therapy, the AIDS epidemic in the western world has been slowed, but not curtailed, and the spread of HIV continues to be a major health burden throughout the world. With the exception of the marginally effective RV144 Thai trial, HIV vaccines have so far shown failure to protect from infection. Thus, research into additional, potential therapeutic targets is still warranted.
Along with CD4 T-cell depletion, persistent generalized immune activation is a hallmark of HIV infection. This Chronic Immune Activation (CIA) leads to increases in cell turnover, activated and differentiated lymphocytic subpopulations, cellular exhaustion and senescence, and the killing of T cells and B cells via Activation-Induced Cell Death (AICD)1,2,3, and it is well established as one of the strongest predictors of disease progression4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12. However, the mechanisms underlying CIA and CD4 T-cell depletion in HIV infection remain to be fully elucidated.
Evidence from our lab and others led us to a model for disease progression (Figure 1) wherein the HIV protein Nef (Negative Regulatory Factor) induces its secretion in exosomes from HIV-1 infected cells13,14. These Nef-containing exosomes (exNef) induce apoptosis in a number of cell lineages including uninfected CD4 T-cells15,16. Alternatively, in monocytes/macrophages exNef alters gene expression patterns, e.g. cytokine expression, and appears to induce a state of unscheduled immune activation. This body of evidence suggests an important role for exNef in CIA and CD4 T-cell depletion.
Understanding the mechanisms underlying Nef's ability to manipulate the exosomal trafficking pathway will be useful in engineering novel inhibitors of exNef secretion. Inhibition of exNef secretion should diminish the CD4 T-cell depletion and CIA that drive HIV/AIDS pathogenesis.
To gather the evidence that led to our model for HIV/AIDS disease progression and the subsequent data that built onto this model, we developed a number of novel reagents and methodologies that allowed us to analyze the genetics of exNef secretion, and begin to determine the cellular proteins involved. In the initial work, we found that Nef protein induces apoptosis in bystander cells and is released extracellularly from Nef-transfected and HIV-infected cells15. Peptides derived from SDF-1&alpha; (Stromal cell Derived Factor-1, with alternative splicing alpha) had been previously shown to retain much of the binding and signaling activity of the full-length molecule17. We speculated that peptides of Nef might retain some of the apoptotic activity of the full protein, and that these peptides would necessarily contain the Nef apoptotic domain(s). To identify these peptides, and consequently the Nef apoptotic domain(s), we obtained a set of 20 HIV-1 Nef scanning peptides from the NIH AIDS Research and Reference Reagent Program. These 20-aa peptides, each overlapping 10 amino acids of its neighbor, are named by the number of their last amino acid, i.e. N20 spans Nef amino acids 1-20, N30 spans Nef amino acids 11-30, etc16. We found that exposing T-cells extracellularly to specific peptides overlapping two distinct 10-aa domains in the full-length Nef protein induced apoptosis in these cells. Subsequent analysis of these Nef-derived apoptotic peptides revealed their ability to physically interact with the chemokine receptor CXCR4 on the surface of T-cells, with binding kinetics that allowed these peptides to competitively inhibit binding between CXCR4 and its natural ligand SDF-1&alpha;. Finally, the Nef-derived apoptotic peptides' interaction with CXCR4 was found to induce a stress response in these T-cells leading to apoptosis. This evidence allowed us to quickly map Nef's functional domains; a process that would have taken much longer using standard DNA mutagenic techniques such as alanine scanning mutagenesis. It also showed that these short Nef-derived peptides retained the biological function of the apoptotic domains in the full-length protein.
Having identified a role for extracellular Nef, i.e. apoptosis of T-cells, we sought a better understanding of how Nef was secreted from cells. Using a series of mutated Nef constructs, we mapped highly conserved Nef protein motifs in the N-terminal regions of both HIV Nef, and its Rhesus macaque equivalent SIVmac (Simian Immunodeficiency Virus) Nef, that are critical for exNef secretion13 . One of these motifs, the Secretion Modification Region (SMR; 66VGFPV70), was particularly critical, as alanine replacement of any of its five amino acids either greatly reduced or abolished exNef secretion. When delivered to cells via Active Motif's Chariot Protein Delivery Reagent, a peptide containing the SMR attached to a FLAG peptide sequence (SMRwt) was found to inhibit exNef secretion from both Nef-transfected and HIV-infected cells 18. Based on our previous experience with peptides, we decided to use this peptide to elucidate the molecules and mechanisms underlying the Nef SMR's role in exNef secretion.
