This work was supported by a research grant MOP 119271 to JMW by the Canadian Institute of Health Research. The authors would like to thank Ms. Yao Fang Tan for her outstanding technical assistance.

NOTA: Tutte le procedure sugli animali conformi alle linee guida per la salute e il benessere degli animali del Dipartimento di Medicina comparata presso l&#39;Università di Toronto. 1. Preparazione di fettine di ippocampo <ol><li> Sterilizzare i seguenti strumenti che utilizzano l&#39;autoclave secco a 125 ° C: manico bisturi (# 3) (2), pinze modello standard, di grandi dimensioni (1), Piccolo dissettore forbice (angolato a lato) (1), Micro cucchiaio (cucchiaio e piatto estremità spatola) (1), Micro-spatole (arrotondati e arrotondati estremità rastremate) (2), pennello fine (1), Fuoco lucidato pipetta Pasteur (2), le piazze garza, 2 x 2 pollici (5). </li><li> Quando sterili, mettere gli strumenti in un contenitore sterile e mantenere coperta fino al momento dell&#39;uso. Immediatamente prima dissezione, immergere gli strumenti in una soluzione di etanolo al 70%. </li><li> Preparare una piastra di coltura da 6 pozzetti con inserto cultura prima di iniziare la procedura di dissezione aggiungendo 1 ml di terreno di coltura / pozzetto e memorizzare la piastra nella incubatore a 35 ° C unand 5% di CO 2. </li></ol> 2. Disporre strumenti di dissezione in cappa sterile a flusso laminare <ol><li> Spruzzare la cappa a flusso laminare con il 70% di etanolo e rimuovere strumenti di dissezione sterili da alcol. Lasciare gli strumenti per asciugare mentre riposa su una piastra di Petri sterile per evitare il contatto tra l&#39;alcol e il tessuto cerebrale sezionato. </li><li> Deposito 5-7 ml di soluzione di dissezione ghiacciata sterilizzato in 2 grandi piastre sterili. Un piatto sarà raffreddare e pulire la testina (sporca), l&#39;altro per il raffreddamento e il risciacquo del cervello scavato (pulito). Inserire un filtro di carta sterilizzata in uno dei coperchi piatto Petri per sezionare il cervello. </li><li> Inserire un piccolo, carta da filtro sterilizzato in una piccola capsula di Petri coperchio per sezionare l&#39;ippocampo. Deposito 3-5 ml di soluzione di dissezione ghiacciata sterilizzato in 2 piccoli, piastre sterili. Un piatto terrà l&#39;ippocampo scavato, si terrà sezioni durante la separazione delle sezioni di ippocampoal microscopio dissezione. </li><li> Preparare il chopper tessuto con nastro adesivo un pezzo di carta da filtro sterile per la fase di taglio e il montaggio di una lama di rasoio sterile. Bagnare la carta da filtro con una soluzione sterilizzata dissezione. </li><li> Spruzzare un bio-bag pulito con alcool e collocarlo in flusso laminare banco pulito. </li></ol> 3. ippocampale Dissection <ol><li> Spruzzare il ratto pup P7 Sprague Dawley con il 70% di etanolo al di fuori del banco pulito flusso laminare e decapitarlo rapidamente l&#39;animale con grandi forbici chirurgiche sterili all&#39;interno del banco a flusso laminare. Lasciate che la testa cadere nella soluzione dissezione ghiacciata in una delle piastre di Petri. </li><li> Nella capsula di Petri, lavare via il sangue e velocemente trasferire la testa di carta da filtro sterilizzato, lato ventrale verso il basso. </li><li> Usando il bisturi, tagliare lungo la superficie dorsale nel piano sagittale per esporre il cranio sottostante. Tagliare attraverso la pelle, ma non l&#39;osso sottostante, che è morbido e facilmente penetrabili in ratti di tla sua età. Mettere da parte il bisturi &quot;sporco&quot; e non usare su tessuto cerebrale. </li><li> Utilizzando le piccole forbici dissettore (angolato a lato) e pinze, taglio aperto il cranio lungo sutura sagittale del cranio di bregma, il punto anatomica sul cranio dove la sutura coronale è intersecato perpendicolarmente dalla sutura sagittale. Usare pinze per tirare lembi cranio alto e lontano dalla linea mediana del cranio. </li><li> Posizionare il micro cucchiaio sul lato inferiore del cervello, sotto il tronco cerebrale, per sollevare delicatamente il cervello dal cranio. Sollevare il cervello per esporre i nervi ottici e bulbo olfattivo sulla superficie basale del cervello. Tagliare queste strutture con piccole forbici per staccare completamente il cervello da teschio. Rimuovere e trasferire il cervello integro e il loro piatto Petri grande contenente soluzione dissezione ghiacciata. </li><li> Utilizzando il micro cucchiaio, trasferire il cervello di un piccolo coperchio Petri-piatto contenente carta da filtro sterile. Con una pipetta Pasteur sterile, lavare il cervello con qualche goccia di dissecting soluzione per mantenere il tessuto umido. </li><li> Utilizzando un &quot;clean&quot; bisturi tagliare i due emisferi a parte. Trasferire l&#39;emisfero sinistro torna a grande piatto di Petri con micro cucchiaio e posizionare emisfero lato pia dalla soluzione di dissezione ghiacciata per un uso successivo. </li><li> Guarda la faccia mediale dell&#39;emisfero destro e identificare il fornice bordo, una fascia importante della sostanza bianca lungo il bordo mediale dell&#39;ippocampo. Usando un bisturi sterile, fare un taglio sagittale attraverso il fornice, ma prendersi cura perché solo 0,5 cm di punta bisturi saranno sufficienti per tagliare il fornice. </li><li> Usando 2 micro-spatole, rimuovere il primo dell&#39;ippocampo da emisfero destro mettendo la destra-spatola su tronco cerebrale e sollevando la corteccia sovrastante con la spatola sinistra. Sollevare delicatamente la corteccia per rivelare il ventricolo laterale e la superficie mediale dell&#39;ippocampo. Una linea curva bianca, la fimbria, dovrebbe essere visibile. </li><li> Allineate la curvatura della spatola con la curvatura della fimbria e premere delicatamente la spatola sotto la fimbria. Far scorrere la spatola sinistra e corsa lungo l&#39;asse rostrale-caudale e poi sollevare spatola in direzione dorsale per rimuovere ippocampo. </li><li> Trasferire l&#39;ippocampo di un piccolo piatto ° 2 Petri con una soluzione di dissezione ghiacciata. Ripetere la stessa procedura sul emisfero sinistro per rimuovere l&#39;ippocampo sinistro. </li><li> Usando una micro spatola, trasferire accuratamente l&#39;ippocampo alla fase chopper tessuti. Disporre loro adiacenti e parallele fra loro e perpendicolari all&#39;asse della lama chopper. Utilizzare un pennello per posizionare il tessuto e aggiungere qualche goccia della soluzione dissezione sulla parte superiore del ippocampi. </li><li> Tagliare il tessuto in 400 micron fette senza pause per rimuovere singole fette (di solito non si atterranno alla lama). Dopo tutto ippocampo è stato tagliato, utilizzare il pennello per trasferire delicatamente le sezioni per un piccolo piatto ° 2 Petri con una soluzione dissezione. </li><li> Sotto annuncioissecting microscopio, separare accuratamente le fette galleggianti con amicro-spatola e pennello. </li><li> Rimuovere la piastra di coltura pre-preparati con inserto cultura dal termostato e posto in una cappa a flusso laminare. </li><li> Usando una pipetta Pasteur fuoco