We thank Ueli Grossniklaus (University of Z&#252;rich) for technical and financial support. We are thankful to Valeria Gagliardini, Christof Eichenberger, Arturo Bolanos and Peter Kopf for general lab support. This research was funded by the University of Z&#252;rich, grants from the Swiss National Foundation to CB (31003A_130722) and Ueli Grossniklaus (31003A_141245 and 31003AB-126006), and the Agence Nationale de la Recherche to DG (Programme ANR-BLANC-2012).

La procedura è descritta nel flusso di lavoro in Figura 1, e la configurazione per la dissezione e l&#39;incorporamento di tessuti sono rappresentati nella Figura 2. 1. Tissue fissaggio <ol><li> Raccogliere 20-30 carpelli in una provetta per microcentrifuga contenente appena fatto tampone fissativo BVO sul ghiaccio. </li><li> Fissare il tessuto 30 min con una leggera agitazione a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Gira le provette contenenti i carpelli in fissativo in un banco microcentrifuga 1 min a 400 x g. </li><li> Rimuovere con cautela il buffer fissativo e aggiungere 1 ml di PBT, posizionare i tubi sul ghiaccio. </li></ol> 2. Dissection and Embedding <ol><li> Preparare cinque provette Eppendorf con ogni 200 ml di un appena fatto, 5% miscela di acrilamide. </li><li> Preparare cinque vetrini Superfrost pre-puliti con il 70% di etanolo e marcate con una matita. </li><li> Scongelare una aliquota del 20% di APS e il 20% PAN ciascuno, sul ghiaccio. </li><li> Prendere 4-5 carpelli con una punta cut-end, postoli su un vetrino pulito, rimuovere l&#39;eccesso di liquido. </li><li> Effettuare tagli longitudinali con un ago sottile e staccare le pareti carpello a rilasciare file di ovuli, come mostrato figura 2, evitare la disidratazione coprendo con PBS (non superiore a 10 ml). </li><li> Aggiungere rapidamente e mescolare 12 PAN microlitri, 12 APS microlitri con una aliquota di 200 microlitri mix acrilamide. </li><li> Aggiungere 30 ml di acrilammide attivato sui ovuli sezionati. </li><li> Coprire con un coprioggetto mm 20 x 20, lasciate polimerizzare a temperatura ambiente, 45-60 min. </li><li> Rimuovere il vetrino con una lama di rasoio. In questa fase, i campioni possono essere conservati a 4 ° C in una vaschetta Coplin contenente PBS. </li></ol> 3. Processazione dei tessuti NOTA: Tutte le fasi tranne 3.2.1, 3.2.3, 3.3.2 e 3.4.3 sono svolte in vaschette Coplin con 80 ml di soluzione sotto la cappa chimica a temperatura ambiente. I vetrini vengono trasferiti con un piatto-punta pinze. <ol><li> Tissue chiarimenti efissazione: <ol><li> Incubare 5 min in metanolo. </li><li> Incubare 5 min in etanolo. </li><li> Incubare 30 min in etanolo: xilene (1:1). </li><li> Incubare 5 min in etanolo. </li><li> Incubare 5 min in metanolo. </li><li> Incubare 15 min in metanolo e PBT (1:1), integrato con 2,5% di formaldeide. </li><li> Sciacquare 2 x 10 min in PBT. In questa fase, i vetrini possono essere conservati per una notte a 4 ° C. </li></ol></li><li> Digestione della parete cellulare: <ol><li> Scongelare una aliquota della miscela di digestione parete cellulare su ghiaccio. </li><li> Prendete una diapositiva dalla vaschetta Coplin, drenare l&#39;eccesso di liquido ponendolo verticalmente su un tovagliolo di carta. </li><li> Aggiungere 100 ml di parete cellulare mix digestione sopra il pad acrilamide e coprire con un coprioggetto mm 23 x 46. Ripetere l&#39;operazione