Questo lavoro è stato sostenuto finanziariamente della dal Ministero della Scienza e della Tecnologia e il National Science Council di Repubblica di Cina (nn contratto. NSC 101-2221-E-027-042 e 101-2622 NSC-E-027-003-CC2). DH Wei grazie alla nazionale di Taipei University of Technology (TAIPEI TECH) per il Dr. Shechtman Premio Award.

1. Preparazione del supporto e pulizia <ol><li> Tagliare 10 mm x 10 mm substrati di silicio da Si (100) wafer. </li><li> Tagliare 10 mm x 10 mm substrati di vetro. </li><li> Utilizzare ultrasuoni per pulire i substrati di silicio e vetro con acetone per 10 min, alcool per 10 minuti, e poi isopropanolo per 15 min. </li><li> Sciacquare i substrati con acqua deionizzata (DI) tre volte. </li><li> Blow-asciugare i supporti con una pistola di azoto. </li></ol> 2. DEZn preparazione e conservazione Nota: dietilzinco (C 2 H 5) 2 Zn, chiamato anche DEZn, è un composto altamente organozinco piroforica comprensivi di un centro di zinco legato a due gruppi etilici. Non lavorare mai da soli quando si usa DEZn. DEZn è molto tossico e sensibile per l&#39;ossigeno e l&#39;acqua, essere sicuri di non mettere il DEZn vicino all&#39;acqua. Indossare sempre maschere e occhiali di protezione; tutte le procedure devono essere eseguite nella cappa. Ancora più importante, DEZn non utilizzata deve be conservato in un ambiente 5 ° C. Nota: Per il primo utilizzo di DEZn, seguire passo 2. In caso contrario, avviare l&#39;esperimento dal punto 3. <ol><li> Utilizzare siringa per estrarre 30 ml DEZn dalla bottiglia e poi iniettare in un becher posto in un cilindro di acciaio. </li><li> Utilizzare un tubo di ferro galvanizzato per collegare il cilindro d&#39;acciaio con la camera di reazione. </li><li> Utilizzare pompa meccanica e valvola a sfera per pompare giù il cilindro di acciaio in ambiente sotto vuoto (a 6 Torr). Nota: DEZn severamente reagire con l&#39;ossigeno, deve essere mantenuto in ambiente sotto vuoto. </li><li> Conservare la DEZn non utilizzata in un ambiente di 5 ° C. </li></ol> 3. PECVD Camera Preparazione e sintesi di ZnO Thin Film Nota: Lo schema di plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition è illustrato in Figura 1. <ol><li> Impostare la distanza di lavoro tra soffione elettrodo ed palco campione a 30 mm. </li> &lt;li&gt; Posizionare i substrati sulla scena campione di camera di reazione in posizione corretta in cui vi è un 3 cm di distanza dall&#39;ingresso DEZn. </li><li> Aprire la pompa rotativa e gradualmente aprire le saracinesche e valvola a farfalla. </li><li> Attendere che la pressione della camera del reattore sfondo è inferiore a 30 mTorr. </li><li> Chiudere il saracinesche e farfalla valvola, che si collega alla pompa rotativa. </li><li> Quindi aprire la pompa turbo e saracinesche relativi per raggiungere alto vuoto di 3 x 10 -6 Torr. </li><li> Dopo aver raggiunto la condizione di vuoto necessario, aprire il regolatore di calore e riscaldare la fase del campione alla temperatura di sintesi (200, 300, 400, 500, e 600 ° C per diversi parametri dell&#39;esperimento). </li><li> Quando la temperatura e la pressione raggiunge la condizione necessaria, chiudere la pompa turbo e quindi aprire il cancello e farfalla valvole valvola che collega alla pompa rotativa simultaneamente. </li><li> Quindi, aprire le valvole di aspirazione del gas e accendere l&#39;argon gcome regolatore di flusso contemporaneamente. </li><li> Il flusso del gas argon (0.167 ml / sec) nella camera. </li><li> Impostare la pressione della camera di 500 mTorr. </li><li> Accendere la rete RF (13.56 MHz) del generatore e di corrispondenza, quindi impostare la potenza RF di 100 W per l&#39;eliminazione dei campioni di superficie per 15 min. </li><li> Dopo aver terminato l&#39;epurazione dei campioni, accendere la potenza RF fino a 70 W. </li><li> Successivamente, accendere la valvola di controllo del gas di anidride carbonica e di ingresso del gas. </li><li> Flusso del biossido di carbonio (0,5 ml / sec) nella camera. </li><li> Impostare la pressione di esercizio di 6 Torr. </li><li> Dopo la pressione della camera raggiunge 6 Torr, l&#39;elevato flusso argon puro come gas di trasporto (0.167 ml / sec) per trasportare dietilzinco (DEZn) nella camera e valvola a sfera aperto collegato DEZn simultaneamente. Allo stesso tempo, iniziare la sintesi di film di ZnO. </li><li> Continuare la