Using the SMRwt peptide as our "bait protein", we co-immunoprecipitated cellular binding partners of the SMR from uninfected T-cell lysates18. The FLAG peptide sequence provided a convenient handle for capturing the SMRwt peptide using anti-FLAG affinity resin. Our previous finding that a single valine to alanine mutation in the SMRwt peptide was sufficient for abolishing its inhibition of exNef secretion identified a convenient, highly specific control peptide (SMRmut) that we used to rule out co-immunoprecipitated proteins not specific for the SMR. Using a peptide with the specific domain of interest rather than the full-length protein allowed us to bypass the screening of dozens of cellular factors that bind to other domains in Nef19.
Once we identified the SMR-binding partners, a logical next step was to show that the identified cellular binding partners are important for the biological function18. The standard procedure to accomplish this is to knockdown protein levels using target protein-specific miRNA or siRNA, and subsequently assay the effect on the biological function. We performed miRNA knockdown, which inhibits translation of the target mRNA, reducing production of that target, in this case a SMR-binding protein. This reduction of the target protein is an indirect effect, and possibly has a delayed effect on the biological function the targeted protein plays a role in. Consequently, we also employed the less common antibody inhibition technique to determine if directly disrupting the activity of the target protein reduces or eliminates the biological function. In this procedure, antibodies raised against the targeted protein are transfected into the cell using Chariot Reagent, and interact directly with the target protein either sequestering it from its site of function, or blocking its relevant binding domain. Inhibition of the target protein through this procedure directly disrupts its function, and can complement RNA knockdown procedures by further confirming the importance of the target protein to the biological function.
While Chariot Reagent is effective at delivering peptides and proteins into cells; this process is time-consuming and limits the types of experiments, e.g. prolonged or repeated exposures and in vivo animal studies that can be performed. Consequently, we added a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) sequence to the SMRwt peptide (SMRwt-CPP)18 to generate a peptide that could be taken up by cells passively from the culture media. This version was as effective as the former at inhibiting exNef secretion.
The evidence from these published experiments demonstrates the ability of small peptides containing specific functional motifs to antagonize the function of the full-length protein through competitive inhibition, and to isolate the proteins that bind these motifs. One would expect that these techniques should be useful in many experimental protocols. They should also be effective in engineering novel peptide inhibitors of many cellular processes; a function that can be further enhanced by linkage to CPP sequences.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent </td>
 <td>Company </td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments (optional)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>20mer peptide set with 10 amino acid overlap</td>
 <td>NIH AIDS Research and Reference Reagent Program</td>
 <td>4641</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>TUNEL Assay</td>
 <td>Roche</td>
 <td>11 684 809 910</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Chariot Protein Delivery Reagent</td>
 <td>Active Motif</td>
 <td>30100</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Tecan GENEios fluorimeter</td>
 <td> (Tecan Group, Switzerland)</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>96-well black microtiter plate</td>
 <td>Corning</td>
 <td>3792</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>anti-FLAG M2 Affinity Gel</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>A2220</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dynabeads Protein G magnetic beads </td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>100.03D</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>MagnaSphere Technology Magnetic Separation Stand (two position)</td>
 <td>Promega Corp., Madison, WI</td>
 <td>Z5332</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>C-18 ZipTip </td>
 <td>Millipore</td>
 <td>ZTC18S096</td>
 <td>C18 Resin (0.6 &mu;l or 0.2 &mu;l bed volumes). Oligonucleotides or small (&lt;50 kDa) proteins/ peptides in aqueous solution</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>MALDI TOF/TOF</td>
 <td>Bruker Daltonics ultraflex III TOF/TOF</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