per le altre diapositive. Incubare per 2 ore a 37 ° C in una camera umida (descritto in Materiali). </li><li> Lavare il slides 2 x 5 minuti in PBT. </li></ol></li><li> RNase A Trattamento: <ol><li> Prendete una diapositiva dalla vaschetta Coplin, drenare the l&#39;eccesso di liquido come prima. </li><li> Incubare il vetrino con 100 ml di RNAseA a 100 pg / ml in PBS con 1% Tween-20 per 1 ora a 37 ° C in una camera umida. </li><li> Lavare i vetrini per 2 x 5 minuti in PBT. </li></ol></li><li> Post-fissazione e permeabilizzazione: <ol><li> Post-fix per 20 minuti in appena fatto PBT-F. </li><li> Sciacquare i vetrini per 10 minuti in PBT. </li><li> Permeabilize per 2 h in PBS con 2% di Tween-20 a 4 ° C. </li><li> Sciacquare i vetrini per 2 x 5 minuti in PBT. </li></ol></li></ol> 4. Immunostaining NOTA: Per questo passaggio, la concentrazione ottimale dell&#39;anticorpo primario deve essere testato utilizzando diverse diluizioni (1:200, 1:500, 1:1000) degli anticorpi. <ol><li> Incubare il vetrino con 100 microlitri di anticorpo primario diluito in PBS con 0,2% di Tween-20 per 12-24 ore a 4 ° C. </li><li> Lavare i vetrini in PBT per 2-4 ore a temperatura ambiente sotto leggera agitazione. </li><li> Applicare il1:200 anticorpo secondario in PBS + 0,2% Tween-20 per 24 ore a 4 ° C. </li><li> Lavare i vetrini in PBT per 1 ora a temperatura ambiente sotto leggera agitazione. </li><li> Controcolorare con 10 ug / ml di ioduro di propidio in PBS per 15 minuti, quindi risciacquare 15 min in PBS sotto leggera agitazione, a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Mount anti-fading liquido di montaggio integrato con 10 mg / ml ioduro di propidio. Lasciate che il mezzo di montaggio indurire per 1 ora prima di acquisire le immagini da CLSM. </li></ol> 5. Imaging quantitativa <ol><li> Acquisizione delle immagini: <ol><li> Acquisire immagini ad alta risoluzione utilizzando CLSM, preferibilmente utilizzando una modalità di scansione di risonanza, che permette una migliore conservazione dei segnali fluorescenti su immagini prolungata 23, e un obiettivo ad immersione 63X glicerolo. </li><li> Testare i parametri di acquisizione come l&#39;intensità del laser, guadagno, pinhole, dimensione voxel e fattore di zoom all&#39;inizio dell&#39;esperimento definire una procedura di acquisizione standard da seguire rigorosamente tuttatutte le diapositive per le misure quantitative coerenti. </li><li> Verificare l&#39;assenza di cross-talk tra fluorocromi. Se presente, impostare una scansione sequenziale. Acquisire le immagini della trasmissione separatamente e non contemporaneamente. </li><li> Eseguire seriale, l&#39;acquisizione di immagini tridimensionali con la massima risoluzione possibile nelle dimensioni X e Y e con 2x oversampling nella dimensione z (regola di Nyquist). </li></ol></li><li> Elaborazione delle immagini: <ol><li> Ricostruire le immagini in serie in tre dimensioni utilizzando il software fonte commerciale o aperto. </li><li> Definire superfici di contorno attorno a ciascun nucleo (o cella) di interesse in 3D. </li><li> Quantificare fluorescenza in ciascun canale come la somma di intensità dei pixel in ciascun oggetto. </li><li> Esportare i dati in Excel per le analisi statistiche. Normalizzare i segnali di anticorpi contro i segnali di colorazione ad esempio DNA. </li></ol></li></ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