lucido, disegnare 4-5 fette nelle fette pipetta e trasferire alla superficie apicale della membrana inserto cultura. Quindi, regolare il posizionamento con un pennello e lasciare uno spazio tra le singole sezioni e il bordo dell&#39;inserto cultura. </li><li> Usando una pipetta Pasteur sterile, rimuovere la soluzione dissezione in eccesso dalla superficie apicale di membrana. NOTA: Durante la rimozione soluzione evitare di tracciare sezioni di tessuto nella pipetta. In alternativa, utilizzare una pipetta regolare (P200 o P1000), con punte per pipette sterilizzate per rimuovere lentamente soluzione. </li><li> Posizionare la piastra di coltura con siero contenente terreno di coltura e le fettine di ippocampo posteriore in incubatore a 35 ° C e 5% di CO 2. NOTA: Se le chiamate esperimentoper la generazione di colture da più animali, pulire accuratamente il banco pulito flusso laminare tra dissezioni. Strumenti Torna a soluzione alcolica e sostituire tutti Petri-piatti, filtri di carta e lame di rasoio sterile prima della seconda dissezione. </li></ol> 4. Alimentazione e Mantenimento Organotipica Slices <ol><li> Culture mangimi in un banco pulito flusso laminare sterile. </li><li> Eseguire la prima alimentazione delle sezioni coltivate due giorni dopo la dissezione. Aspirare il terreno vecchia cultura usando pipetta di vetro sterilizzati. </li><li> Utilizzare sterile 5 ml pipetta sierologica aggiungere 1 ml di fresco sterili, medium, il siero contenente ai pozzetti. </li><li> Sostituire delicatamente l&#39;inserto cultura e prendersi cura di eliminare eventuali bolle d&#39;aria che possono essersi formate sotto la superficie della membrana. </li><li> Dopo la prima alimentazione, cambiare media ogni altro giorno. </li></ol> 5. incubazione fette di tessuto con timidina Analoghi etichettare Newborn Neuroni <ol><li> Per studiarela maturazione e l&#39;integrazione dei granuli dentato dell&#39;ippocampo, incubare le fette organotipiche con un analogo della timidina, come ad esempio Bromodeossiuridina (BrdU) o Chlorodeoxyuridine (CldU). Qui, usiamo CldU causa della sua elevata solubilità in soluzione salina. </li><li> Dopo 3DIV, aggiungere 1 ml di 10 mg / ml soluzione madre CldU in soluzione fisiologica a 1 ml di terreno di coltura per una concentrazione finale di 10 mg / ml. Se viene utilizzato BrdU, correggere la concentrazione delle differenze di peso molecolare. Aggiungere mezzo con CldU ai pozzetti cultura e incubare il tessuto con CldU contenenti media per 2 ore a 35 ° C. </li><li> Dopo 2 h di incubazione a 35 ° C, rimuovere il terreno contenente CldU e sostituirlo con il mezzo d&#39;alimentazione normale per riprendere programma di alimentazione normale (descritto sopra). </li></ol> 6. I tessuti Fissazione e bagagli <ol><li> Stabilire un calendario per l&#39;applicazione di trattamenti e fissaggio campioni di tessuto prima di avviare esperimenti di coltura (Figura 2b). </li> &lt;li&gt; A un giorno prestabilito post-dissezione, preparare quanto segue in una cappa di laboratorio: un bicchiere 10-50 ml contenente 4% paraformaldeide (PFA) in tampone fosfato (PBS); un bicchiere vuoto per mezzo di coltura scartato; pinzetta; e una pipetta 1000 ml con punte monouso. </li><li> Rimuovere la piastra di coltura (s) dalla camera di incubazione e trasferimento in una cappa aspirante. Inclinare singoli inserti piastre e con una pinza. Successivamente, utilizzare una pipetta per rimuovere terreno di coltura e trasferirla in un bicchiere di smaltimento. Inclinare la piastra di coltura con un angolo per contribuire a garantire che tutti i medium di coltura viene rimosso. </li><li> Termina rimozione mezzo per una piastra di coltura per volta. Quando medio è stato rimosso, aggiungere 1 ml di 4% PFA per ogni cultura bene e sigillare bene piatto con parafilm. Ripetere l&#39;operazione per il maggior numero di piastre di coltura come piatti necessari e trasferimento in frigorifero a 4 ° C per 24 ore. </li><li> Dopo 24 ore, di preparare le seguenti in una cappa aspirante: 10-50 bicchiere ml contenente 0,1% di sodio azide in PBS; un vuotobecher per scartato PFA (seguire le precauzioni di sicurezza quando scartando sostanze tossiche); pinzetta; e 1.000 ml pipetta con punte monouso. </li><li> Seguire la procedura descritta in 6.4 per l&#39;aggiunta di PFA, ma aggiungere 1 ml di PBS con sodio azide invece. Una volta completamente trasferita, piastre di tenuta e per un utilizzo futuro avvolgendo bordi in parafilm e conservare in frigorifero a 4 ° C. </li></ol> 7. sezionamento del tessuto per immunoistochimica <ol><li> Eseguire il tessuto sezionamento con un vibratome. La seguente serie di passi aiutano a massimizzare la resa di sezioni di tessuto utilizzabili da colture organotipiche. NOTA: Immediatamente dopo dissezione dell&#39;ippocampo e placcatura di fette, il tessuto ha uno spessore di circa 400 micron. Tuttavia, dopo 2-3 settimane nella camera di incubazione, fette di tessuto inizieranno ad appiattirsi, causando uno spessore sezione finale di 150-300 micron. </li><li> Preparare le seguenti voci alla sezione di tessuto coltivato: una # 11 bisturi blade e gestire, una piastra di Petri di vetro contenente ghiaccio freddo PBS, un micro-dissezione forcipe, e una fase di taglio vibratome pulito per montare il tessuto. </li><li> Utilizzare un bisturi per tagliare attentamente lungo il perimetro della membrana inserto circolare in modo che possa essere staccato dalla custodia inserto in plastica. Lasciare ampio spazio tra la fetta colta e il bisturi. </li><li> Trasferire la membrana inserto distaccato di una piastra di Petri contenente PBS. Dopo lavaggio in PBS, utilizzare pinze per trasferire la membrana alla fase di montaggio vibratome. </li><li> Quindi, utilizzare il bisturi per eliminare l&#39;eccesso di membrana che circonda le fette in coltura e tagliare il materiale in eccesso per creare bordi puliti. Questo passaggio garantirà la membrana è piana e può facilmente aderire alla superficie di taglio. </li><li> Mettere 1-2 gocce di colla sul palco taglio vibratome e diffondere in strato uniforme con un ago 22 G. Distribuire adesivo in una forma rettangolare, con il lato lungo parallelo alla lama di taglio del vibratome. Eseguire questo passaggiorapidamente, per evitare che l&#39;adesivo si secchi. </li><li> Utilizzare pinze per trasferire la membrana rifilato contenente fettine di ippocampo per la fase di taglio e delicatamente posizionare la membrana sulla colla e assicurarsi che non vi siano bolle d&#39;aria. </li><li> Come la supercolla asciuga, trasferire il palco vibratome con la membrana incollato torna alla piastra di Petri contenente PBS. Preparare la lama vibratome e 48 pozzetti contenente azide di sodio per memorizzare sezioni di tessuto. </li><li> Utilizzare il vibratome di generare 30 micron sezioni del tessuto fetta organotipica e trasferimento in un 48 pozzetti contenente sodio azide per lo stoccaggio e la successiva colorazione immunoistochimica. </li><li> Fare riferimento alle pre-esistenti protocolli per la colorazione immunoistochimica 26,29. </li></ol>