peptide-based identification of functional motifs and their binding partners

Specific short peptides derived from motifs found in full-length proteins, in our case HIV-1 Nef, not only retain their biological function, but can also competitively inhibit the function of the full-length protein. A set of 20 Nef scanning peptides, 20 amino acids in length with each overlapping 10 amino acids of its neighbor, were used to identify motifs in Nef responsible for its induction of apoptosis. Peptides containing these apoptotic motifs induced apoptosis at levels comparable to the full-length Nef protein. A second peptide, derived from the Secretion Modification Region (SMR) of Nef, retained the ability to interact with cellular proteins involved in Nef's secretion in exosomes (exNef). This SMRwt peptide was used as the "bait" protein in co-immunoprecipitation experiments to isolate cellular proteins that bind specifically to Nef's SMR motif. Protein transfection and antibody inhibition was used to physically disrupt the interaction between Nef and mortalin, one of the isolated SMR-binding proteins, and the effect was measured with a fluorescent-based exNef secretion assay. The SMRwt peptide's ability to outcompete full-length Nef for cellular proteins that bind the SMR motif, make it the first inhibitor of exNef secretion. Thus, by employing the techniques described here, which utilize the unique properties of specific short peptides derived from motifs found in full-length proteins, one may accelerate the identification of functional motifs in proteins and the development of peptide-based inhibitors of pathogenic functions.

Mapping Biologically Functional Motifs using Peptides. Two regions were identified on Nef proteins that induce apoptosis. Peptide-driven apoptosis was observed (Figure 2) beginning with peptide N50 (aa30-50), peaking at N60 (aa40-60) and N70 (aa50-70), and diminishing to background levels at peptide N100 (aa80-100). The major Motif 1 (M1) peak, centering on aa50-60, induces &gt;80% of the apoptotic levels of the full-length Nef protein. A second, smaller apoptotic peak was observed spann...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Peptide-based Identification of Functional Motifs and their Binding Partners at JoVE.com

Peptide-based Identification of Functional Motifs and their Binding Partners

Techniques to dissect the mechanisms underlying the secretion of HIV-1 Nef in exosomes are described. Specific short peptides derived from Nef and protein transfection were exploited to determine the structure, function, and binding partners of Nef&#x2019;s Secretion Modification Region. These procedures have general relevance in many mechanistic studies.

Specific short  peptides derived from motifs found in full-length proteins, in our case HIV-1  Nef, not only retain their biological function, but can ...

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Cardiac immune cells are gaining interest for the roles they play in the pathological remodeling in many cardiac diseases.1-5  These immune cells, which ...

Following in Real Time the Impact of Pneumococcal Virulence Factors in an Acute Mouse Pneumonia Model Using Bioluminescent Bacteria

Pneumonia is one of the major health care problems in developing and industrialized countries and is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. Despite advances in knowledge of this illness, the availability of intensive care units (ICU), and the use of potent antimicrobial agents and effective vaccines, the mortality rates remain high1. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading pathogen of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and one of the most common causes of bacteremia in humans. This pathogen is equipped with an armamentarium of surface-exposed adhesins and virulence factors contributing to pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). The assessment of the in vivo role of bacterial fitness or virulence factors is of utmost importance to unravel S. pneumoniae pathogenicity mechanisms. Murine models of pneumonia, bacteremia, and meningitis are being used to determine the impact of pneumococcal factors at different stages of the infection. Here we describe a protocol to monitor in real-time pneumococcal dissemination in mice after intranasal or intraperitoneal infections with bioluminescent bacteria. The results show the multiplication and dissemination of pneumococci in the lower respiratory tract and blood, which can be visualized and evaluated using an imaging system and the accompanying analysis software.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading pathogen causing severe community-acquired pneumonia and responsible for over 2&#160;million deaths worldwide. The impact of bacterial factors implicated in fitness or virulence can be monitored in real-time in an acute mouse pneumonia or bacteremia model using bioluminescent bacteria.