In piante da fiore, il lignaggio riproduttivo femminile è circondato da diversi strati di cellule, tra cui il nucellus e tegumenti ovuli, rendendo la colorazione citologica in tutto il montaggio tecnicamente impegnativo. Qui vi presentiamo un protocollo efficace che consente la preparazione e l&#39;elaborazione di un gran numero di ovuli adatti per la colorazione citologica come immunostaining, colorazione DNA e ibridazione in situ fluorescente in tutto il montaggio. Abbiamo utilizzato con successo per l&#39;a...

In piante da fiore, l&#39;istituzione di linee riproduttive inizia con la differenziazione di SMC, MMC femminile e cellula madre microspora maschile. Il MMC sviluppa da una cellula nucellare sub-epidermica sulla punta distale del primordio ovulo, e la cellula madre microspore sviluppa dal tessuto sporigeni nel locule antera, che si trovano in profondità all&#39;interno degli organi floreali 1. SMCs subiscono meiosi per produrre spore aploidi, che poi danno origine ai gametofiti su mitosi. Il gametofito femminile, o embrione sac, costituito da una cellula uovo, una cella centrale, due synergids e tre antipodals. Il gametofito maschile, o il polline, è composto da una cellula vegetativa e due cellule spermatiche. Mentre il gametofito maschile rimane uno studio oggetto d&#39;relativamente accessibile, il gametofito femminile è incorporato all&#39;interno dell&#39;ovulo, si racchiuso nel carpello fiore, e pone quindi sfide specifiche per analisi molecolari e citologici. Recentemente, tuttavia, laser assistitamicrodissezione ha offerto una soluzione elegante che permette trascrittomica analizza in MMC e cellule gametofitici femminili 2-4. In aggiunta l&#39;espressione del gene candidato analisi, ad esempio utilizzando RNA ibridazione in situ o giornalista test genetici, analisi citologiche consente indagare le dinamiche di componenti cellulari endogeni mediante specifica colorazione cellulare diretto o indiretto immunoistochimica. In particolare, la colorazione citogenetica utilizzando FISH e la colorazione del DNA, insieme con immunocolorazione delle modificazioni della cromatina o componenti della cromatina sono approcci centrali di chiarire la dinamica della cromatina e l&#39;organizzazione nucleare in Arabidopsis 5. In genere, la meiosi comporta dinamiche cromosomiche specifiche, che è stato ben studiato in pianta maschio meiocytes 6,7; ulteriormente su larga scala, specifica delle cellule cromatina riorganizzazione, probabilmente riflettendo riprogrammazione epigenetica dinamico è stato descritto durante lo sviluppo del polline 8-10. Per contro, a causaalla relativa inaccessibilità della meiocyte femmina e gametofito, queste indagini rimangono tecnicamente difficile da applicare, e spesso richiedono dissezione sezionamento o manuale e digestione enzimatica (vedi sotto). Inoltre, la prevalente mancanza di chiarezza ottica in tutto il monte è un ostacolo alla imaging ad alta risoluzione delle cellule riproduttive in ovuli intatti. Un metodo classico per l&#39;analisi citologica di organizzazione cromosoma in ovuli interi montaggio utilizza la colorazione del Feulgen 11-13. Si tratta di idrolisi acida (con acido ipocloroso) del DNA che provoca la denaturazione delle proteine ​​e provoca la distruzione della struttura della cromatina così. In alternativa, l&#39;organizzazione dei cromosomi in meiocytes femminili e cellule gametofitici può essere osservata con colorazione DAPI e immunoistochimica su sezioni semi-sottili o sacche di embrioni sezionati e MMC (per esempio vedi 14-18). Chiaramente, però, la dissezione manuale e sezionamento possono essere laborioso eostacola l&#39;analisi qualitativa e quantitativa di un gran numero di epitopi cromatina. Qui forniamo un protocollo efficiente per preparare un gran numero di ovuli Arabidopsis adatti per una varietà di valle colorazione citologica in tutto il montaggio. In breve, boccioli di fiori sono incubati in una soluzione di fissativo, filari di ovuli sono sezionati dal carpello e incorporate in acrilammide sulla trasparenza come fatto per il polline meiocytes 19,20. Gli ovuli incorporati sono ulteriormente cancellate e fissate in metanolo, etanolo, e xilene prima digestione parete cellulare e permeabilizzazione. Eventuali variazioni di questi passaggi sono discussi. I campioni possono quindi essere utilizzate per la colorazione del DNA, immunoistochimica e FISH. La modalità di preparazione è efficiente e consente parallelo sperimentale set-up (fino a 16 vetrini possono essere preparati in un giorno per l&#39;analisi a valle differente). I trattamenti descritti permettono di segnali omogenei in tutto-mount e istologici, cellulari ben conservati,e l&#39;organizzazione nucleare in cellule riproduttive e cellule nucellare circostanti che beneficiano confronti qualitativi e quantitativi tra i tipi di cellule. Calibrato, a base di CLSM imaging ad alta risoluzione seguita da ricostruzione 3-dimensionale consente misurazioni quantitative significative di segnali fluorescenti. Abbiamo utilizzato con successo questa procedura per analizzare le dinamiche della cromatina in MMC differenziare 21 e in via di sviluppo gametofito femminile 22; Vi presentiamo qui i risultati rappresentativi di analisi heterochromatin, immunostaining cromatina, GFP immunostaining e FISH in tutto il montaggio ovuli. Siamo inoltre convinti che il nostro protocollo sarà adatto per altri tessuti vegetali e specie.