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P., Laskowski, A., Gray, W. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Examination+of+granule+layer+cell+count,+cell+density,+and+single-pulse+BrdU+incorporation+in+rat+organotypic+hippocampal+slice+cultures+with+respect+to+culture+medium,+septotemporal+position,+and+time+in+vitro.">Examination of granule layer cell count, cell density, and single-pulse BrdU incorporation in rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures with respect to culture medium, septotemporal position, and time in vitro.</a> The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 497 (3), 397-415 (2006).</li><li>Mielke, J. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytoskeletal,+synaptic,+and+nuclear+protein+changes+associated+with+rat+interface+organotypic+hippocampal+slice+culture+development.">Cytoskeletal, synaptic, and nuclear protein changes associated with rat interface organotypic hippocampal slice culture development.</a> Developmental Brain Research. 160 (2), 275-286 (2005).</li><li>Fabian-Fine, R., Volknandt, W., Fine, A., Stewart, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-dependent+pre-+and+postsynaptic+distribution+of+AMPA+receptors+at+synapses+in+CA3+stratum+radiatum+of+hippocampal+slice+cultures+compared+with+intact+brain.">Age-dependent pre- and postsynaptic distribution of AMPA receptors at synapses in CA3 stratum radiatum of hippocampal slice cultures compared with intact brain.</a> European Journal of Neuroscience. 12 (10), 3687-3700 (2000).</li><li>Laplagne, D. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+convergence+of+neurons+generated+in+the+developing+and+adult+hippocampus.">Functional convergence of neurons generated in the developing and adult hippocampus.</a> PLoS Biology. 4 (12), e409 (2006).</li><li>McDonald, H. Y., Wojtowicz, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+of+neurogenesis+in+the+dentate+gyrus+of+adult+rats.">Dynamics of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult rats.</a> Neuroscience Letters. 385 (1), 70-75 (2005).</li><li>Stone, S. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+convergence+of+developmentally+and+adult-generated+granule+cells+in+dentate+gyrus+circuits+supporting+hippocampus-dependent+memory.">Functional convergence of developmentally and adult-generated granule cells in dentate gyrus circuits supporting hippocampus-dependent memory.</a> Hippocampus. 21 (12), 1348-1362 (2011).</li><li>Wang, S., Scott, B. W., Wojtowicz, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterogenous+properties+of+dentate+granule+neurons+in+the+adult+rat.">Heterogenous properties of dentate granule neurons in the adult rat.</a> Journal of Neurobiology. 42 (2), 248-257 (2000).</li><li>Wojtowicz, J. M., Kee, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BrdU+assay+for+neurogenesis+in+rodents.">BrdU assay for neurogenesis in rodents.</a> Nature Protocols. 1 (3), 1399-1405 (2006).</li><li>Fritsch, R. S. E. R., Weibel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stereological+Methods,+Vol.+1:+Practical+Methods+for+Biological+Morphometry.">Stereological Methods, Vol. 1: Practical Methods for Biological Morphometry.</a> Zeitschrift f&#252;r Allgemeine Mikrobiologie. 21 (8), 630-630 (1981).</li><li>Bunk, E. C., Konig, H. G., Bonner, H. P., Kirby, B. P., Prehn, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NMDA-induced+injury+of+mouse+organotypic+hippocampal+slice+cultures+triggers+delayed+neuroblast+proliferation+in+the+dentate+gyrus:+an+in+vitro+model+for+the+study+of+neural+precursor+cell+proliferation.">NMDA-induced injury of mouse organotypic hippocampal slice cultures triggers delayed neuroblast proliferation in the dentate gyrus: an in vitro model for the study of neural precursor cell proliferation.</a> Brain Research. 1359, 22-32 (2010).</li><li>Kolb, B., Pedersen, B., Ballermann, M., Gibb, R., Whishaw, I. Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Embryonic+and+postnatal+injections+of+bromodeoxyuridine+produce+age-dependent+morphological+and+behavioral+abnormalities.">Embryonic and postnatal injections of bromodeoxyuridine produce age-dependent morphological and behavioral abnormalities.</a> The Journal Of Neuroscience : The Official Journal Of The Society For Neuroscience. 19 (6), 2337-2346 (1999).</li><li>Morris, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetic+toxicology+of+5-bromodeoxyuridine+in+mammalian+cells.">The genetic toxicology of 5-bromodeoxyuridine in mammalian cells.</a> Mutation Research. 258 (2), 161-188 (1991).</li><li>Bannigan, J., Langman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cellular+effect+of+5-bromodeoxyuridine+on+the+mammalian+embryo.">The cellular effect of 5-bromodeoxyuridine on the mammalian embryo.</a> Journal Of Embryology And Experimental Morphology. 50, 123-135 (1979).</li><li>Breunig, J. J., Arellano, J. I., Macklis, J. D., Rakic, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everything+that+glitters+isn't+gold:+a+critical+review+of+postnatal+neural+precursor+analyses.">Everything that glitters isn't gold: a critical review of postnatal neural precursor analyses.</a> Cell Stem Cell. 1 (6), 612-627 (2007).</li><li>Duque, A., Rakic, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+effects+of+bromodeoxyuridine+and+[3H]thymidine+incorporation+into+DNA+on+cell+proliferation,+position,+and+fate.">Different effects of bromodeoxyuridine and [3H]thymidine incorporation into DNA on cell proliferation, position, and fate.</a> The Journal Of Neuroscience : The Official Journal Of The Society For Neuroscience. 31 (42), 15205-15217 (2011).</li><li>Namba, T., Mochizuki, H., Onodera, M., Namiki, H., Seki, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Postnatal+neurogenesis+in+hippocampal+slice+cultures:+early+in+vitro+labeling+of+neural+precursor+cells+leads+to+efficient+neuronal+production.">Postnatal neurogenesis in hippocampal slice cultures: early in vitro labeling of neural precursor cells leads to efficient neuronal production.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Research. 85 (8), 1704-1712 (2007).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Dopo CldU (o BrdU) amministrazione, la linea temporale di applicazione di agenti farmacologici può essere scelto a bersaglio DGCS neonato durante particolari finestre di sviluppo. Ad esempio, un agente ipotetico può essere applicato durante la seconda settimana post-iniezione CldU, che si propone di coincidere con l&#39;età di neuroni immaturi che sono in fase di sviluppo in cui viene depolarizzante GABA. Futuri studi che utilizzano questo protocollo potrebbe adattare l&#39;agente farmacologico e la finestra di espos...