Pneumonia is one of the major health care problems in developing and industrialized countries and is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. ...

Isolation, Identification, and Purification of Murine Thymic Epithelial Cells

The thymus is a vital organ for T lymphocyte development. Of thymic stromal cells, thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are particularly crucial at multiple stages of T cell development: T cell commitment, positive selection and negative selection. However, the function of TECs in the thymus remains incompletely understood. In the article, we provide a method to isolate TEC subsets from fresh mouse thymus using a combination of mechanical disruption and enzymatic digestion. The method allows thymic stromal cells and thymocytes to be efficiently released from cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix connections and to form a single-cell suspension. Using the isolated cells, multiparameter flow cytometry can be applied to identification and characterization of TECs and dendritic cells. Because TECs are a rare cell population in the thymus, we also describe an effective way to enrich and purify TECs by depleting thymocytes, the most abundant cell type in the thymus. Following the enrichment, cell sorting time can be decreased so that loss of cell viability can be minimized during purification of TECs. Purified cells are suitable for various downstream analyses like Real Time-PCR, Western blot and gene expression profiling. The protocol will promote research of TEC function and as well as the development of in vitro T cell reconstitution.

Here we describe an efficient method for isolation, identification, and purification of mouse thymic epithelial cells (TECs). The protocol can be utilized for studies of thymus function for normal T cell development, thymus dysfunction, and T cell reconstitution.

The thymus is a vital organ for T lymphocyte development. Of thymic stromal cells, thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are particularly crucial at multiple ...

Real-time Imaging of Myeloid Cells Dynamics in ApcMin/+ Intestinal Tumors by Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy

Myeloid cells are the most abundant immune cells within tumors and have been shown to promote tumor progression. Modern intravital imaging techniques enable the observation of live cellular behavior inside the organ but can be challenging in some types of cancer due to organ and tumor accessibility such as intestine. Direct observation of intestinal tumors has not been previously reported. A surgical procedure described here allows direct observation of myeloid cell dynamics within the intestinal tumors in live mice by using transgenic fluorescent reporter mice and injectable tracers or antibodies. For this purpose, a four-color, multi-region, micro-lensed spinning disk confocal microscope that allows long-term continuous imaging with rapid image acquisition has been used. ApcMin/+ mice that develop multiple adenomas in the small intestine are crossed with c-fms-EGFP mice to visualize myeloid cells and with ACTB-ECFP mice to visualize intestinal epithelial cells of the crypts. Procedures for labeling different tumor components, such as blood vessels and neutrophils, and the procedure for positioning the tumor for imaging through the serosal surface are also described. Time-lapse movies compiled from several hours of imaging allow the analysis of myeloid cell behavior in situ in the intestinal microenvironment.

Real-time Imaging of Myeloid Cells Dynamics in ApcMin/+ Intestinal Tumors by Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy

By using transgenic reporter mice and injectable fluorescent labels, long-term intravital spinning disk confocal microscopy enables direct visualization of myeloid cell behavior into intestinal adenoma in the ApcMin/+ colorectal cancer model.

Myeloid cells are the most abundant immune cells within tumors and have been shown to promote tumor progression. Modern intravital imaging techniques ...

Detecting Glycogen in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells with Periodic Acid Schiff Staining

Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) staining is an immunohistochemical technique used on muscle biopsies and as a diagnostic tool for blood samples. Polysaccharides such as glycogen, glycoproteins, and glycolipids stain bright magenta making it easy to enumerate positive and negative cells within the tissue. In muscle cells PAS staining is used to determine the glycogen content in different types of muscle cells, while in blood cell samples PAS staining has been explored as a diagnostic tool for a variety of conditions. Blood contains a proportion of white blood cells that belong to the immune system. The notion that cells of the immune system possess glycogen and use it as an energy source has not been widely explored. Here, we describe an adapted version of the PAS staining protocol that can be applied on peripheral blood mononuclear immune cells from human venous blood. Small cells with PAS-positive granules and larger cells with diffuse PAS staining were observed. Treatment of samples with amylase abrogates these patterns confirming the specificity of the stain. An alternate technique based on enzymatic digestion confirmed the presence and amount of glycogen in the samples. This protocol is useful for hematologists or immunologists studying polysaccharide content in blood-derived lymphocytes.