sintesi plasma di film di ZnO per 5 min. </li><li> Dopo i film di ZnO sono stati sintetizzati, seriatim spegnere il generatore RF, valvola a sfera, con il calorecontrollore e tutti controllori di flusso di gas con valvole di aspirazione gas. </li><li> Estrarre il campione quando la temperatura fase del campione si raffredda a temperatura ambiente. Nota: La velocità di raffreddamento è di circa 1,8 ° C / min. </li></ol> 4. Preparazione di interdigitata-come modello su As-sintetizzato ZnO film sottile Nota: Lo schema di processo di litografia è illustrato nella figura 3. <ol><li> Utilizzare una piastra calda per cuocere il campione come ZnO-sintetizzato a 150 ° C per 10 min. </li><li> Posizionare il campione sul dispositivo a induzione di rotazione, e quindi dispensare la soluzione liquida di fotoresist (S1813) con 100 microlitri sul campione ZnO. </li><li> Eseguire il dispositivo a induzione di rotazione a 800 giri al minuto per 10 secondi e poi accelerare a 3.000 rpm per 30 secondi per produrre uno strato uniforme sottile. </li><li> Morbido cuocere il campione ZnO photoresist rivestite a 105 ° C per 90 secondi. </li><li> Dopo il soft-cottura, utilizzare la luce UV per esporre il campione trou photoresist rivestitegh un fotomaschera per maschera allineatore. Il tempo di esposizione è di 2 secondi e la potenza è di 400 W. Nota:. Il modello di fotomaschera è progettato come interdigitati simile, che è 0,03 mm di larghezza e 4 mm di lunghezza (14 coppie) ed ha una distanza inter-elettrodo di 0,15 mm come illustrato nella figura 2 Vale la pena notare che il fotosensibile totale area è 84.32 mm 2 per il rivelatore. </li><li> Dopo la procedura di esposizione, usare una pinzetta per agganciare il campione, e poi immergono nella sviluppatore diluito (mescolare 50 ml di sviluppatore e 150 ml di acqua deionizzata) attraverso azioni di oscillare da un lato all&#39;altro per 35 s per ottenere il campione sviluppato. </li><li> Sciacquare il campione sviluppata con acqua deionizzata e asciugare con azoto. </li><li> Usate il microscopio ottico per controllare il motivo intatto. In caso contrario, usare acetone per rimuovere il photoresist e ripetere i passaggi 4,2-4,7 fino a quando è stato ottenuto il modello perfetto. </li><li> Duro cuocere il campione a 120 ° C per 20 min. </li></ol><ol><li> Utilizzare il sistema magnetron sputtering RF per depositare un sottile strato conduttivo Pt (100 nm) sulla parte superiore del campione sviluppato prima di procedere alla procedura di decollo chimica. </li><li> Impostare la distanza tra il target e il substrato a 13 mm. </li><li> Usare la pompa meccanica per raggiungere un vuoto di massima di 5 mTorr. </li><li> Quindi, utilizzare la pompa turbo per ottenere un alto vuoto di 7 x 10 -7 Torr. </li><li> Attendere fino a quando la camera raggiunge l&#39;alto vuoto, chiudere la pompa turbo e aprire la pompa meccanica successivamente. </li><li> Il flusso del gas argon a 0.3 ml / sec nella camera dal regolatore di flusso mas finché la pressione camera di raggiungere la pressione di esercizio di 100 mTorr. </li><li> Accendere la corrente continua (DC) di scarico alimentazione e impostare la corrente continua a 15 W per sputtering l&#39;elettrodo sottile pellicola di Pt sul campione per 25 minuti. </li><li> Dopo che lo strato dell&#39;elettrodo Pt è stato depositato da magnetron sputtMetodo rendo, togliere il campione dalla camera. </li><li> Immergere il campione nel liquido acetone per l&#39;industria chimica di processo decollo da ultrasuoni per rimuovere il photoresist. </li><li> Impostare il tempo di pulizia a 1 min per rimuovere completamente photoresist, e quindi ottenere l&#39;elettrodo interdigitata come Pt ​​sul film sottile ZnO. </li></ol> 6. processo RTA <ol><li> Mettere il campione Pt / ZnO come-fabbricato nel sistema RTA. </li><li> Usare la pompa meccanica e valvola a saracinesca per pompare giù la pressione della camera RTA a 20 mTorr. </li><li> Attendere che la pressione nella camera 20 raggiunge mTorr, flusso di gas argon a 0.3 ml / sec nella camera e impostare la pressione di esercizio di 5 Torr. </li><li> Successivamente, impostare la velocità di riscaldamento come 100 ° C / min. </li><li> Poi, ricuocere il campione a 450 ° C per 10 min. </li><li> Una volta ricotto, attendere fino a quando il campione si raffredda a RT, poi estrarre il campione. </li></ol>

