Ringraziamo il Dr. Till Böcking per il protocollo originale di preparazione a singola molecola. 
Questo lavoro è stato sostenuto dalla sovvenzione NSF 1121972(SS).

<ol>
	<li>Pang, H. -. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Virion+stiffness+regulates+immature+HIV-1+entry.">Virion stiffness regulates immature HIV-1 entry.</a> Retrovirology. 10, 4 (2013).</li><li>Kol, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Stiffness+Switch+in+Human+Immunodeficiency+Virus.">A Stiffness Switch in Human Immunodeficiency Virus.</a> Biophys. J. 92, 1777-1783 (2007).</li><li>Ortega-Esteban, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Minimizing+tip&#8211;sample+forces+in+jumping+mode+atomic+force+microscopy+in+liquid.">Minimizing tip&#8211;sample forces in jumping mode atomic force microscopy in liquid.</a> Ultramicroscopy. 114, 56-61 (2012).</li><li>Ortega-Esteban, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monitoring+dynamics+of+human+adenovirus+disassembly+induced+by+mechanical+fatigue.">Monitoring dynamics of human adenovirus disassembly induced by mechanical fatigue.</a> Sci. Rep. 3, (2013).</li><li>Hernando-P&#233;rez, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physical+Virology:+Direct+Measurement+of+Phage.">Physical Virology: Direct Measurement of Phage.</a> phi29 Stiffness Provides Evidence of Internal Pressure (Small 15/2012). Small. 8, 2365-2365 (2012).</li><li>Carrasco, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA-mediated+anisotropic+mechanical+reinforcement+of+a+virus.">DNA-mediated anisotropic mechanical reinforcement of a virus.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 13706-13711 (2006).</li><li>Sofia, S. J., Premnath, V. V., Merrill, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poly(ethylene+oxide)+Grafted+to+Silicon+Surfaces:+Grafting+Density+and+Protein+Adsorption.">Poly(ethylene oxide) Grafted to Silicon Surfaces: Grafting Density and Protein Adsorption.</a> Macromolecules. 31, 5059-5070 (1998).</li><li>Visnapuu, M. -. L., Duzdevich, D., Greene, E. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+importance+of+surfaces+in+single-molecule+bioscience.">The importance of surfaces in single-molecule bioscience.</a> Mol. Biosyst. 4, 394-403 (2008).</li><li>Elenko, M. P., Szostak, J. W., Van Oijen, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+binding+experiments+on+long+time+scales.">Single-molecule binding experiments on long time scales.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, (2010).</li><li>van Oijen, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-Molecule+Kinetics+of+&#955;+Exonuclease+Reveal+Base+Dependence+and+Dynamic+Disorder.">Single-Molecule Kinetics of &#955; Exonuclease Reveal Base Dependence and Dynamic Disorder.</a> Science. 301, 1235-1238 (2003).</li><li>B&#246;cking, T., Aguet, F., Harrison, S. C., Kirchhausen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+analysis+of+a+molecular+disassemblase+reveals+the+mechanism+of+Hsc70-driven+clathrin+uncoating.">Single-molecule analysis of a molecular disassemblase reveals the mechanism of Hsc70-driven clathrin uncoating.</a> Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 18, 295-301 (2011).</li><li>Cocucci, E., Aguet, F., Boulant, S., Kirchhausen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+First+Five+Seconds+in+the+Life+of+a+Clathrin-Coated+Pit.">The First Five Seconds in the Life of a Clathrin-Coated Pit.</a> Cell. 150, 495-507 (2012).</li><li>Rust, M. J., Bates, M., Zhuang, X. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sub-diffraction-limit+imaging+by+stochastic+optical+reconstruction+microscopy.">Sub-diffraction-limit imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy.</a> 3, 793-795 (2006).</li><li>Betzig, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+intracellular+fluorescent+proteins+at+nanometer+resolution.">Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution.</a> Science. 313, 1642-1645 (2006).</li><li>Hess, S. T., Girirajan, T. P. K., Mason, M. 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Gli autori non hanno interessi finanziari concorrenti in questo documento.