Periodic acid Schiff staining is a technique that visualizes the polysaccharide content of tissues. This article demonstrates periodic acid Schiff staining protocol adapted for use on peripheral blood mononuclear cells purified from human venous blood. Such samples are enriched for lymphocytes and other white blood cells of the immune system.

Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) staining is an immunohistochemical technique used on muscle biopsies and as a diagnostic tool for blood samples. ...

Visualization of HIV-1 Gag Binding to Giant Unilamellar Vesicle (GUV) Membranes

The structural protein of HIV-1, Pr55Gag (or Gag), binds to the plasma membrane in cells during the virus assembly process. Membrane binding of Gag is an essential step for virus particle formation, since a defect in Gag membrane binding results in severe impairment of viral particle production. To gain mechanistic details of Gag-lipid membrane interactions, in vitro methods based on NMR, protein footprinting, surface plasmon resonance, liposome flotation centrifugation, or fluorescence lipid bead binding have been developed thus far. However, each of these in vitro methods has its limitations. To overcome some of these limitations and provide a complementary approach to the previously established methods, we developed an in vitro assay in which interactions between HIV-1 Gag and lipid membranes take place in a &#34;cell-like&#34; environment. In this assay, Gag binding to lipid membranes is visually analyzed using YFP-tagged Gag synthesized in a wheat germ-based in vitro translation system and GUVs prepared by an electroformation technique. Here we describe the background and the protocols to obtain myristoylated full-length Gag proteins and GUV membranes necessary for the assay and to detect Gag-GUV binding by microscopy.

Visualization of HIV-1 Gag Binding to Giant Unilamellar Vesicle GUV Membranes

We illustrate here an in vitro membrane binding assay in which interactions between HIV-1 Gag and lipid membranes are visually analyzed using YFP-tagged Gag synthesized in a wheat germ-based in vitro translation system and GUVs prepared by an electroformation technique.

The structural protein of HIV-1, Pr55Gag (or Gag), binds to the plasma membrane in cells during the virus assembly process. Membrane binding of Gag is an ...

Unravelling the Function of a Bacterial Effector from a Non-cultivable Plant Pathogen Using a Yeast Two-hybrid Screen

Unravelling the molecular mechanisms of disease manifestations is important to understand pathologies and symptom development in plant science. Bacteria have evolved different strategies to manipulate their host metabolism for their own benefit. This bacterial manipulation is often coupled with severe symptom development or the death of the affected plants. Determining the specific bacterial molecules responsible for the host manipulation has become an important field in microbiological research. After the identification of these bacterial molecules, called &#34;effectors,&#34; it is important to elucidate their function. A straightforward approach to determine the function of an effector is to identify its proteinaceous binding partner in its natural host via a yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screen. Normally the host harbors numerous potential binding partners that cannot be predicted sufficiently by any in silico algorithm. It is thus the best choice to perform a screen with the hypothetical effector against a whole library of expressed host proteins. It is especially challenging if the causative agent is uncultivable like phytoplasma. This protocol provides step-by-step instructions for DNA purification from a phytoplasma-infected woody host plant, the amplification of the potential effector, and the subsequent identification of the plant&#39;s molecular interaction partner with a Y2H screen. Even though Y2H screens are commonly used, there is a trend to outsource this technique to biotech companies that offer the Y2H service at a cost. This protocol provides instructions on how to perform a Y2H in any decently equipped molecular biology laboratory using standard lab techniques.

Bacterial effector proteins are important for establishing successful infections. This protocol describes the experimental identification of proteinaceous binding partners of a bacterial effector protein in its natural plant host. Identifying these effector interactions via yeast two-hybrid screens has become an important tool in unravelling molecular pathogenicity strategies.