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Passaggi critici e modifiche Nella fase 1, i substrati devono essere puliti e passi 1,3-1,5 seguire per fare in modo che non ci sia grasso o contaminazioni organiche ed inorganiche sui substrati. Qualsiasi grasso o contaminazioni organici e inorganici sulla superficie del substrato ridurrà significativamente l&#39;adesione del film. Fase 2 è la procedura più importante prima del processo di preparazione del film ZnO. DEZn è molto tossico e reagisce violenteme...

ZnO è un wide-band-gap materiale semiconduttore funzionale promettente grazie alle sue proprietà uniche come l&#39;elevata stabilità chimica, a basso costo, atossicità, a bassa soglia di potenza per il pompaggio ottico, larga banda proibita diretta (3,37 eV) a temperatura ambiente e grandi eccitonico energia di ~ 60 meV 1-2 vincolante. Recentemente, film sottili ZnO sono stati impiegati in molti campi di applicazione contenenti ossido conduttivo (TCO) pellicole trasparenti, dispositivi emettitori di luce blu, transistori ad effetto di campo, e sensori di gas 3-6. D&#39;altra parte, ZnO è un materiale candidato per sostituire ossido di stagno indio (ITO) a causa di indio e stagno essendo raro e costoso. Inoltre, ZnO possiede alta trasmissione ottica nella regione di lunghezza d&#39;onda visibile e bassa resistività rispetto ITO film 7-8. Pertanto, fabbricazione, caratterizzazione e applicazione di ZnO è stato ampiamente riportato. Questo studio si concentra sulla sintesi (0002) ZnO film sottili di alta c -axis da un semplice und efficace metodo e la sua applicazione pratica verso una cellula fotoelettrica UV. Le recenti scoperte rapporto di ricerca indicano che la ZnO film sottile di alta qualità può essere sintetizzato mediante varie tecniche, come metodo sol-gel, magnetron sputtering a radiofrequenza, metallo organico deposizione di vapore chimico (MOCVD), e così via 9-14. Ogni tecnica ha i suoi vantaggi e svantaggi. Ad esempio, un vantaggio principale di deposizione sputtering è che i materiali bersaglio con molto elevato punto di fusione sono facilmente atomizzate sul substrato. Al contrario, il processo di sputtering è difficile combinare con un lift-off per strutturare il film. Nel nostro studio, il sistema potenziato a plasma chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) è stato impiegato per sintetizzare alta qualità c -axis film sottili ZnO. Bombardamento plasma è un fattore chiave nel processo di sintesi che può aumentare la densità di film sottile e migliorare la velocità di reazione di decomposizione di ioni 15. InInoltre, il tasso di crescita elevata e di grande superficie uniforme deposizione sono altri vantaggi distintivi per tecnica PECVD. Fatta eccezione per la tecnica di sintesi, la buona adesione sul substrato è un altro problema considerato. In molti studi, lo zaffiro c -Plane è stato ampiamente utilizzato come substrato per sintetizzare alta c -axis film sottili ZnO perché il ZnO e zaffiro hanno la stessa struttura reticolo esagonale. Tuttavia, la ZnO è stato sintetizzato su substrato di zaffiro esibendo morfologia superficiale ruvida e alte concentrazioni residue carrier (difetto relative) a causa delle grandi disadattati reticolari tra ZnO e c -Plane zaffiro (18%) orientate nella direzione 16 in piano. Rispetto al substrato di zaffiro, un wafer di Si è ampiamente usato un altro substrato per la sintesi ZnO. Wafer di Si sono stati ampiamente utilizzati nel settore dei semiconduttori; e quindi, la crescita di film sottili ZnO alta qualità su substrati di Si è molto importante e necessario. Purtroppo, la struttura cristallina e il coefficiente di espansione termica tra il ZnO e Si sono ovviamente diverse conseguente deterioramento della qualità di cristallo. Negli ultimi dieci anni, sono stati fatti notevoli sforzi per migliorare la qualità di film sottili su substrati di Si ZnO utilizzando vari metodi tra ZnO strati tampone 17, ricottura in atmosfera di gas diversi 18, e passivazione del substrato superficiale di Si 19. Il presente studio ha offerto con successo un metodo semplice ed efficace per sintetizzare alta c -axis ZnO film sottile su substrati di Si, senza strato tampone o pre-trattamento. I risultati dell&#39;esperimento è emerso che i film sottili ZnO sintetizzati sotto la temperatura di crescita ottimale mostrato il cristallo e buona qualità ottiche. La struttura cristallina, la composizione del plasma RF, morfologia superficiale e le proprietà ottiche di film sottili ZnO sono stati studiati mediante diffrazione di raggi X (XRD), spettroscopia di emissione ottica (OES), Field Emission scAnning microscopia elettronica (FE-SEM), e RT fotoluminescenza (PL) spettri rispettivamente. Inoltre, la trasmissione di film sottili ZnO è stato confermato anche e segnalato. Il film sottile ZnO come per sintesi servito come uno strato di rilevamento per l&#39;applicazione fotorivelatore UV è stata studiata anche in questo studio. Il rivelatore fotoelettrico UV ha grandi potenziali applicazioni nel monitoraggio UV, interruttore ottico, allarme fiamma, e il sistema di riscaldamento del missile 20-21. Ci sono molti tipi di fotorivelatori che sono state effettuate come modalità negativa intrinseco positivo (pin) e metallo-semiconduttore-metallo (MSM) strutture compreso il contatto ohmico e Schottky contatto. Ogni tipo ha i suoi vantaggi e svantaggi. Attualmente, le strutture fotorivelatori MSM hanno attirato l&#39;interesse intenso a causa della loro eccezionali prestazioni in responsività, l&#39;affidabilità e la risposta e il tempo di recupero 22-24. I risultati qui presentati dimostrano che la modalità di contatto ohmico MSM è stato impiegatofabbricare ZnO film sottile cellula fotoelettrica UV based. Tale tipo di fotorivelatore rivela in genere una buona responsività e affidabilità, indicando che l&#39;alta c -axis ZnO film sottile è uno strato di rilevamento adatto per fotorivelatore UV.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>RF power supply</td>
			<td>ADVANCED ENERGY</td>
			<td>RFX-600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Butterfly valve</td>
			<td>MKS</td>
			<td>253B-1-40-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mass flow conctroller</td>
			<td>PROTEC INSTRUMENTS</td>
			<td>PC-540</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure conctroller</td>
			<td>MKS</td>
			<td>600 series&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heater</td>
			<td>UPGRADE INSTRUMENT CO.</td>
			<td>UI-TC 3001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sputter gun</td>
			<td>AJA INTERNATIONAL</td>
			<td>A320-HA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DEZn 1.5M</td>
			<td>ACROS ORGANIC USA, New Jersey</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>also called Diethylzinc (C2H5)2Zn</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spin coater&#160;</td>
			<td>SWIENCO</td>
			<td>PW - 490</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>I-V measurement</td>
			<td>Keithley</td>
			<td>Model: 2400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photocondutive measurement&#160;</td>
			<td>Home-built</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV light sourse</td>
			<td>Panasonic</td>
			<td>ANUJ 6160</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mask aligner</td>
			<td>Karl Suss</td>
			<td>MJB4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photoresist</td>
			<td>Shipley a Rohm &#38; Haas company</td>
			<td>S1813</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Developer</td>
			<td>Shipley a Rohm &#38; Haas company</td>
			<td>MF319</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer</td>
			<td>E-Light Technology Inc</td>
			<td>12/0801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass substrate</td>
			<td>CORNING</td>
			<td>1737</td>
			<td>P-type / Boron</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