L'imaging a virione singolo con AFM e l'imaging a fluorescenza ad alta risoluzione può essere utilizzato come metodologia alternativa alla tomografia CryoEM. Ognuna di queste metodologie ha i suoi punti di forza specifici. Ad esempio AFM può essere fatto su virioni WT senza alcun requisito per etichettare il campione o le proteine virali interne. La posizione delle strutture virali è deconvolta dai loro contributi alle proprietà elastiche del virione.
L'imaging a super-risoluzione virione singola in combinazione con i nuovi approcci genetici inversi virali diventa una tecnica potente per localizzare proteine virali a basso numero di copie20. I virus ricombinanti con la sostituzione delle loro proteine con proteine fuse con proteine fluorescenti possono essere prodotti e purificati utilizzando questi approcci genetici inversi. Sebbene l'imaging a super-risoluzione abbia specificità in parte a causa del tagging genetico, richiede l'uso dei virus mutanti.
AFM e imaging a super risoluzione sono metodi gratuiti che utilizzano preparazioni campione molto simili. I metodi delineati in questo documento, che sono adottati da precedenti test di imaging a singola molecola, consentono l'ancoraggio di singoli virioni con pochi effetti sulla topologia dei virioni.

Le interazioni non specifiche basate sulla carica sono usate abitualmente per l'adesione dei virioni nella microscopia a forza atomica1,2. Queste tecniche funzionano particolarmente bene se utilizzate su virioni non ineveloped con tappi moltorigidi 3-6. Sebbene queste tecniche siano molto efficaci nell'immobilizzare il campione, non impediscono il legame non specifico delle proteine alla superficie. Il legame non specifico può creare un problema quando si tenta di immaginare virioni con AFM e tecniche di fluorescenza a super risoluzione che richiedono incubazioni del campione con vari anticorpi. Qui delineamo un metodo di preparazione del campione per l'immobilizzazione specifica dei virioni.
Il poli(glicole etilenico) (PEG) innestato in poli(L-lisina) (PLL) e adsorbito su una superficie di vetro fornisce un blocco significativo per le interazioni elettrostatiche delle proteine con il vetro7. I test a singola molecola che richiedono l'immobilizzazione di singole molecole su superfici di vetro hanno approfittato di questa proprietà e l'hanno utilizzata per creare una specifica tecnica di immobilizzazione a singola molecola basata su PEG8-10. Questa preparazione è stata utilizzata anche per immobilizzare le gabbie di clatrarina sulla superficiedel vetro 11 e per creare un rivestimento omogeneo di fibronectin per l'adesione delle cellule di controllo 12.
Abbiamo adottato il metodo di preparazione del campione basato sull'adsorbimento PLL-g-PEG sulle superfici di vetro da metodologie di imaging a singola molecola e lo abbiamo applicato all'imaging di singoli virioni del virus della stomatite vescicolare (VSV). Questi virioni singoli sono stati immagini usando la microscopia a forza atomica (AFM). Esperimenti simili sono stati eseguiti anche su perline funzionalizzate come controllo. I virioni sono stati anche immagini dalla microscopia a fluorescenza a super risoluzione, in quanto un anticorpo VSV-G etichettato con Alexa 647 è stato utilizzato per creare un'immagine dell'involucro di singoli virioni. L'imaging fluorescente ad alta risoluzione utilizza la localizzazione di singole molecole per creareun'immagine 13-15. L'imaging bi-planare fPALM consente la localizzazione di singole molecole con 20 nm in piano e risoluzione di 50 nm lungo l'asseottico 15,16. Questa tecnica bi-planare è stata utilizzata per immagini di immagini fluorescenti a super-risoluzione presenti in questo studio. Una tecnica alternativa che ha risultati simili è STORM13,17,18.
Sia l'AFM che le immagini fluorescenti a super-risoluzione di VSV ancorate al vetro dalle procedure descritte in questo documento, hanno mostrato un legame specifico dei virioni al vetro con interazioni minime non specifiche19. Qui presentiamo i protocolli di preparazione del campione per gli esperimenti di imaging fluorescente AFM e super-risoluzione. In breve: le coverlips in vetro pulito sono funzionalizzate adsorbendo una miscela di PLL-g-PEG e PLL-g-PEG-biotina. È tipico che questo film sottile sia progettato per fornire biotina funzionalizzata tra il 15 e il 25% su una superficie rivestita. Le copertine vengono ulteriormente incubate con avidina tetramerica. Un anticorpo virale biotinilato viene quindi utilizzato per creare un sito di legame unico per i virioni. Il legame dell'anticorpo può essere fatto in due modi.