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			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:481px;">2mM EGTA, pH7.5, 1% (v/v) Formaldehyde,10% DMSO, 1&#215; PBS, 0.1% Tween-20</td>
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			<td style="width:481px;">3g acrylamide, 0.33g bisacrylamide, 1&#215; PBS (prepare 10ml, store at 4&#176;C)</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">200mL&#160; 5% acrylamide mix in PBS&#160;</td>
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			<td style="width:481px;">34mL 30% acrylamide:bisacrylamide, 166mL 1&#215; PBS (make fresh from 30% stock)</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">20% ammoniumpersulfte&#160;</td>
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			<td style="width:481px;">0.2g ammoniumpersulfte, 1mL sterile water (prepare aliquots with 1mL and store at -20&#176;C)</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">20% sodium sulfite&#160;</td>
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			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:481px;">0.2g sodium sulfite, 1mL sterile water (prepare aliquots with 1mL and store at -20&#176;C)</td>
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			<td style="width:481px;">0.5% (w/v) cellulase, 1% (w/v) driselase, 0.5% (w/v) pectolyase</td>
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			<td>Amaresco</td>
			<td>0497</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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			<td>Schaurlau</td>
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			<td>1794</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Driselase</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D8037</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">pectolyase</td>
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			<td>P5936</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tween-20</td>
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			<td>8.22184.0500</td>
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			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>E-4378</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">acrylamide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A-3553</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">bisacrylamide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M2022</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ammoniumpersulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A9164</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Anti-trimethyl-Histone H3 (Lys4)</td>
			<td>Upstate</td>
			<td>07-473</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Anti- monomethyl-Histone H3 (Lys27)</td>
			<td>Upstate</td>
			<td>07-448</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Alexa Fluor 488~goat ~anti ~rabbit (H+L)</td>
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			<td>A11008</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ProlongGold</td>
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			<td>P36934</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Propidium iodide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P4170</td>
			<td style="width:481px;">toxic</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DAPI</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D9542</td>
			<td style="width:481px;">toxic</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RNAse A</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10109169001</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Coplin jar</td>
			<td>Huber &#38; CO</td>
			<td>10.055</td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Forceps</td>
			<td>DUMONT BIOLOGY</td>
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			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Shaker</td>
			<td>Heidolph</td>
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			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:481px;">A plastic box with damp paper towel inside, a plastic support is put into the box for supporting the slides and keep slides from the water.</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Superfrost Plus slide</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>J1800AMNZ</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FISH Tag DNA KIt</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>F32947</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:259px;">GFP booster</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Chromotek</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:481px;"></td>
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an efficient method for quantitative, single-cell analysis of chromatin modification and nuclear architecture in whole-mount ovules in arabidopsis

In piante da fiore, la transizione destino delle cellule somatiche-to-riproduttiva è segnato dalla specificazione delle cellule madri spore (SMC) in organi floreali della pianta adulta. La femmina SMC (cellula madre megaspore, MMC) differenzia nel primordio ovulo e subisce meiosi. Il megaspore haploid selezionato poi subisce mitosi per formare il gametofito multicellulare femminile, che darà origine ai gameti, la cellula uovo e la cellula centrale, insieme a cellule accessorie. L&#39;accessibilità limitata della MMC, meiocyte e gametofito femminile all&#39;interno dell&#39;ovulo è tecnicamente impegnativo per citologica e citogenetica analisi a livello di singola cellula. In particolare, immunorivelazione diretta o indiretta di epitopi cellulari o nucleari è compromessa dalla scarsa penetrazione dei reagenti all&#39;interno della cellula vegetale e di imaging singola cellula è locato dalla mancanza di chiarezza ottica in tutto il montaggio tessuti. Così, abbiamo sviluppato un metodo efficace per analizzare i Nuclorganizzazione orecchio e la modifica della cromatina ad alta risoluzione della singola cella in tutto il montaggio ovuli di Arabidopsis embedded. Si basa sulla dissezione e l&#39;incorporamento di ovuli fissati in uno strato sottile di gel di acrilammide su un vetrino microscopico. Gli ovuli incorporati vengono sottoposti a trattamenti chimici ed enzimatici volti a migliorare la chiarezza tessuto e permeabilità ai reagenti di immunoistochimica. Tali trattamenti conservano organizzazione, DNA e proteine ​​epitopi cellulari e cromatina. I campioni possono essere utilizzati per diverse analisi citologiche a valle, cromatina immunostaining, ibridazione in situ fluorescente (FISH), e colorazione del DNA per l&#39;analisi eterocromatina. Microscopio confocale a scansione laser (CLSM) delle immagini, ad alta risoluzione, seguita dalla ricostruzione 3D permette misurazioni quantitative a risoluzione singola cellula.