synthesis and characterization of high c-axis zno thin film by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition system and its uv photodetector application

In questo studio, l&#39;ossido di zinco (ZnO) film sottili con alta c -axis (0002) orientamento preferenziale sono stati correttamente ed efficacemente sintetizzato su silicio (Si) substrati con diverse temperature sintetizzati utilizzando plasma maggiore deposizione di vapore chimico sistema (PECVD). Gli effetti di diverse temperature di sintesi sulla struttura cristallina, morfologie di superficie e proprietà ottiche sono stati indagati. La diffrazione dei raggi X (XRD) modelli indicato che l&#39;intensità del picco (0002) diffrazione divenne più forte con l&#39;aumentare della temperatura sintetizzato fino 400 ° C. L&#39;intensità di diffrazione di (0002) di picco è diventato gradualmente più debole di accompagnamento con l&#39;apparenza di (10-10) di picco di diffrazione quando la temperatura sintetizzato fino all&#39;eccesso di 400 ° C. La RT fotoluminescenza (PL) spettri mostrato un forte nei pressi di banda-edge (NBE) emissione osservata a circa 375 nm e un trascurabile livello profondo (DL) emissione situato a circa 575 nm under alta c -axis ZnO film sottili. Campo microscopia elettronica a scansione emissione (FE-SEM) immagini hanno rivelato la superficie omogenea e con una distribuzione di piccole dimensioni del grano. I film sottili ZnO sono stati sintetizzati su substrati di vetro sotto gli stessi parametri di misurazione della trasmittanza. Ai fini dell&#39;applicazione ultravioletta (UV) fotorivelatore, il platino interdigitata (Pt) film sottile (spessore ~ ​​100 nm) fabbricato via convenzionale processo di litografia ottica e frequenza radio (RF) magnetron sputtering. Per raggiungere il contatto ohmico, il dispositivo è stato ricotto in circostanze argon a 450 o C per sistema rapido ricottura termica (RTA) per 10 min. Dopo le misurazioni sistematiche, la corrente-tensione (I - V) Curva di foto e risultati di risposta fotocorrente corrente e tempo-dipendente scuri esibito un buon responsività e affidabilità, indicando che l&#39;alta c -axis ZnO film sottile è uno strato di rilevamento adattoper l&#39;applicazione fotorivelatore UV.

Il ZnO (0002) film sottili con alta c -axis orientamento preferenziale sono stati sintetizzati con successo sui substrati di Si utilizzando il sistema PECVD. L&#39;anidride carbonica (CO 2) e la dietilzinco (DEZn) sono stati utilizzati come precursori di ossigeno e zinco, rispettivamente. La struttura cristallina di film sottili ZnO è stato caratterizzato da diffrazione dei raggi X (figura 4), ​​indicando che il film sottile ZnO sintetizzato a 400 ° C con la più for...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synthesis and Characterization of High c-axis ZnO Thin Film by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition System and its UV Photodetector Application at JoVE.c

Synthesis and Characterization of High c-axis ZnO Thin Film by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition System and its UV Photodetector Application

We offered a method to directly synthesize high c-axis (0002) ZnO thin film by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The as-synthesized ZnO thin film combined with Pt interdigitated electrode was used as sensing layer for ultraviolet photodetector, showing a high performance through a combination of its good responsivity and reliability.