Il primo metodo è ottimizzato per AFM, tuttavia rimane adatto per l'imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione. In questo metodo la superficie rivestita di avidina viene trattata con anticorpi biotinilati prima dell'adesione virale. I virioni immobilizzati vengono trattati con anticorpo etichettato Alexa 647 per coprire l'involucro e consentire l'imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione dei virioni.
Il secondo metodo è quello di attaccare il virus in soluzione con l'anticorpo biotinilato e l'anticorpo etichettato Alexa 647 prima di aderire ai virus alla superficie trattata con avidina; questo metodo è ottimizzato per esperimenti di imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione in cui il recupero dell'involucro virale è importante. Questo metodo ha il vantaggio di consentire un rivestimento anticorpale uniforme sulla superficie virale. L'anticorpo biotinilato può essere miscelato con anticorpi virali etichettati Alexa 647 in rapporti che consentono un sufficiente adsorbimento del virus alla superficie trattata con avidina mantenendo un'alta concentrazione di etichetta fluorescente all'esterno dell'involucro virale. Questi anticorpi virali etichettati Alexa 647 non sono biotinilati e il loro eccesso può essere risciacquato al fine di ridurre il rumore di fondo.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Glass coverslips (fPALM)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Electron Microscopy Services</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">72225-01</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">25 mm Coverslips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">PLL(20)-g[3.5]-PEG(2)/PEG(3.4)-Biotin (20%)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SuSoS&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Stock: 0.5 mg/ml in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">NeutrAvidin biotin-binding protein</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A2666</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Stock: 0.25 mg/ml in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:216px;">Alexa Fluor 647 goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A21245</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">1:200 in 0.2 M KPO4, 0.15 M NaCl, 10% Glycol, pH 7.2 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">&#945;-VSV-G&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ab34774</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">1:200 in 0.2 M KPO4, 0.15 M NaCl, 10% Glycol, pH 7.2 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Gluox</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>G2133-250KU&#160;</td>
			<td>Glucose oxidase type seven from Aspergillius&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Catalase</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C40-100mg&#160;</td>
			<td>Catalase from Bovine liver&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MEA</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>30070-10G&#160;</td>
			<td>Cysteamine (MEA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Stock Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) + 10 mM NaCl + 10% glucose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NTE</td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>10 mM Tris pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 66 mM EDTA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Slide-A-Lyzer, mini dialysis unit</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>10,000 MW</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Microscope Cover Glass: 35 CIRCLE #1</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fisherbrand</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">35 CIRCLE #1</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