Forniamo un protocollo robusto per la preparazione su larga scala e l&#39;elaborazione di ovuli di Arabidopsis adatti per la colorazione citologica in tutto-mount. Grazie alla incorporamento, gli ovuli conservano una struttura 3-dimensionale (Figura 3). Inoltre, il trattamento dei tessuti con precisazioni ottico consente strutture subcellulari di imaging ad alta risoluzione. Figura 4 mostra la colorazione del DNA in tutto il montaggio primordi dell&#39;ovulo dove heterochromati...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Efficient Method for Quantitative, Single-cell Analysis of Chromatin Modification and Nuclear Architecture in Whole-mount Ovules in Arabidopsis at JoVE.com

An Efficient Method for Quantitative, Single-cell Analysis of Chromatin Modification and Nuclear Architecture in Whole-mount Ovules in Arabidopsis

Forniamo qui un protocollo efficiente e affidabile per immunoistochimica, ibridazione in situ fluorescente, colorazione del DNA seguita da quantitativa, immagini ad alta risoluzione di tutto il montaggio di Arabidopsis thaliana ovuli. Questo metodo è stato utilizzato con successo per analizzare modificazioni della cromatina e architettura nucleare.

Un metodo efficiente per quantitativa, analisi singola cella della cromatina Cambiamento e architettura nucleare in tutto il montaggio Ovuli in<em&gt; Arabidopsis</em

In flowering plants, the somatic-to-reproductive cell fate transition is marked by the specification of spore mother cells (SMCs) in floral organs of the ...

an-efficient-method-for-quantitative-single-cell-analysis-chromatin

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

An Efficient Method for Quantitative, Single-cell Analysis of Chromatin Modification and Nuclear Architecture in Whole-mount Ovules in Arabidopsis

13.1K Views.  University of Zürich.  Forniamo qui un protocollo efficiente e affidabile per immunoistochimica, ibridazione in situ fluorescente, colorazione del DNA seguita da quantitativa, immagini ad alta risoluzione di tutto il montaggio di Arabidopsis thaliana ovuli. Questo metodo è stato utilizzato con successo per analizzare modificazioni della cromatina e architettura nucleare. 

Video: An Efficient Method for Quantitative, Single-cell Analysis of Chromatin Modification and Nuclear Architecture in Whole-mount Ovules in Arabidopsis

Double Whole Mount in situ Hybridization of Early Chick Embryos

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying  gene expression in brain, neural tube, somite and heart primordia formation. This video demonstrates the different steps in 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization; First, the embryo is dissected from the egg and fixed in paraformaldehyde. Second, the embryo is processed for prehybridization. The embryo is then hybridized with two different probes, one coupled to DIG, and one coupled to FITC.  Following overnight hybridization, the embryo is incubated with DIG coupled antibody. Color reaction for DIG substrate is performed, and the region of interest appears blue. The embryo is then incubated with FITC coupled antibody. The embryo is processed for color reaction with FITC, and the region of interest appears red. Finally, the embryo is fixed and processed for phtograph and sectioning. A troubleshooting guide is also presented.

This video demonstrates 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization, a method by which the spatial and temporal expression pattern of 2 different genes can be visualized in young chick embryos. This method was originally introduced by David Wilkinson, Domingos Henrique, Phil Ingham and David Ish -Horowicz.

Doppia Monte intero ibridazione in situ di embrioni di pollo primi

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ...

Ricerca

Biologia

Method for Whole Mount Antibody Staining in Chick

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying antibody expression in developing brain, neural tube and somite. This video demonstrates the different steps in whole-mount antibody staining using HRP conjugated secondary antibodies; First, the embryo is dissected from the egg and fixed in paraformaldehyde. Second, endogenous peroxidase is inactivated; The embryo is then exposed to primary antibody. After several washes, the embryo is incubated with secondary antibody conjugated to HRP. Peroxidase activity is revealed using reaction with diaminobenzidine substrate. Finally, the embryo is fixed and processed for photography and sectioning. The advantage of this method over the use of fluorescent antibodies is that embryos can be processed for wax sectioning, thus enabling the study of antigen sites in cross section. This method was originally introduced by Jane Dodd and Tom Jessell 1.

This video demonstrates whole mount immunohistochemistry, a method by which the spatial and temporal expression pattern of an antigen can be visualized in young chick embryos. This method was originally introduced by Jane Dodd and Tom Jessell.

Metodo per la colorazione intero anticorpi Monte a Chick

Hi-C: A Method to Study the Three-dimensional Architecture of Genomes.