Sintesi e caratterizzazione di alta c-asse ZnO film sottile da potenziato a plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition del sistema e la sua applicazione Rilevatori UV

In this study, zinc oxide (ZnO) thin films with high c-axis (0002) preferential orientation have been successfully and effectively synthesized onto ...

synthesis-characterization-high-c-axis-zno-thin-film-plasma-enhanced

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

15.1K Views.  National Taipei University of Technology (TAIPEI TECH). We offered a method to directly synthesize high c-axis (0002) ZnO thin film by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The as-synthesized ZnO thin film combined with Pt interdigitated electrode was used as sensing layer for ultraviolet photodetector, showing a high performance through a combination of its good responsivity and reliability.

Video: Synthesis and Characterization of High c-axis ZnO Thin Film by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition System and its UV Photodetector Application

Polycrystalline Silicon Thin-film Solar cells with Plasmonic-enhanced Light-trapping

One of major approaches to cheaper solar cells is reducing the amount of semiconductor material used for their fabrication and making cells thinner. To compensate for lower light absorption such physically thin devices have to incorporate light-trapping which increases their optical thickness. Light scattering by textured surfaces is a common technique but it cannot be universally applied to all solar cell technologies. Some cells, for example those made of evaporated silicon, are planar as produced and they require an alternative light-trapping means suitable for planar devices. Metal nanoparticles formed on planar silicon cell surface and capable of light scattering due to surface plasmon resonance is an effective approach.
The paper presents a fabrication procedure of evaporated polycrystalline silicon solar cells with plasmonic light-trapping and demonstrates how the cell quantum efficiency improves due to presence of metal nanoparticles.
To fabricate the cells a film consisting of alternative boron and phosphorous doped silicon layers is deposited on glass substrate by electron beam evaporation. An Initially amorphous film is crystallised and electronic defects are mitigated by annealing and hydrogen passivation. Metal grid contacts are applied to the layers of opposite polarity to extract electricity generated by the cell. Typically, such a ~2 &mu;m thick cell has a short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 14-16 mA/cm2, which can be increased up to 17-18 mA/cm2 (~25% higher) after application of a simple diffuse back reflector made of a white paint.
To implement plasmonic light-trapping a silver nanoparticle array is formed on the metallised cell silicon surface. A precursor silver film is deposited on the cell by thermal evaporation and annealed at 23&deg;C to form silver nanoparticles. Nanoparticle size and coverage, which affect plasmonic light-scattering, can be tuned for enhanced cell performance by varying the precursor film thickness and its annealing conditions. An optimised nanoparticle array alone results in cell Jsc enhancement of about 28%, similar to the effect of the diffuse reflector. The photocurrent can be further increased by coating the nanoparticles by a low refractive index dielectric, like MgF2, and applying the diffused reflector. The complete plasmonic cell structure comprises the polycrystalline silicon film, a silver nanoparticle array, a layer of MgF2, and a diffuse reflector. The Jsc for such cell is 21-23 mA/cm2, up to 45% higher than Jsc of the original cell without light-trapping or ~25% higher than Jsc for the cell with the diffuse reflector only.
Introduction
Light-trapping in silicon solar cells is commonly achieved via light scattering at textured interfaces. Scattered light travels through a cell at oblique angles for a longer distance and when such angles exceed the critical angle at the cell interfaces the light is permanently trapped in the cell by total internal reflection (Animation 1: Light-trapping). Although this scheme works well for most solar cells, there are developing technologies where ultra-thin Si layers are produced planar (e.g. layer-transfer technologies and epitaxial c-Si layers) 1 and or when such layers are not compatible with textures substrates (e.g. evaporated silicon) 2. For such originally planar Si layer alternative light trapping approaches, such as diffuse white paint reflector 3, silicon plasma texturing 4 or high refractive index nanoparticle reflector 5 have been suggested.
Metal nanoparticles can effectively scatter incident light into a higher refractive index material, like silicon, due to the surface plasmon resonance effect 6. They also can be easily formed on the planar silicon cell surface thus offering a light-trapping approach alternative to texturing. For a nanoparticle located at the air-silicon interface the scattered light fraction coupled into silicon exceeds 95% and a large faction of that light is scattered at angles above critical providing nearly ideal light-trapping condition (Animation 2: Plasmons on NP). The resonance can be tuned to the wavelength region, which is most important for a particular cell material and design, by varying the nanoparticle average size, surface coverage and local dielectric environment 6,7. Theoretical design principles of plasmonic nanoparticle solar cells have been suggested 8. In practice, Ag nanoparticle array is an ideal light-trapping partner for poly-Si thin-film solar cells because most of these design principle are naturally met. The simplest way of forming nanoparticles by thermal annealing of a thin precursor Ag film results in a random array with a relatively wide size and shape distribution, which is particularly suitable for light-trapping because such an array has a wide resonance peak, covering the wavelength range of 700-900 nm, important for poly-Si solar cell performance. The nanoparticle array can only be located on the rear poly-Si cell surface thus avoiding destructive interference between incident and scattered light which occurs for front-located nanoparticles 9. Moreover, poly-Si thin-film cells do not requires a passivating layer and the flat base-shaped nanoparticles (that naturally result from thermal annealing of a metal film) can be directly placed on silicon further increases plasmonic scattering efficiency due to surface plasmon-polariton resonance 10.
The cell with the plasmonic nanoparticle array as described above can have a photocurrent about 28% higher than the original cell. However, the array still transmits a significant amount of light which escapes through the rear of the cell and does not contribute into the current. This loss can be mitigated by adding a rear reflector to allow catching transmitted light and re-directing it back to the cell. Providing sufficient distance between the reflector and the nanoparticles (a few hundred nanometers) the reflected light will then experience one more plasmonic scattering event while passing through the nanoparticle array on re-entering the cell and the reflector itself can be made diffuse - both effects further facilitating light scattering and hence light-trapping. Importantly, the Ag nanoparticles have to be encapsulated with an inert and low refractive index dielectric, like MgF2 or SiO2, from the rear reflector to avoid mechanical and chemical damage 7. Low refractive index for this cladding layer is required to maintain a high coupling fraction into silicon and larger scattering angles, which are ensured by the high optical contrast between the media on both sides of the nanoparticle, silicon and dielectric 6. The photocurrent of the plasmonic cell with the diffuse rear reflector can be up to 45% higher than the current of the original cell or up to 25% higher than the current of an equivalent cell with the diffuse reflector only.

Polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells on glass are fabricated by deposition of boron and phosphorous doped silicon layers followed by crystallisation, defect passivation and metallisation. Plasmonic light-trapping is introduced by forming Ag nanoparticles on the silicon cell surface capped with a diffused reflector resulting in ~45% photocurrent enhancement.

Celle in silicio policristallino solari a film sottile con plasmoniche-enhanced Light-trapping

One of major approaches to cheaper solar cells is reducing the amount of semiconductor material used for their fabrication and making cells thinner. To ...

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Ingegneria

Encapsulation and Permeability Characteristics of Plasma Polymerized Hollow Particles

In this protocol, core-shell nanostructures are synthesized by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. We produce an amorphous barrier by plasma polymerization of isopropanol on various solid substrates, including silica and potassium chloride. This versatile technique is used to treat nanoparticles and nanopowders with sizes ranging from 37 nm to 1 micron, by depositing films whose thickness can be anywhere from 1 nm to upwards of 100 nm. Dissolution of the core allows us to study the rate of permeation through the film. In these experiments, we determine the diffusion coefficient of KCl through the barrier film by coating KCL nanocrystals and subsequently monitoring the ionic conductivity of the coated particles suspended in water. The primary interest in this process is the encapsulation and delayed release of solutes. The thickness of the shell is one of the independent variables by which we control the rate of release. It has a strong effect on the rate of release, which increases from a six-hour release (shell thickness is 20 nm) to a long-term release over 30 days (shell thickness is 95 nm). The release profile shows a characteristic behavior: a fast release (35% of the final materials) during the first five minutes after the beginning of the dissolution, and a slower release till all of the core materials come out.

We have used plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition to deposit thin films ranging from a few nm to several 100 nm on nano-sized particles of various materials. We subsequently etch the core material to produce hollow nanoshells whose permeability is controlled by the thickness of the shell. We characterize the permeability of these coatings to small solutes and demonstrate that these barriers can provide sustained release of the core material over several days.

Caratteristiche di incapsulamento e di permeabilità di plasma particelle polimerizzate Hollow

In this protocol, core-shell nanostructures are synthesized by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. We produce an amorphous barrier by plasma ...

Nanomoulding of Functional Materials, a Versatile Complementary Pattern Replication Method to Nanoimprinting

We describe a nanomoulding technique which allows low-cost nanoscale patterning of functional materials, materials stacks and full devices. Nanomoulding combined with layer transfer enables the replication of arbitrary surface patterns from a master structure onto the functional material. Nanomoulding can be performed on any nanoimprinting setup and can be applied to a wide range of materials and deposition processes. In particular we demonstrate the fabrication of patterned transparent zinc oxide electrodes for light trapping applications in solar cells.

We describe a nanomoulding technique which allows low-cost nanoscale patterning of functional materials, materials stacks and full devices. Nanomoulding can be performed on any nanoimprinting setup and can be applied to a wide range of materials and deposition processes.

Nanomoulding di materiali funzionali, un modello versatile complementare replica Metodo di nanoimprinting

We describe a nanomoulding technique which  allows low-cost nanoscale patterning of functional materials, materials stacks  and full devices. Nanomoulding ...

Synthesis and Microdiffraction at Extreme Pressures and Temperatures

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary interiors, design materials with novel properties, understand the mechanical behavior of materials exposed to very high stresses as in explosions or impacts. Synthesis and structural analysis of materials at extreme conditions of pressure and temperature entails remarkable technical challenges. In the laser heated diamond anvil cell (LH-DAC), very high pressure is generated between the tips of two opposing diamond anvils forced against each other; focused infrared laser beams, shined through the diamonds, allow to reach very high temperatures on samples absorbing the laser radiation. When the LH-DAC is installed in a synchrotron beamline that provides extremely brilliant x-ray radiation, the structure of materials under extreme conditions can be probed in situ. LH-DAC samples, although very small, can show highly variable grain size, phase and chemical composition. In order to obtain the high resolution structural analysis and the most comprehensive characterization of a sample, we collect diffraction data in 2D grids and combine powder, single crystal and multigrain diffraction techniques. Representative results obtained in the synthesis of a new iron oxide, Fe4O5 1 will be shown.