sample preparation for single virion atomic force microscopy and super-resolution fluorescence imaging

L'immobilizzazione dei virioni sulle superfici di vetro è un passo fondamentale nell'imaging a virione singolo. Qui presentiamo una tecnica adottata da test di imaging a singola molecola che consente l'adesione di singoli virioni a superfici di vetro con specificità. Questa preparazione si basa sull'innesto della superficie del vetro con una miscela di PLL-g-PEG e PLL-g-PEG-Biotin, aggiungendo uno strato di avidina e infine creando ancoraggi virione attraverso l'attacco di anticorpi specifici del virus biotinilato. Abbiamo applicato questa tecnica in una serie di esperimenti tra cui la microscopia a forza atomica (AFM) e l'imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione. Questo metodo di preparazione del campione si traduce in un'adesione di controllo dei virioni alla superficie.

Imaging a virione singolo con AFM:
Il protocollo di preparazione del campione sopra descritto è stato utilizzato per ancorare virioni di tipo selvaggio alla superficie del vetro. I virioni VSV hanno una lunghezza di 180 nm a forma di proiettile e un diametro di 80 nm. Poiché ci sono una varietà di virioni per i quali questa tecnica può essere applicata, il concetto è dimostrato anche qui sulle perline biotinilate a 36 nm. Gli esperimenti AFM risultanti sono riportati nella figura 1. È importante notare che i virioni VSV hanno un modulo di Young inferiore (100 MPa) rispetto ai virus non ineveloped (GPa). Le particolari immagini del vv a virione singolo sono state ottenute in modalità di maschiatura in condizioni ambientali con un rigido sbalzino. Lo scopo è stato quello di deformare il virus al punto che la densità proteica extra all'interno del virus diventa visibile come un urto all'interno dell'immagine AFM. Questo metodo viene utilizzato per rilevare la densità proteica extra all'interno della cavità del virus19.
Imaging a super risoluzione virione singola:
Gli anticorpi VSV-G etichettati Alexa 647 sono stati usati per rivestire l'involucro dei singoli virioni VSV per esperimenti di super-risoluzione utilizzando il metodo 5A. Per dimostrare la densità di tethering e la bassa associazione aspecifica, nella figura 2Aviene illustrata una scansione di grandi dimensioni del campione. Il recupero della busta virale su un virione rappresentativo è mostrato nella figura 2B (isosuperficie blu).
<img alt="Figure 1" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig1.jpg" style="opacity: 0.9; font-size: 14.399999618530273px; line-height: 28px;">
Figura 1. Imaging AFM di perline e VSV sulla superficie PEGG funzionalizzata. Scansione AFM di perline biotinilate a 36 nm (A, B) e un virione VSV (C) ancorato alla superficie con un anticorpo VSVG biotinilato. AFM è stato fatto in modalità di scansione topografica dell'aria CA. Il raggio della punta è < 25 nm e le misurazioni sono state effettuate sotto modulazione di forza e maschiatura della luce. La punta aveva una costante di forza di 3 N/m e una frequenza risonante di 75 kHz con incertezza di 15 kHz. Mentre le perline hanno mantenuto la loro altezza durante la scansione AFM, il virion VSV ha un modulo giovane significativamente più piccolo ed è significativamente deformato in altezza. In questa immagine il virione è stato specificamente immaginato con un cantilever rigido in modalità di maschiatura che ha prodotto una piccola convoluzione xy (utilizzata per determinare la punta rispetto all'estremità smussata del virus) e la differenza di altezza tra la punta e l'estremità smussata del virus viene utilizzata per rilevare una densità proteica extra all'estremità smussata del virus19.
<img alt="Figure 2" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig2highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig2.jpg"> Figura 2. Imaging basato sulla fluorescenza dei virioni VSV sulla superficie funzionalizzata PEGG. A)virioni VSV ricombinanti immobilizzati sulla superficie PEGG utilizzando un anticorpo anti VSVG biotinilato imageizzato in fluorescenza a campo largo. B) Ricostruzione a fluorescenza ad alta risoluzione dell'involucro di VSV attaccato alla superficie PEGG attraverso un anticorpo anti VSVG biotinilato e decorato con anticorpi anti-VSVG etichettati Alexa 647 (il metodo 5A è stato utilizzato per creare queste immagini). La superficie blu è una proiezione isosuperficie 2D. A sinistra mostra un modello del virus a forma di proiettile. 
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="212"><colgroup>
<col>
<col>
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr height="27">
<td height="27" style="height:27px;width:119px;">Dimensioni delle copertine</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">fluido</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">40 mm</td>
			<td>65 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">35 mm</td>
			<td>50 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">30 mm</td>
			<td>36 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">25 mm</td>
			<td>25 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">20 mm</td>
			<td>16 μl</td>
		</tr>
</tbody></table>La tabella 1. Aliquote fluide in base alle dimensioni delle copertine.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging at JoVE.com

Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging

L'attacco dei virioni a una superficie è un requisito per l'imaging a virione singolo mediante imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione o microscopia a forza atomica (AFM). Qui dimostriamo un metodo di preparazione del campione per l'adesione controllata di virioni a superfici di vetro adatte all'uso nell'AFM e nell'imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione.

Preparazione del campione per microscopia a forza atomica Virion singola e imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule ...