The three-dimensional folding of chromosomes compartmentalizes the genome and and can bring distant functional elements, such as promoters and enhancers, into close spatial proximity 2-6. Deciphering the relationship between chromosome organization and genome activity will aid in understanding genomic processes, like transcription and replication. However, little is known about how chromosomes fold. Microscopy is unable to distinguish large numbers of loci simultaneously or at high resolution. To date, the detection of chromosomal interactions using chromosome conformation capture (3C) and its subsequent adaptations required the choice of a set of target loci, making genome-wide studies impossible 7-10.
We developed Hi-C, an extension of 3C that is capable of identifying long range interactions in an unbiased, genome-wide fashion. In Hi-C, cells are fixed with formaldehyde, causing interacting loci to be bound to one another by means of covalent DNA-protein cross-links. When the DNA is subsequently fragmented with a restriction enzyme, these loci remain linked. A biotinylated residue is incorporated as the 5' overhangs are filled in. Next, blunt-end ligation is performed under dilute conditions that favor ligation events between cross-linked DNA fragments. This results in a genome-wide library of ligation products, corresponding to pairs of fragments that were originally in close proximity to each other in the nucleus. Each ligation product is marked with biotin at the site of the junction. The library is sheared, and the junctions are pulled-down with streptavidin beads. The purified junctions can subsequently be analyzed using a high-throughput sequencer, resulting in a catalog of interacting fragments.
Direct analysis of the resulting contact matrix reveals numerous features of genomic organization, such as the presence of chromosome territories and the preferential association of small gene-rich chromosomes. Correlation analysis can be applied to the contact matrix, demonstrating that the human genome is segregated into two compartments: a less densely packed compartment containing open, accessible, and active chromatin and a more dense compartment containing closed, inaccessible, and inactive chromatin regions. Finally, ensemble analysis of the contact matrix, coupled with theoretical derivations and computational simulations, revealed that at the megabase scale Hi-C reveals features consistent with a fractal globule conformation.

The Hi-C method allows unbiased, genome-wide identification of chromatin interactions (1). Hi-C couples proximity ligation and massively parallel sequencing. The resulting data can be used to study genomic architecture at multiple scales: initial results identified features such as chromosome territories, segregation of open and closed chromatin, and chromatin structure at the megabase scale.

Hi-C: un metodo per studiare l&#39;architettura tridimensionale dei genomi.

The three-dimensional folding of chromosomes compartmentalizes the genome and and can bring distant functional elements, such as promoters and enhancers, ...

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for using FISH to quantify the number of mRNAs in single yeast cells. Cells can be grown in any condition of interest and then fixed and made permeable. Subsequently, multiple single-stranded deoxyoligonucleotides conjugated to fluorescent dyes are used to label and visualize mRNAs. Diffraction-limited fluorescence from single mRNA molecules is quantified using a spot-detection algorithm to identify and count the number of mRNAs per cell. While the more standard quantification methods of northern blots, RT-PCR and gene expression microarrays provide information on average mRNAs in the bulk population, FISH facilitates both the counting and localization of these mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This protocol describes an experimental procedure for performing Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) for counting mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

Visualizzazione e l&#39;analisi di molecole di mRNA mediante fluorescenza<em&gt; In Situ</em&gt; Ibridazione in<em&gt; Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for ...

Slide Preparation Method to Preserve Three-dimensional Chromatin Architecture of Testicular Germ Cells

During testicular germ cell differentiation, the structure of nuclear chromatin dynamically changes. The following describes a method designed to preserve the three-dimensional chromatin arrangement of testicular germ cells found in mice; this method has been termed as the three-dimensional (3D) slide method. In this method, testicular tubules are directly treated with a permeabilization step that removes cytoplasmic material, followed by a fixation step that fixes nuclear materials. Tubules are then dissociated, the cell suspension is cytospun, and cells adhere to slides. This method improves sensitivity towards detection of subnuclear structures and is applicable for immunofluorescence, DNA, and RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and the combination of these detection methods. As an example of a possible application of the 3D slide method, a Cot-1 RNA FISH is shown to detect nascent RNAs. The 3D slide method will facilitate the detailed examination of spatial relationships between chromatin structure, DNA, and RNA during testicular germ cell differentiation.

The material here describes a method developed to preserve the three-dimensional chromatin structure of testicular germ cells. This has been termed the three-dimensional (3D) slide method. This method improves sensitivity for detection of subnuclear structures and is applicable for immunofluorescence, DNA, and RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH).