The laser heated diamond anvil cell combined with synchrotron micro-diffraction techniques allows researchers to explore the nature and properties of new phases of matter at extreme pressure and temperature (PT) conditions. Heterogeneous samples can be characterized in situ under high pressure by 2D mapping and combined powder, single-crystal and multigrain diffraction approaches.

Sintesi e microdiffrazione a pressioni e temperature estreme

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary ...

Making Record-efficiency SnS Solar Cells by Thermal Evaporation and Atomic Layer Deposition

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate absorber material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. SnS offers easy phase control and rapid growth by congruent thermal evaporation, and it absorbs visible light strongly. However, for a long time the record power conversion efficiency of SnS solar cells remained below 2%. Recently we demonstrated new certified record efficiencies of 4.36% using SnS deposited by atomic layer deposition, and 3.88% using thermal evaporation. Here the fabrication procedure for these record solar cells is described, and the statistical distribution of the fabrication process is reported. The standard deviation of efficiency measured on a single substrate is typically over 0.5%. All steps including substrate selection and cleaning, Mo sputtering for the rear contact (cathode), SnS deposition, annealing, surface passivation, Zn(O,S) buffer layer selection and deposition, transparent conductor (anode) deposition, and metallization are described. On each substrate we fabricate 11 individual devices, each with active area 0.25 cm2. Further, a system for high throughput measurements of current-voltage curves under simulated solar light, and external quantum efficiency measurement with variable light bias is described. With this system we are able to measure full data sets on all 11 devices in an automated manner and in minimal time. These results illustrate the value of studying large sample sets, rather than focusing narrowly on the highest performing devices. Large data sets help us to distinguish and remedy individual loss mechanisms affecting our devices.

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication procedure of the SnS solar cells employing atomic layer deposition, which yields 4.36% certified power conversion efficiency, and thermal evaporation which yields 3.88%.

Rendere record efficienza SnS celle solari per evaporazione termica e Atomic Layer Deposition

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate absorber material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. SnS offers easy phase control and rapid growth by congruent ...

Preparation of ZnO Nanorod/Graphene/ZnO Nanorod Epitaxial Double Heterostructure for Piezoelectrical Nanogenerator by Using Preheating Hydrothermal

Well-aligned ZnO nanostructures have been intensively studied over the last decade for remarkable physical properties and enormous applications. Here, we describe a one-step fabrication technique to synthesis freestanding ZnO nanorod/graphene/ZnO nanorod double heterostructure. The preparation of the double heterostructure is performed by using thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and preheating hydrothermal technique. In addition, the morphological properties were characterized by using the scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The utility of freestanding double heterostructure is demonstrated by fabricating the piezoelectric nanogenerator. The electrical output is improved up to 200% compared to that of a single heterostructure owing to the coupling effect of the piezoelectricity between the arrays of ZnO nanorods on the top and bottom of graphene. This unique double heterostructure have a tremendous potential for applications of electrical and optoelectrical devices where the high number density and specific surface area of nanorod are needed, such as pressure sensor, immuno-biosensor and dye-sensitized solar cells.

One-step fabrication method for obtaining freestanding epitaxial double heterostructure is presented. This approach could achieve ZnO coverage with a higher number density than that of the epitaxial single heterostructure, leading to a piezoelectric nanogenerator with an increased output electrical performance.

Preparazione di ZnO Nanorod / grafene / ZnO Nanorod epitassiale Doppia Heterostructure per piezoelettrico nanogeneratore utilizzando preriscaldamento Idrotermale

Well-aligned ZnO nanostructures have been intensively studied over the last decade for remarkable physical properties and enormous applications. Here, we ...

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction of degradation mechanisms and prevention of module field failure can consequently decrease investment risks as well as increase the electricity yield. An improved knowledge level can for these reasons significantly decrease the total costs of PV electricity. 
In order to better understand and minimize the degradation of PV modules, the occurring degradation mechanisms and conditions should be identified. This should preferably happen under combined stresses, since modules in the field are also simultaneously exposed to multiple stress factors. Therefore, two 'Combined Stress test with in situ measurement' setups have been designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, illumination, and electrical biases as independently controlled stress factors on solar cells and minimodules. The setups also allow real-time monitoring of the electrical properties of these samples. This protocol presents these setups and describes the experimental possibilities. Moreover, results obtained with these setups are also presented: various examples about the influence of both deposition and degradation conditions on the stability of thin film Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) as well as Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTS) solar cells are described. Results on the temperature dependency of CIGS solar cells are also presented.

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for CuIn,GaSe2 Solar Cells

Two &#39;Combined Stress test with in situ measurement&#39; setups, which allow real-time monitoring of accelerated degradation of solar cells and modules, were designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, electrical biases, and illumination as independently controlled stress factors. The setups and various experiments executed are presented.

In Situ Monitoraggio del degrado prestazioni accelerate di celle e moduli solari: un caso di studio per le celle solari di Cu (In, Ga) Se2

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction ...