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9.4K Views.  University of Utah. L'attacco dei virioni a una superficie è un requisito per l'imaging a virione singolo mediante imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione o microscopia a forza atomica (AFM). Qui dimostriamo un metodo di preparazione del campione per l'adesione controllata di virioni a superfici di vetro adatte all'uso nell'AFM e nell'imaging a fluorescenza a super risoluzione.

Video: Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging

Time-lapse Imaging of Mitosis After siRNA Transfection

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and cellular content. Hallmark events of mitosis, such as chromosome movement, can be readily tracked on an individual cell basis using time-lapse fluorescence microscopy of mammalian cell lines expressing specific GFP-tagged proteins. In combination with RNAi-based depletion, this can be a powerful method for pinpointing the stage(s) of mitosis where defects occur after levels of a particular protein have been lowered. In this protocol, we present a basic method for assessing the effect of depleting a potential mitotic regulatory protein on the timing of mitosis. Cells are transfected with siRNA, placed in a stage-top incubation chamber, and imaged using an automated fluorescence microscope. We describe how to use software to set up a time-lapse experiment, how to process the image sequences to make either still-image montages or movies, and how to quantify and analyze the timing of mitotic stages using a cell-line expressing mCherry-tagged histone H2B. Finally, we discuss important considerations for designing a time-lapse experiment. This strategy is complementary to other approaches and offers the advantages of 1) sensitivity to changes in kinetics that might not be observed when looking at cells as a population and 2) analysis of mitosis without the need to synchronize the cell cycle using drug treatments. The visual information from such imaging experiments not only allows the sub-stages of mitosis to be assessed, but can also provide unexpected insight that would not be apparent from cell cycle analysis by FACS.

Here we describe a basic protocol to image and quantify the mitotic timing of live mammalian tissue culture cells after siRNA transfection.

Time-lapse imaging di mitosi dopo la trasfezione di siRNA

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and ...

Ricerca

Biologia

Super-resolution Imaging of the Bacterial Division Machinery

Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated assembly of more than ten essential proteins at midcell1,2. Central to this process is the formation of a ring-like suprastructure (Z-ring) by the FtsZ protein at the division plan3,4. The Z-ring consists of multiple single-stranded FtsZ protofilaments, and understanding the arrangement of the protofilaments inside the Z-ring will provide insight into the mechanism of Z-ring assembly and its function as a force generator5,6. This information has remained elusive due to current limitations in conventional fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy. Conventional fluorescence microscopy is unable to provide a high-resolution image of the Z-ring due to the diffraction limit of light (~200 nm). Electron cryotomographic imaging has detected scattered FtsZ protofilaments in small C. crescentus cells7, but is difficult to apply to larger cells such as E. coli or B. subtilis. Here we describe the application of a super-resolution fluorescence microscopy method, Photoactivated Localization Microscopy (PALM), to quantitatively characterize the structural organization of the E. coli Z-ring8.
	PALM imaging offers both high spatial resolution (~35 nm) and specific labeling to enable unambiguous identification of target proteins. We labeled FtsZ with the photoactivatable fluorescent protein mEos2, which switches from green fluorescence (excitation = 488 nm) to red fluorescence (excitation = 561 nm) upon activation at 405 nm9. During a PALM experiment, single FtsZ-mEos2 molecules are stochastically activated and the corresponding centroid positions of the single molecules are determined with &lt;20 nm precision. A super-resolution image of the Z-ring is then reconstructed by superimposing the centroid positions of all detected FtsZ-mEos2 molecules.
	Using this method, we found that the Z-ring has a fixed width of ~100 nm and is composed of a loose bundle of FtsZ protofilaments that overlap with each other in three dimensions. These data provide a springboard for further investigations of the cell cycle dependent changes of the Z-ring10 and can be applied to other proteins of interest.

We describe a super-resolution imaging method to probe the structural organization of the bacterial FtsZ-ring, an essential apparatus for cell division. This method is based on quantitative analyses of photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) images and can be applied to other bacterial cytoskeletal proteins.

Super-risoluzione Imaging della Divisione Macchine batterica

Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated  assembly of more than ten essential proteins at midcell1,2. Central  to this process is the formation of ...