Metodo di preparazione delle diapositive per preservare l'architettura tridimensionale della cromatina delle cellule germinali testicolari

During testicular germ cell differentiation, the structure of nuclear chromatin dynamically changes. The following describes a method designed to preserve ...

Measuring Spatial and Temporal Ca2+ Signals in Arabidopsis Plants

Developmental and environmental cues induce Ca2+ fluctuations in plant cells. Stimulus-specific spatial-temporal Ca2+ patterns are sensed by cellular Ca2+ binding proteins that initiate Ca2+ signaling cascades. However, we still know little about how stimulus specific Ca2+ signals are generated. The specificity of a Ca2+ signal may be attributed to the sophisticated regulation of the activities of Ca2+ channels and/or transporters in response to a given stimulus. To identify these cellular components and understand their functions, it is crucial to use systems that allow a sensitive and robust recording of Ca2+ signals at both the tissue and cellular levels. Genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators that are targeted to different cellular compartments have provided a platform for live cell confocal imaging of cellular Ca2+ signals. Here we describe instructions for the use of two Ca2+ detection systems: aequorin based FAS (film adhesive seedlings) luminescence Ca2+ imaging and case12 based live cell confocal fluorescence Ca2+ imaging. Luminescence imaging using the FAS system provides a simple, robust and sensitive detection of spatial and temporal Ca2+ signals at the tissue level, while live cell confocal imaging using Case12 provides simultaneous detection of cytosolic and nuclear Ca2+ signals at a high resolution.

Measuring Spatial and Temporal Ca2+ Signals in Arabidopsis Plants

Ca2+ signaling regulates diverse biological processes in plants. Here we present approaches for monitoring abiotic stress induced spatial and temporal Ca2+ signals in Arabidopsis cells and tissues using the genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators Aequorin or Case12.

Misurazione spaziale e temporale Ca<sup&gt; 2 +</sup&gt; Segnali in Arabidopsis Piante

Developmental and environmental cues induce Ca2+ fluctuations in plant cells. Stimulus-specific spatial-temporal Ca2+ patterns are sensed by cellular Ca2+ ...

A Whole Mount In Situ Hybridization Method for the Gastropod Mollusc Lymnaea stagnalis

Whole mount in situ hybridization (WMISH) is a technique that allows for the spatial resolution of nucleic acid molecules (often mRNAs) within a &#39;whole mount&#39; tissue preparation, or developmental stage (such as an embryo or larva) of interest. WMISH is extremely powerful because it can significantly contribute to the functional characterization of complex metazoan genomes, a challenge that is becoming more of a bottleneck with the deluge of next generation sequence data. Despite the conceptual simplicity of the technique much time is often needed to optimize the various parameters inherent to WMISH experiments for novel model systems; subtle differences in the cellular and biochemical properties between tissue types and developmental stages mean that a single WMISH method may not be appropriate for all situations. We have developed a set of WMISH methods for the re-emerging gastropod model Lymnaea stagnalis that generate consistent and clear WMISH signals for a range of genes, and across all developmental stages. These methods include the assignment of larvae of unknown chronological age to an ontogenetic window, the efficient removal of embryos and larvae from their egg capsules, the application of an appropriate Proteinase-K treatment for each ontogenetic window, and hybridization, post-hybridization and immunodetection steps. These methods provide a foundation from which the resulting signal for a given RNA transcript can be further refined with probe specific adjustments (primarily probe concentration and hybridization temperature).

A Whole Mount In Situ Hybridization Method for the Gastropod Mollusc Lymnaea stagnalis

The goal of this protocol is to provide users with a set of methods for the high-throughput decapsulation of Lymnaea stagnalis embryos and larvae in preparation for whole mount in situ hybridization, and for subsequent pre- and post-hybridization treatments.

A monte intero<em&gt; In Situ</em&gt; Metodo ibridazione per la molluschi gasteropodi<em&gt; stagnalis Lymnaea</em

Whole mount in situ hybridization (WMISH) is a technique that allows for the spatial resolution of nucleic acid molecules (often mRNAs) within a ...