Adult neurogenesis in the mammalian hippocampus represents a remarkable example of the brain&#8217;s innate capacity for adaptability and plasticity. Dentate granule cells (DGCs) are generated from a renewable pool of neural progenitor cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, which is one of the two presently well-characterized neurogenic regions in the mammalian brain, and is thought to be particularly important for learning and memory. The hippocampus is part of the limbic system and has a deep location within the mammalian brain, which makes it a difficult target for precise pharmacological manipulation. Additionally, aberrant neurogenesis has been implicated in conditions, such as epilepsy, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer&#8217;s disease, which has prompted interest in understanding the influence of various pharmacological agents during the maturation and survival of newborn neurons. The distinction between postnatal and adult neurogenesis is blurred and previous studies have shown that many features of in vivo neuronal development in the early postnatal period and adulthood are similar25. Here we emphasize postnatal neurogenesis and suggest possible applications to adult neurogenesis.
Organotypic slice cultures provide an efficient in vitro method for studying various physiological properties of the mammalian hippocampus. The value of slice cultures prepared from rodent brains can be summarized in three main qualities: 1) the protocol is straightforward and requires readily available materials; 2) slice cultures allow for pharmacological studies that eliminate complex variables such as the deep anatomic location of the hippocampus and circumvents the blood brain barrier1; and 3) the well characterized structure of the hippocampus and tri-synaptic circuit is preserved2. Previous investigators have used the organotypic hippocampal culture to study synaptic development and physiology3,4, gliogenesis5-7, ischemic brain damage8,9, neuroprotection and neurorepair10-12 as well as epilepsy13-15.The slice cultures could also provide a useful model system allowing for the monitoring of cell development in conjunction with labeling of cells with green fluorescent protein (GFP) or other vital markers.
Slice cultures have also been previously employed to study postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis16-19, but one important factor in the majority of these studies is the well-characterized degeneration that results from explanting tissue from adult animals after approximately 2 weeks in vitro20,21. For this reason, slice cultures are typically prepared from early post-natal (P5-P10) mice or rat pups, which utilizes the improved viability of early postnatal brain tissue for culturing22. While previous studies have shown that the early postnatal and adult hippocampus differ with regards to synaptic physiology and the expression of specific neuronal subtypes23,24, there is substantial conservation of the choreographed developmental program that newborn dentate granule cells proceed through during maturation25. Additionally, recent studies have suggested that the physiological characteristics of newborn DGCs in culture are very similar to immature neurons in the acute hippocampal slice preparation16.