Test Samples for Optimizing STORM Super-Resolution Microscopy

STORM is a recently developed super-resolution microscopy technique with up to 10 times better resolution than standard fluorescence microscopy techniques. However, as the image is acquired in a very different way than normal, by building up an image molecule-by-molecule, there are some significant challenges for users in trying to optimize their image acquisition. In order to aid this process and gain more insight into how STORM works we present the preparation of 3 test samples and the methodology of acquiring and processing STORM super-resolution images with typical resolutions of between 30-50 nm. By combining the test samples with the use of the freely available rainSTORM processing software it is possible to obtain a great deal of information about image quality and resolution. Using these metrics it is then possible to optimize the imaging procedure from the optics, to sample preparation, dye choice, buffer conditions, and image acquisition settings. We also show examples of some common problems that result in poor image quality, such as lateral drift, where the sample moves during image acquisition and density related problems resulting in the 'mislocalization' phenomenon.

We describe the preparation of three test samples and how they can be used to optimize and assess the performance of STORM microscopes. Using these examples we show how to acquire raw data and then process it to acquire super-resolution images in cells of approximately 30-50 nm resolution.

I campioni di prova per ottimizzare STORM Super-Resolution Microscopia

STORM is a recently developed super-resolution microscopy technique with up to 10 times better resolution than standard fluorescence microscopy ...

Rapid Analysis and Exploration of Fluorescence Microscopy Images

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized image analysis tools are available, most traditional image-analysis-based workflows have steep learning curves (for fine tuning of analysis parameters) and result in long turnaround times between imaging and analysis. In particular, cell segmentation, the process of identifying individual cells in an image, is a major bottleneck in this regard.
Here we present an alternate, cell-segmentation-free workflow based on PhenoRipper, an open-source software platform designed for the rapid analysis and exploration of microscopy images. The pipeline presented here is optimized for immunofluorescence microscopy images of cell cultures and requires minimal user intervention. Within half an hour, PhenoRipper can analyze data from a typical 96-well experiment and generate image profiles. Users can then visually explore their data, perform quality control on their experiment, ensure response to perturbations and check reproducibility of replicates. This facilitates a rapid feedback cycle between analysis and experiment, which is crucial during assay optimization. This protocol is useful not just as a first pass analysis for quality control, but also may be used as an end-to-end solution, especially for screening. The workflow described here scales to large data sets such as those generated by high-throughput screens, and has been shown to group experimental conditions by phenotype accurately over a wide range of biological systems. The PhenoBrowser interface provides an intuitive framework to explore the phenotypic space and relate image properties to biological annotations. Taken together, the protocol described here will lower the barriers to adopting quantitative analysis of image based screens.

Here we describe a workflow for rapidly analyzing and exploring collections of fluorescence microscopy images using PhenoRipper, a recently developed image-analysis platform.

Analisi rapida ed esplorazione di microscopia a fluorescenza Immagini

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized ...

Open-source Single-particle Analysis for Super-resolution Microscopy with VirusMapper

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy is currently revolutionizing cell biology research. Its capacity to break the resolution limit of around 300 nm allows for the routine imaging of nanoscale biological complexes and processes. This increase in resolution also means that methods popular in electron microscopy, such as single-particle analysis, can readily be applied to super-resolution fluorescence microscopy. By combining this analytical approach with super-resolution optical imaging, it becomes possible to take advantage of the molecule-specific labeling capacity of fluorescence microscopy to generate structural maps of molecular elements within a metastable structure. To this end, we have developed a novel algorithm &#8212; VirusMapper &#8212; packaged as an easy-to-use, high-performance, and high-throughput ImageJ plugin. This article presents an in-depth guide to this software, showcasing its ability to uncover novel structural features in biological molecular complexes. Here, we present how to assemble compatible data and provide a step-by-step protocol on how to use this algorithm to apply single-particle analysis to super-resolution images.

This manuscript uses the Fiji-based open-source software package VirusMapper to apply single-particle analysis to super-resolution microscopy images in order to generate precise models of nanoscale structure.

Analisi singola particella open-source per Super-risoluzione Microscopia con VirusMapper

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy is currently revolutionizing cell biology research. Its capacity to break the resolution limit of around 300 nm ...