Unravelling the molecular mechanisms of disease manifestations is important to understand pathologies and symptom development in plant science. Bacteria ...

Identification of Plasmodesmal Localization Sequences in Proteins In Planta

Plasmodesmata (Pd) are cell-to-cell connections that function as gateways through which small and large molecules are transported between plant cells. Whereas Pd transport of small molecules, such as ions and water, is presumed to occur passively, cell-to-cell transport of biological macromolecules, such proteins, most likely occurs via an active mechanism that involves specific targeting signals on the transported molecule. The scarcity of identified plasmodesmata (Pd) localization signals (PLSs) has severely restricted the understanding of protein-sorting pathways involved in plant cell-to-cell macromolecular transport and communication. From a wealth of plant endogenous and viral proteins known to traffic through Pd, only three PLSs have been reported to date, all of them from endogenous plant proteins. Thus, it is important to develop a reliable and systematic experimental strategy to identify a functional PLS sequence, that is both necessary and sufficient for Pd targeting, directly in the living plant cells. Here, we describe one such strategy using as a paradigm the cell-to-cell movement protein (MP) of the Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). These experiments, that identified and characterized the first plant viral PLS, can be adapted for discovery of PLS sequences in most Pd-targeted proteins.

Identification of Plasmodesmal Localization Sequences in Proteins In Planta

Plant intercellular connections, the plasmodesmata (Pd), play central roles in plant physiology and plant-virus interactions. Critical to Pd transport are sorting signals that direct proteins to Pd. However, our knowledge about these sequences is still in its infancy. We describe a strategy to identify Pd localization signals in Pd-targeted proteins.

Plasmodesmata (Pd) are cell-to-cell connections that function as gateways through which small and large molecules are transported between plant cells. ...

Isolation of Peritoneum-derived Mast Cells and Their Functional Characterization with Ca2+-imaging and Degranulation Assays

Mast cells (MCs), as a part of the immune system, play a key role in defending the host against several pathogens and in the initiation of the allergic immune response. The activation of MCs via the cross-linking of surface IgE bound to high affinity IgE receptor (Fc&#949;RI), as well as through the stimulation of several other receptors, initiates the rise of the free intracellular Ca2+ level ([Ca2+]i) that promotes the release of inflammatory and allergic mediators. The identification of molecular constituents involved in these signaling pathways is crucial for understanding the regulation of MC function. In this article, we describe a protocol for the isolation of murine connective tissue type MCs by peritoneal lavage and cultivation of peritoneal MCs (PMCs). Cultures of MCs from various knockout mouse models by this methodology represent a useful approach to the identification of proteins involved in MC signaling pathways. In addition, we also describe a protocol for single cell Fura-2 imaging as an important technique for the quantification of Ca2+ signaling in MCs. Fluorescence-based monitoring of [Ca2+]i is a reliable and commonly used approach to study Ca2+ signaling events, including store-operated calcium entry, which is of utmost importance for MC activation. For the analysis of MC degranulation, we describe a &#946;-hexosaminidase release assay. The amount of &#946;-hexosaminidase released into the culture medium is considered as a degranulation marker for all three different secretory subsets described in MCs. &#946;-hexosaminidase can easily be quantified by its reaction with a colorigenic substrate in a microtiter plate colorimetric assay. This highly reproducible technique is cost-effective and requires no specialized equipment. Overall, the provided protocol demonstrates a high yield of MCs expressing typical MC surface markers, displaying typical morphological and phenotypic features of MCs, and demonstrating highly reproducible responses to secretagogues in Ca2+-imaging and degranulation assays.

Isolation of Peritoneum-derived Mast Cells and Their Functional Characterization with Ca2+-imaging and Degranulation Assays

Here, we present a protocol to isolate and cultivate murine peritoneal mast cells. We also describe two protocols for their functional characterization: a fluorescent imaging of intracellular free Ca2+ concentration and a degranulation assay based on colorimetric quantification of the released &#946;-hexosaminidase.

Mast cells (MCs), as a part of the immune system, play a key role in defending the host against several pathogens and in the initiation of the allergic ...