<table><tbody><tr><td>5-chloro-2&#039;-deoxyuridine (CldU)</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>105478</td><td>Hazardous, Carcinogenic</td></tr><tr><td>Cell culture inserts, 30 mm diameter, 0.4 &amp;micro;m pore size</td><td>Thermo scientific&amp;nbsp;</td><td>140660</td><td>Nuclon delta coating on these inserts provides better tissue adhesion and improves slice quality.</td></tr><tr><td>Conical Centrifuge tubes (sterile)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>14-432-22</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dissector scissors (angled to side)</td><td>Fine Science Tools&amp;nbsp;</td><td>14082-09</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Minimum essential medium (MEM)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>11095; liquid</td><td>Store at 4 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Eclipse Ni-U fluorescent microscope</td><td>Nikon</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glue for tissue</td><td>Krazy Glue</td><td>KG585</td><td>Use minimum amount of glue to achieve adhesion as any tissue exposed to glue will be unusable for IHC.</td></tr><tr><td>Hank&amp;rsquo;s Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) (500 ml)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14025-092</td><td>Store at 4 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Horse Serum Heat Inactivated (500 ml)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>16050-122</td><td>Make 50 ml aliquots and store at -20 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Kimwipes</td><td>Kimberly-Clarke</td><td>TW 31KYPBX</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Modified glass pipettes (bottom of Pasteur pipette removed and edge smoothed with Bunsen flame)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Petri Dish (100 mm x 15 mm) and (60 mm x 15 mm)</td><td>Fisher Brand</td><td>FB0875712 and FB0875713A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scalpel blades #11</td><td>Fine Science Tools</td><td>10011-00</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scalpel handle #3</td><td>Fine Science Tools</td><td>10003-12</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Serological Pipettes</td><td>Sorfa Medical Plastic Co.</td><td>P8050</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Standard Pattern forceps</td><td>Fine Science Tools</td><td>11000-12</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sterile vacuum filter</td><td>Thermo-Scientific</td><td>565-0020</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical Scissors</td><td>Fine Science Tools</td><td>14054-13</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Syringe driven filter unit</td><td>Millipore-Millex</td><td>SLGP033RS</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue chopper with moveable stage</td><td>Stoelting&amp;nbsp;</td><td>51425</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fine tip paintbrush</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

organotypic slice cultures for studies of postnatal neurogenesis

Qui si descrive una tecnica per lo studio dell&#39;ippocampo la neurogenesi postnatale nel cervello dei roditori utilizzando la tecnica organotipica cultura fetta. Questo metodo mantiene la morfologia caratteristica topografica dell&#39;ippocampo pur consentendo l&#39;applicazione diretta di agenti farmacologici per le sviluppo giro dentato dell&#39;ippocampo. Inoltre, culture fetta possono essere mantenuti fino a 4 settimane e, quindi, permettono di studiare il processo di maturazione dei neuroni granulari neonati. Culture fetta consentono efficace manipolazione farmacologica di fettine ippocampali escludendo variabili complesse quali incertezze relative alla posizione anatomica profonda dell&#39;ippocampo e la barriera ematoencefalica. Per queste ragioni, abbiamo cercato di ottimizzare culture fetta organotipiche specificamente per la ricerca neurogenesi postnatale.

Determinare se colture organotipiche sarebbe adatto per la ricerca neurogenesi adulta richieste che soddisfano due criteri principali: 1) che le fette di mantenere le peculiari caratteristiche morfologiche delle fettine di ippocampo dopo 10-21 giorni in vitro (DIV), e 2) che DGCS neonati possono essere quantificati utilizzando tecniche di immunoistochimica standard, comunemente impiegati nella ricerca neurogenesi adulta. Per quanto riguarda il primo criterio, Figure 1A e 1B evi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Organotypic Slice Cultures for Studies of Postnatal Neurogenesis at JoVE.com

Organotypic Slice Cultures for Studies of Postnatal Neurogenesis

Qui si descrive una tecnica per lo studio dell&#39;ippocampo la neurogenesi postnatale utilizzando la tecnica organotipica cultura fetta. Questo metodo permette la manipolazione in vitro di neurogenesi adulta e permette l&#39;applicazione diretta di agenti farmacologici per l&#39;ippocampo in coltura.

Colture organotipiche Slice di studi di post-natale neurogenesi

Here we describe a technique for studying hippocampal postnatal neurogenesis in the rodent brain using the organotypic slice culture technique. This ...

organotypic-slice-cultures-for-studies-of-postnatal-neurogenesis

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

12.2K Views.  University of Toronto.  Qui si descrive una tecnica per lo studio dell'ippocampo la neurogenesi postnatale utilizzando la tecnica organotipica cultura fetta. Questo metodo permette la manipolazione in vitro di neurogenesi adulta e permette l'applicazione diretta di agenti farmacologici per l'ippocampo in coltura. 