Ground State Depletion Super-resolution Imaging in Mammalian Cells

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to dramatic leaps in our understanding of how cells function. The development and availability of super-resolution microscopy has considerably extended the limits of optical resolution from ~250-20 nm. Biologists are no longer limited to describing molecular interactions in terms of colocalization within a diffraction limited area, rather it is now possible to visualize the dynamic interactions of individual molecules. Here, we outline a protocol for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins by ground-state depletion microscopy&#160;for fixed cell imaging. We provide examples from two different membrane proteins, an element of the endoplasmic reticulum translocon, sec61&#946;, and a plasma membrane-localized voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channel (CaV1.2). Discussed are the specific microscope parameters, fixation methods, photo-switching buffer formulation, and pitfalls and challenges of image processing.

This article outlines a protocol for the detection of one or more plasma and/or intracellular membrane proteins using Ground State Depletion (GSD) super-resolution microscopy in mammalian cells. Here, we discuss the benefits and considerations of using such approaches for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins.

Stato fondamentale lo svuotamento super-resolution Imaging in cellule di mammifero

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to ...

Sample Preparation and Imaging of Exosomes by Transmission Electron Microscopy

Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by body fluids and are known to represent the characteristics of cells that secrete them. The contents and morphology of the secreted vesicles reflect cell behavior or physiological status, for example cell growth, migration, cleavage, and death. The exosomes&#39; role may depend highly on size, and the size of exosomes varies from 30 to 300 nm. The most widely used method for exosome imaging is negative staining, while other results are based on Cryo-Transmission Electron Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Atomic Force Microscopy. The typical exosome&#39;s morphology assessed through negative staining is a cup-shape, but further details are not yet clear. An exosome well-characterized through structural study is necessary particular in medical and pharmaceutical fields. Therefore, function-dependent morphology should be verified by electron microscopy techniques such as labeling a specific protein in the detailed structure of exosome. To observe detailed structure, ultrathin sectioned images and negative stained images of exosomes were compared. In this protocol, we suggest transmission electron microscopy for the imaging of exosomes including negative staining, whole mount immuno-staining, block preparation, thin section, and immuno-gold labelling.

This protocol describes the various techniques necessary for transmission electron microscopy including negative staining, ultrathin sectioning for detailed structure, and immuno-gold labelling to determine the positions of specific proteins in exosomes.

Preparazione del campione e la formazione immagine di esosomi da microscopia elettronica di trasmissione

Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by body fluids and are known to represent the characteristics of cells that secrete them. The ...

Miniaturized Sample Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy

Due to recent technological progress, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is rapidly becoming a standard method for the structural analysis of protein complexes to atomic resolution. However, protein isolation techniques and sample preparation methods for EM remain a bottleneck. A relatively small number (100,000 to a few million) of individual protein particles need to be imaged for the high-resolution analysis of proteins by the single particle EM approach, making miniaturized sample handling techniques and microfluidic principles feasible.
A miniaturized, paper-blotting-free EM grid preparation method for sample pre-conditioning, EM grid priming and post processing that only consumes nanoliter-volumes of sample is presented. The method uses a dispensing system with sub-nanoliter precision to control liquid uptake and EM grid priming, a platform to control the grid temperature thereby determining the relative humidity above the EM grid, and a pick-and-plunge-mechanism for sample vitrification. For cryo-EM, an EM grid is placed on the temperature-controlled stage and the sample is aspirated into a capillary. The capillary tip is positioned in proximity to the grid surface, the grid is loaded with the sample and excess is re-aspirated into the microcapillary. Subsequently, the sample film is stabilized and slightly thinned by controlled water evaporation regulated by the offset of the platform temperature relative to the dew-point. At a given point the pick-and-plunge mechanism is triggered, rapidly transferring the primed EM grid into liquid ethane for sample vitrification. Alternatively, sample-conditioning methods are available to prepare nanoliter-sized sample volumes for negative stain (NS) EM.
The methodologies greatly reduce sample consumption and avoid approaches potentially harmful to proteins, such as the filter paper blotting used in conventional methods. Furthermore, the minuscule amount of sample required allows novel experimental strategies, such as fast sample conditioning, combination with single-cell lysis for &#34;visual proteomics,&#34; or &#34;lossless&#34; total sample preparation for quantitative analysis of complex samples.