Well-aligned Vertically Oriented ZnO Nanorod Arrays and their Application in Inverted Small Molecule Solar Cells

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted solar cells, which are based on a two-dimensional conjugated small molecule (SMPV1) and [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM), by utilizing ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown on a high quality Al-doped ZnO (AZO) seed layer. The inverted SMPV1:PC71BM solar cells with ZnO NRs that grew on both a sputtered and sol-gel processed AZO seed layer are fabricated. Compared with the AZO thin film prepared by the sol-gel method, the sputtered AZO thin film exhibits better crystallization and lower surface roughness, according to X-ray diffraction (XRD) and atomic force microscope (AFM) measurements. The orientation of the ZnO NRs grown on a sputtered AZO seed layer shows better vertical alignment, which is beneficial for the deposition of the subsequent active layer, forming better surface morphologies. Generally, the surface morphology of the active layer mainly dominates the fill factor (FF) of the devices. Consequently, the well-aligned ZnO NRs can be used to improve the carrier collection of the active layer and to increase the FF of the solar cells. Moreover, as an anti-reflection structure, it can also be utilized to enhance the light harvesting of the absorption layer, with the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of solar cells reaching 6.01%, higher than the sol-gel based solar cells with an efficiency of 4.74%.

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted SMPV1:PC71BM solar cells with ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown on a high quality Al-doped ZnO (AZO) seed layer. The well-aligned vertically oriented ZnO NRs exhibit high crystalline properties. The power conversion efficiency of solar cells can reach 6.01%.

Ben allineati verticalmente orientato ZnO Nanorod matrici e la loro applicazione in invertito piccola molecola solare celle

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted solar cells, which are based on a two-dimensional conjugated small molecule ...

Fabrication of Ultra-thin Color Films with Highly Absorbing Media Using Oblique Angle Deposition

Ultra-thin film structures have been studied extensively for use as optical coatings, but performance and fabrication challenges remain.&#160; We present an advanced method for fabricating ultra-thin color films with improved characteristics. The proposed process addresses several fabrication issues, including large area processing. Specifically, the protocol describes a process for fabricating ultra-thin color films using an electron beam evaporator for oblique angle deposition of germanium (Ge) and gold (Au) on silicon (Si) substrates.&#160; Film porosity produced by the oblique angle deposition induces color changes in the ultra-thin film. The degree of color change depends on factors such as deposition angle and film thickness. Fabricated samples of the ultra-thin color films showed improved color tunability and color purity. In addition, the measured reflectance of the fabricated samples was converted into chromatic values and analyzed in terms of color. Our ultra-thin film fabricating method is expected to be used for various ultra-thin film applications such as flexible color electrodes, thin film solar cells, and optical filters. Also, the process developed here for analyzing the color of the fabricated samples is broadly useful for studying various color structures.

We present a detailed method for fabricating ultra-thin color films with improved characteristics for optical coatings. The oblique angle deposition technique using an electron beam evaporator allows improved color tunability and purity. Fabricated films of Ge and Au on Si substrates were analyzed by reflectance measurements and color information conversion.

Fabbricazione di film ultra-sottile di colore con altamente assorbente Media mediante deposizione di angolo obliquo

Ultra-thin film structures have been studied extensively for use as optical coatings, but performance and fabrication challenges remain.&#160; We present ...

Bulk and Thin Film Synthesis of Compositionally Variant Entropy-stabilized Oxides

Here, we present a procedure for the synthesis of bulk and thin film multicomponent (Mg0.25(1-x)CoxNi0.25(1-x)Cu0.25(1-x)Zn0.25(1-x))O (Co variant) and (Mg0.25(1-x)Co0.25(1-x)Ni0.25(1-x)CuxZn0.25(1-x))O (Cu variant) entropy-stabilized oxides. Phase pure and chemically homogeneous (Mg0.25(1-x)CoxNi0.25(1-x)Cu0.25(1-x)Zn0.25(1-x))O (x = 0.20, 0.27, 0.33) and (Mg0.25(1-x)Co0.25(1-x)Ni0.25(1-x)CuxZn0.25(1-x))O (x = 0.11, 0.27) ceramic pellets are synthesized and used in the deposition of ultra-high quality, phase pure, single crystalline thin films of the target stoichiometry. A detailed methodology for the deposition of smooth, chemically homogeneous, entropy-stabilized oxide thin films by pulsed laser deposition on (001)-oriented MgO substrates is described. The phase and crystallinity of bulk and thin film materials are confirmed using X-ray diffraction. Composition and chemical homogeneity are confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The surface topography of thin films is measured with scanning probe microscopy. The synthesis of high quality, single crystalline, entropy-stabilized oxide thin films enables the study of interface, size, strain, and disorder effects on the properties in this new class of highly disordered oxide materials.

The synthesis of high quality bulk and thin film (Mg0.25(1-x)CoxNi0.25(1-x)Cu0.25(1-x)Zn0.25(1-x))O and (Mg0.25(1-x)Co0.25(1-x)Ni0.25(1-x)CuxZn0.25(1-x))O entropy-stabilized oxides is presented.

Massa e sintesi di Film sottile di ossidi compositivamente varianti entropia-stabilizzato

Here, we present a procedure for the synthesis of bulk and thin film multicomponent (Mg0.25(1-x)CoxNi0.25(1-x)Cu0.25(1-x)Zn0.25(1-x))O (Co variant) and ...