Video: Organotypic Slice Cultures for Studies of Postnatal Neurogenesis

Organotypic Slice Culture of E18 Rat Brains

Organotypic slice cultures from embryonic rodent brains are widely used to study brain development. While there are often advantages to an in-vivo system, organotypic slice cultures allow one to perform a number of manipulations that are not presently feasible in-vivo. To date, organtotypic embryonic brain slice cultures have been used to follow individual cells using time-lapse microscopy, manipulate the expression of genes in the ganglionic emanances (a region that is hard to target by in-utero electroporation), as well as for pharmacological studies. In this video protocol we demonstrate how to make organotypic slice cultures from rat embryonic day 18 embryos. The protocol involves dissecting the embryos, embedding them on ice in low melt agarose, slicing the embedded brains on the vibratome, and finally plating the slices onto filters in culture dishes. This protocol is also applicable in its present form to making organotypic slice cultures from different embryonic ages for both rats and mice. 

Slice Cultura organotipica di E18 cervello dei topi

Organotypic slice cultures from embryonic rodent brains are widely used to study brain development. While there are often advantages to an in-vivo system, ...

Ricerca

Biologia

Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures

The hippocampus, a component of the limbic system, plays important roles in long-term memory and spatial navigation 1. Hippocampal neurons can modify the strength of their connections after brief periods of strong activation. This phenomenon, known as long-term potentiation (LTP) can last for hours or days and has become the best candidate mechanism for learning and memory 2. In addition, the well defined anatomy and connectivity of the hippocampus 3 has made it a classical model system to study synaptic transmission and synaptic plasticity4.
As our understanding of the physiology of hippocampal synapses grew and molecular players became identified, a need to manipulate synaptic proteins became imperative. Organotypic hippocampal cultures offer the possibility for easy gene manipulation and precise pharmacological intervention but maintain synaptic organization that is critical to understanding synapse function in a more naturalistic context than routine culture dissociated neurons methods.
Here we present a method to prepare and culture hippocampal slices that can be easily adapted to other brain regions. This method allows easy access to the slices for genetic manipulation using different approaches like viral infection 5,6 or biolistics 7. In addition, slices can be easily recovered for biochemical assays 8, or transferred to microscopes for imaging 9 or electrophysiological experiments 10.

We describe a method to prepare organotypic hippocampal slices that can be easily adapted to other brain regions. Brain slices are laid on porous membranes and culture media is allowed to form an interface. This method preserves the gross architecture of the hippocampus for up to 2 weeks in culture.

Organotipica Culture Slice ippocampale

The hippocampus, a component of the limbic system, plays important roles in long-term memory and spatial navigation 1. Hippocampal neurons can modify the ...

Neuroscienze

An Organotypic Slice Assay for High-Resolution Time-Lapse Imaging of Neuronal Migration in the Postnatal Brain

Neurogenesis in the postnatal brain depends on maintenance of three biological events: proliferation of progenitor cells, migration of neuroblasts, as well as differentiation and integration of new neurons into existing neural circuits. For postnatal neurogenesis in the olfactory bulbs, these events are segregated within three anatomically distinct domains: proliferation largely occurs in the subependymal zone (SEZ) of the lateral ventricles, migrating neuroblasts traverse through the rostral migratory stream (RMS), and new neurons differentiate and integrate within the olfactory bulbs (OB). The three domains serve as ideal platforms to study the cellular, molecular, and physiological mechanisms that regulate each of the biological events distinctly. This paper describes an organotypic slice assay optimized for postnatal brain tissue, in which the extracellular conditions closely mimic the in vivo environment for migrating neuroblasts. We show that our assay provides for uniform, oriented, and speedy movement of neuroblasts within the RMS. This assay will be highly suitable for the study of cell autonomous and non-autonomous regulation of neuronal migration by utilizing cross-transplantation approaches from mice on different genetic backgrounds.

This protocol describes an organotypic slice assay optimized for the postnatal brain and high-resolution time-lapse imaging of neuroblast migration in the rostral migratory stream.

Un saggio Slice organotipica per High-Resolution Time-Lapse Imaging della migrazione neuronale nel cervello postnatale

Neurogenesis in the postnatal brain depends on maintenance of three biological events: proliferation of progenitor cells, migration of neuroblasts, as ...

Organotypic Slice Cultures of Embryonic Ventral Midbrain: A System to Study Dopaminergic Neuronal Development in vitro

The mouse is an excellent model organism to study mammalian brain development due to the abundance of molecular and genetic data. However, the developing mouse brain is not suitable for easy manipulation and imaging in vivo since the mouse embryo is inaccessible and opaque. Organotypic slice cultures of embryonic brains are therefore widely used to study murine brain development in vitro. Ex-vivo manipulation or the use of transgenic mice allows the modification of gene expression so that subpopulations of neuronal or glial cells can be labeled with fluorescent proteins. The behavior of labeled cells can then be observed using time-lapse imaging. Time-lapse imaging has been particularly successful for studying cell behaviors that underlie the development of the cerebral cortex at late embryonic stages 1-2. Embryonic organotypic slice culture systems in brain regions outside of the forebrain are less well established. Therefore, the wealth of time-lapse imaging data describing neuronal cell migration is restricted to the forebrain 3,4. It is still not known, whether the principles discovered for the dorsal brain hold true for ventral brain areas. In the ventral brain, neurons are organized in neuronal clusters rather than layers and they often have to undergo complicated migratory trajectories to reach their final position. The ventral midbrain is not only a good model system for ventral brain development, but also contains neuronal populations such as dopaminergic neurons that are relevant in disease processes. While the function and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons has been investigated in great detail in the adult and ageing brain, little is known about the behavior of these neurons during their differentiation and migration phase 5. We describe here the generation of slice cultures from the embryonic day (E) 12.5 mouse ventral midbrain. These slice cultures are potentially suitable for monitoring dopaminergic neuron development over several days in vitro. We highlight the critical steps in generating brain slices at these early stages of embryonic development and discuss the conditions necessary for maintaining normal development of dopaminergic neurons in vitro. We also present results from time lapse imaging experiments. In these experiments, ventral midbrain precursors (including dopaminergic precursors) and their descendants were labeled in a mosaic manner using a Cre/loxP based inducible fate mapping system 6.