An instrument and methods for the preparation of nanoliter-sized sample volumes for transmission electron microscopy is presented. No paper-blotting steps are required, thus avoiding the detrimental consequences this can have for proteins, significantly reducing sample loss and enabling the analysis of single cell lysate for visual proteomics.

Preparazione del campione miniaturizzati per microscopia elettronica di trasmissione

Due to recent technological progress, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is rapidly becoming a standard method for the structural analysis of protein ...

Biological Sample Preparation by High-pressure Freezing, Microwave-assisted Contrast Enhancement, and Minimal Resin Embedding for Volume Imaging

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the imaging modality in a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM), which is used to obtain stacks of sequential images for 3D reconstruction and modelling. High-pressure freezing (HPF) allows close to native structural preservation, but the subsequent freeze substitution often does not provide sufficient contrast, especially for a bigger specimen, which is needed for high-quality imaging in the SEM required for 3D reconstruction. Therefore, in this protocol, after the freeze substitution, additional contrasting steps are carried out at room temperature. Although these steps are performed in a microwave, it is also possible to follow traditional bench processing, which requires longer incubation times.The subsequent embedding in minimal amounts of resin allows for faster and more precise targeting and preparation inside the FIB-SEM. This protocol is especially useful for samples that require preparation by high-pressure freezing for a reliable ultrastructural preservation but do not gain enough contrast during the freeze substitution for volume imaging using FIB-SEM. In combination with the minimal resin embedding, this protocol provides an efficient workflow for the acquisition of high-quality volume data.

Here we present a protocol for combining two sample processing techniques, high-pressure freezing and microwave-assisted sample processing, followed by minimal resin embedding for acquiring data with a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM). This is demonstrated using a mouse tibial nerve sample and Caenorhabditis elegans.

Preparazione del campione biologico di congelamento ad alta pressione, aumento di contrasto assistita da microonde e Minimal resina incorporamento per Imaging con volumi

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the ...

Super-Resolution Live Cell Imaging of Subcellular Structures

There has long been a crucial tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution in imaging. Imaging beyond the diffraction limit of light has traditionally been restricted to be used only on fixed samples or live cells outside of tissue labeled with strong fluorescent signal. Current super-resolution live cell imaging techniques require the use of special fluorescence probes, high illumination, multiple image acquisitions with post-acquisition processing, or often a combination of these processes. These prerequisites significantly limit the biological samples and contexts that this technique can be applied to.
Here we describe a method to perform super-resolution (~140 nm XY-resolution) time-lapse fluorescence live cell imaging in situ. This technique is also compatible with low fluorescent intensity, for example, EGFP or mCherry endogenously tagged at lowly expressed genes. As a proof-of-principle, we have used this method to visualize multiple subcellular structures in the Drosophila testis. During tissue preparation, both the cellular structure and tissue morphology are maintained within the dissected testis. Here, we use this technique to image microtubule dynamics, the interactions between microtubules and the nuclear membrane, as well as the attachment of microtubules to centromeres.
This technique requires special procedures in sample preparation, sample mounting and immobilizing of specimens. Additionally, the specimens must be maintained for several hours after dissection without compromising cellular function and activity. While we have optimized the conditions for live super-resolution imaging specifically in Drosophila male germline stem cells (GSCs) and progenitor germ cells in dissected testis tissue, this technique is broadly applicable to a variety of different cell types. The ability to observe cells under their physiological conditions without sacrificing either spatial or temporal resolution will serve as an invaluable tool to researchers seeking to address crucial questions in cell biology.

Presented here is a protocol for super-resolution live-cell imaging in intact tissue. We have standardized the conditions for imaging a highly sensitive adult stem cell population in its native tissue environment. This technique involves balancing temporal and spatial resolution to allow for the direct observation of biological phenomena in live tissue.

Imaging di cellule vive super-risoluzione di strutture subcellulari

There has long been a crucial tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution in imaging. Imaging beyond the diffraction limit of light has traditionally ...