CUBIC Protocol Visualizes Protein Expression at Single Cell Resolution in Whole Mount Skin Preparations

The skin is essential for our survival. The outer epidermal layer consists of the interfollicular epidermis, which is a stratified squamous epithelium covering most of our body, and epidermal appendages such as the hair follicles and sweat glands. The epidermis undergoes regeneration throughout life and in response to injury. This is enabled by K14-expressing basal epidermal stem/progenitor cell populations that are tightly regulated by multiple regulatory mechanisms active within the epidermis and between epidermis and dermis. This article describes a simple method to clarify full thickness mouse skin biopsies, and visualize K14 protein expression patterns, Ki67 labeled proliferating cells, Nile Red labeled sebocytes, and DAPI nuclear labeling at single cell resolution in 3D. This method enables accurate assessment and quantification of skin anatomy and pathology, and of abnormal epidermal phenotypes in genetically modified mouse lines. The CUBIC protocol is the best method available to date to investigate molecular and cellular interactions in full thickness skin biopsies at single cell resolution.

This report describes a CUBIC protocol to clarify full thickness mouse skin biopsies, and visualize protein expression patterns, proliferating cells, and sebocytes at the single cell resolution in 3D. This method enables accurate assessment of skin anatomy and pathology, and of abnormal epidermal phenotypes in genetically modified mouse lines.

Protocollo CUBIC Visualizza lo espressione della proteina a risoluzione singola cella di intere preparazioni della pelle Mount

The skin is essential for our survival. The outer epidermal layer consists of the interfollicular epidermis, which is a stratified squamous epithelium ...

Visualization of 3D White Adipose Tissue Structure Using Whole-mount Staining

Adipose tissue is an important metabolic organ with high plasticity and is responsive to environmental stimuli and nutrient status. As such, various techniques have been developed to study the morphology and biology of adipose tissue. However, conventional visualization methods are limited to studying the tissue in 2D sections, failing to capture the 3D architecture of the whole organ. Here we present whole-mount staining, an immunohistochemistry method that preserves intact adipose tissue morphology with minimal processing steps. Hence, the structures of adipocytes and other cellular components are maintained without distortion, achieving the most representative 3D visualization of the tissue. In addition, whole-mount staining can be combined with lineage tracing methods to determine cell fate decisions. However, this technique has some limitations to providing accurate information regarding deeper parts of adipose tissue. To overcome this limitation, whole-mount staining can be further combined with tissue clearing techniques to remove the opaqueness of tissue and allow for complete visualization of entire adipose tissue anatomy using light-sheet fluorescent microscopy. Therefore, a higher resolution and more accurate representation of adipose tissue structures can be captured with the combination of these techniques.

The focus of the present study is to demonstrate the whole-mount immunostaining and visualization technique as an ideal method for 3D imaging of adipose tissue architecture and cellular component.

Visualizzazione della struttura del tessuto adiposo bianco 3D usando la macchiatura del intero-supporto

Adipose tissue is an important metabolic organ with high plasticity and is responsive to environmental stimuli and nutrient status. As such, various ...

An Easy and Flexible Inoculation Method for Accurately Assessing Powdery Mildew-Infection Phenotypes of Arabidopsis and Other Plants

Reducing crop losses due to fungal diseases requires improved understanding of the mechanisms governing plant immunity and fungal pathogenesis, which in turn requires accurate determination of disease phenotypes of plants upon infection with a particular fungal pathogen. However, accurate disease phenotyping with unculturable biotrophic fungal pathogens such as powdery mildew is not easy to achieve and can be a rate-limiting step of a research project. Here, we have developed a safe, efficient, and easy-to-operate disease phenotyping system using the Arabidopsis-powdery mildew interaction as an example. This system mainly consists of three components: (i) a wooden inoculation box fitted with a removable lid mounted with a stainless steel or nylon mesh of ~50 &#181;m pores for inoculating a flat of plants with fungal spores, (ii) a transparent plastic chamber with a small front opening for minimizing spore escape while conducting inoculation inside, and (iii) a spore-dislodging and distribution method for even and effective inoculation. The protocols described here include the steps and parameters for making the inoculation box and the plastic chamber at a low cost, and a video demonstration of how to use the system to enable even inoculation with powdery mildew spores, thereby improving accuracy and reproducibility of disease phenotyping.

We present a protocol for constructing a simple spore-distribution system consisting of an inoculation box with a ~50 &#181;m mesh and a transparent plastic chamber. This can be used to evenly inoculate plants with powdery mildew spores, thereby enabling accurate and reproducible assessment of disease phenotypes of plants under study.

Un metodo di inoculazione semplice e flessibile per valutare accuratamente i fenotipi di infezione da oidio di Arabidopsis e altre piante

Reducing crop losses due to fungal diseases requires improved understanding of the mechanisms governing plant immunity and fungal pathogenesis, which in ...