Organotypic Slice Cultures of Embryonic Ventral Midbrain: A System to Study Dopaminergic Neuronal Development in vitro

A method to generate organotypic slices from the E12.5 murine embryonic midbrain is described. The organotypic slice cultures can be used to observe the behavior of dopaminergic neurons or other ventral midbrain neurons.

Culture Slice organotipica del mesencefalo ventrale embrionali: un sistema per studiare dopaminergici sviluppo neuronale In vitro</em

The  mouse is an excellent model organism to study mammalian brain development due  to the abundance of molecular and genetic data. However, the ...

Methods for Study of Neuronal Morphogenesis: Ex vivo RNAi Electroporation in Embryonic Murine Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex directs higher cognitive functions. This six layered structure is generated in an inside-first, outside-last manner, in which the first born neurons remain closer to the ventricle while the last born neurons migrate past the first born neurons towards the surface of the brain1. In addition to neuronal migration2, a key process for normal cortical function is the regulation of neuronal morphogenesis3. While neuronal morphogenesis can be studied in vitro in primary cultures, there is much to be learned from how these processes are regulated in tissue environments.
We describe techniques to analyze neuronal migration and/or morphogenesis in organotypic slices of the cerebral cortex4,6. A pSilencer modified vector is used which contains both a U6 promoter that drives the double stranded hairpin RNA and a separate expression cassette that encodes GFP protein driven by a CMV promoter7-9. Our approach allows for the rapid assessment of defects in neurite outgrowth upon specific knockdown of candidate genes and has been successfully used in a screen for regulators of neurite outgrowth8. Because only a subset of cells will express the RNAi constructs, the organotypic slices allow for a mosaic analysis of the potential phenotypes. Moreover, because this analysis is done in a near approximation of the in vivo environment, it provides a low cost and rapid alternative to the generation of transgenic or knockout animals for genes of unknown cortical function. Finally, in comparison with in vivo electroporation technology, the success of ex vivo electroporation experiments is not dependant upon proficient surgery skill development and can be performed with a shorter training time and skill.

Methods for Study of Neuronal Morphogenesis: Ex vivo RNAi Electroporation in Embryonic Murine Cerebral Cortex

To conduct a rapid assessment of the function of genes in the development of cerebral cortex, we describe methods involving the ex vivo electroporation of plasmids co-expressing inhibitory RNA (RNAi) and GFP in murine embryonic cortex. This protocol is amenable to the study of various aspects of neurodevelopment such as neurogenesis, neuronal migration and neuronal morphogenesis including dendrite and axon outgrowth.

Metodi per lo studio della morfogenesi neuronale:<em&gt; Ex vivo</em&gt; Elettroporazione RNAi in Embryonic Cerebral Cortex Murine

The cerebral cortex directs higher cognitive functions. This six layered structure is generated in an inside-first, outside-last manner, in which the ...

Organotypic Slice Cultures to Study Oligodendrocyte Dynamics and Myelination

NG2 expressing cells (polydendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells) are the fourth major glial cell population in the central nervous system. During embryonic and postnatal development they actively proliferate and generate myelinating oligodendrocytes. These cells have commonly been studied in primary dissociated cultures, neuron cocultures, and in fixed tissue. Using newly available transgenic mouse lines slice culture systems can be used to investigate proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells in both gray and white matter regions of the forebrain and cerebellum. Slice cultures are prepared from early postnatal mice and are kept in culture for up to 1 month. These slices can be imaged multiple times over the culture period to investigate cellular behavior and interactions. This method allows visualization of NG2 cell division and the steps leading to oligodendrocyte differentiation while enabling detailed analysis of region-dependent NG2 cell and oligodendrocyte functional heterogeneity. This is a powerful technique that can be used to investigate the intrinsic and extrinsic signals influencing these cells over time in a cellular environment that closely resembles that found in vivo.

A technique to study NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes using a slice culture system of the forebrain and cerebellum is described. This method allows examination of the dynamics of proliferation and differentiation of cells within the oligodendrocyte lineage where the extracellular environment can be easily manipulated while maintaining tissue cytoarchitecture.

Culture Organotipica Slice per studiare Oligodendrocyte Dynamics e mielinizzazione

NG2 expressing cells (polydendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells) are the fourth major glial cell population in the central nervous system. During ...

Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures As a Model to Study Neuroprotection and Invasiveness of Tumor Cells

In organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSC), the morphological and functional characteristics of both neurons and glial cells are well preserved. This model is suitable for addressing different research questions that involve studies on neuroprotection, electrophysiological experiments on neurons, neuronal networks or tumor invasion. The hippocampal architecture and neuronal activity in multisynaptic circuits are well conserved in OHSC, even though the slicing procedure itself initially lesions and leads to formation of a glial scar. The scar formation alters presumably the mechanical properties and diffusive behavior of small molecules, etc. Slices allow the monitoring of time dependent processes after brain injury without animal surgery, and studies on interactions between various brain-derived cell types, namely astrocytes, microglia and neurons under both physiological and pathological conditions. An ambivalent aspect of this model is the absence of blood flow and immune blood cells. During the progression of the neuronal injury, migrating immune cells from the blood play an important role. As those cells are missing in slices, the intrinsic processes in the culture may be observed without external interference. Moreover, in OHSC the composition of the medium-external environment is precisely controlled. A further advantage of this method is the lower number of sacrificed animals compared to standard preparations. Several OHSC can be obtained from one animal making simultaneous studies with multiple treatments in one animal possible. For these reasons, OHSC are well suited to analyze the effects of new protective therapeutics after tissue damage or during tumor invasion. 
The protocol presented here describes a preparation method of OHSC that allows generating highly reproducible, well preserved slices that can be used for a variety of experimental research, like neuroprotection or tumor invasion studies.

Organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSC) represent an in vitro model that simulates the in vivo situation very well. Here we describe a vibratome-based improved slicing protocol to obtain high quality slices for use in assessing the neuroprotective potential of novel substances or the biological behavior of tumor cells.

Colture Hippocampal Fetta organotipiche come modello di studio Neuroprotection e l'invasività delle cellule del tumore

In organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSC), the morphological and functional characteristics of both neurons and glial cells are well preserved. ...

Short-Term Free-Floating Slice Cultures from the Adult Human Brain

Organotypic, or slice cultures, have been widely employed to model aspects of the central nervous system functioning in vitro. Despite the potential of slice cultures in neuroscience, studies using adult nervous tissue to prepare such cultures are still scarce, particularly those from human subjects. The use of adult human tissue to prepare slice cultures is particularly attractive to enhance the understanding of human neuropathologies, as they hold unique properties typical of the mature human brain lacking in slices produced from rodent (usually neonatal) nervous tissue. This protocol describes how to use brain tissue collected from living human donors submitted to resective brain surgery to prepare short-term, free-floating slice cultures. Procedures to maintain and perform biochemical and cell biology assays using these cultures are also presented. Representative results demonstrate that the typical human cortical lamination is preserved in slices after 4 days in vitro (DIV4), with expected presence of the main neural cell types. Moreover, slices at DIV4 undergo robust cell death when challenged with a toxic stimulus (H2O2), indicating the potential of this model to serve as a platform in cell death assays. This method, a simpler and cost-effective alternative to the widely used protocol using membrane inserts, is mainly recommended for running short-term assays aimed to unravel mechanisms of neurodegeneration behind age-associated brain diseases. Finally, although the protocol is devoted to using cortical tissue collected from patients submitted to surgical treatment of pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy, it is argued that tissue collected from other brain regions/conditions should also be considered as sources to produce similar free-floating slice cultures.

A protocol to prepare free-floating slice cultures from adult human brain is presented. The protocol is a variation of the widely used slice culture method using membrane inserts. It is simple, cost-effective, and recommended for running short-term assays aimed to unravel mechanisms of neurodegeneration behind age-associated brain diseases.

A breve termine, le colture di fette libere dal cervello umano adulto

Organotypic, or slice cultures, have been widely employed to model aspects of the central nervous system functioning in vitro. Despite the potential of ...

Ex Vivo Oculomotor Slice Culture from Embryonic GFP-Expressing Mice for Time-Lapse Imaging of Oculomotor Nerve Outgrowth

Accurate eye movements are crucial for vision, but the development of the ocular motor system, especially the molecular pathways controlling axon guidance, has not been fully elucidated. This is partly due to technical limitations of traditional axon guidance assays. To identify additional axon guidance cues influencing the oculomotor nerve, an ex vivo slice assay to image the oculomotor nerve in real-time as it grows towards the eye was developed. E10.5 IslMN-GFP embryos are used to generate ex vivo slices by embedding them in agarose, slicing on a vibratome, then growing them in a microscope stage-top incubator with time-lapse photomicroscopy for 24-72 h. Control slices recapitulate the in vivo timing of outgrowth of axons from the nucleus to the orbit. Small molecule inhibitors or recombinant proteins can be added to the culture media to assess the role of different axon guidance pathways. This method has the advantages of maintaining more of the local microenvironment through which axons traverse, not axotomizing the growing axons, and assessing the axons at multiple points along their trajectory. It can also identify effects on specific subsets of axons. For example, inhibition of CXCR4 causes axons still within the midbrain to grow dorsally rather than ventrally, but axons that have already exited ventrally are not affected.

An ex vivo slice assay allows oculomotor nerve outgrowth to be imaged in real time. Slices are generated by embedding E10.5 IslMN:GFP embryos in agarose, slicing on a vibratome, and growing in a stage-top incubator. The role of axon guidance pathways is assessed by adding inhibitors to the culture media.

Ex Vivo Oculomotor Slice Coltura da embrionico GFP-Expressing Mice per Time-Lapse Imaging di Oculomotor Nerve Outgrowth

Accurate eye movements are crucial for vision, but the development of the ocular motor system, especially the molecular pathways controlling axon ...

Purkinje Cell Survival in Organotypic Cerebellar Slice Cultures

Organotypic slice culture is a powerful in vitro model that mimicks in vivo conditions more closely than dissociated primary cell cultures. In early postnatal development, cerebellar Purkinje cells are known to go through a vulnerable period, during which they undergo programmed cell death. Here, we provide a detailed protocol to perform mouse organotypic cerebellar slice culture during this critical time. The slices are further labeled to assess Purkinje cell survival and the efficacy of neuroprotective treatments. This method can be extremely valuable to screen for new neuroactive molecules.

Organotypic slice cultures are a powerful tool to study neurodevelopmental or degenerative/regenerative processes. Here, we describe a protocol that models the neurodevelopmental death of Purkinje cells in mouse cerebellar slice cultures. This method may benefit research in neuroprotective drug discovery.

Organotypic slice culture is a powerful in vitro model that mimicks in vivo conditions more closely than dissociated primary cell cultures. In early ...

Colture organotipiche Slice di studi di post-natale neurogenesi

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