Gli autori vorrei ringraziare universitari Daniel Korus per il suo aiuto in esecuzione il codice Matlab e undergraduate Alex Boettcher per la sua assistenza nell'esecuzione di esperimenti comportamentali. Questo progetto è sostenuto da NSF IOS 1256799 a R.L.M. e dall'Istituto nazionale su abuso di droga dei National Institutes of Health, sotto Premio numero T32DA007234.

<ol>
	<li>Chefer, V. I., Thompson, A. C., Zapata, A., Shippenberg, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overview+of+brain+microdialysis.">Overview of brain microdialysis.</a> Curr Protoc Neurosci. , (2009).</li><li>Chaurasia, C. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=AAPS-FDA+Workshop+white+paper:+Microdialysis+principles,+application+and+regulatory+perspectives.">AAPS-FDA Workshop white paper: Microdialysis principles, application and regulatory perspectives.</a> Pharm Res. 24 (5), 1014-1025 (2007).</li><li>Lindsay, S., Kealey, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> High performance liquid chromatography. , (1987).</li><li>Robinson, D. L., Venton, B. J., Heien, M. 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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+measurement+of+glutamate+release+in+the+brain+using+a+dual+enzyme-based+electrochemical+sensor.">Direct measurement of glutamate release in the brain using a dual enzyme-based electrochemical sensor.</a> Brain Res. 659 (1-2), 117-125 (1994).</li><li>Agnesi, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wireless+instantaneous+neurotransmitter+concentration+system-based+amperometric+detection+of+dopamine,+adenosine,+and+glutamate+for+intraoperative+neurochemical+monitoring.">Wireless instantaneous neurotransmitter concentration system-based amperometric detection of dopamine, adenosine, and glutamate for intraoperative neurochemical monitoring.</a> J Neurosurg. 111 (4), 701-711 (2009).</li><li>Erksine, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Solicitation+behavior+in+the+estrous+female+rat:+A+review.">Solicitation behavior in the estrous female rat: A review.</a> Horm Beh. 23 (4), 473-502 (1989).</li><li>Weiner, I., Gal, G., Rawlins, J. N., Feldon, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+involvement+of+the+shell+and+core+subterritories+of+the+nucleus+accumbens+in+latent+inhibition+and+amphetamine-induced+activity.">Differential involvement of the shell and core subterritories of the nucleus accumbens in latent inhibition and amphetamine-induced activity.</a> Behav Brain Res. 81 (1-2), 123-133 (1996).</li><li>Heidbreder, C., Feldon, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amphetamine-induced+neurochemical+and+locomotor+responses+are+expressed+differentially+across+the+anteroposterior+axis+of+the+core+and+shell+subterritories+of+the+nucleus+accumbens.">Amphetamine-induced neurochemical and locomotor responses are expressed differentially across the anteroposterior axis of the core and shell subterritories of the nucleus accumbens.</a> Synapse. 29 (4), 310-322 (1998).</li><li>Pierce, R. C., Kalivas, P. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amphetamine+produces+sensitized+increases+in+locomotion+and+extracellular+dopamine+preferentially+in+the+nucleus+accumbens+shell+of+rats+administered+repeated+cocaine.">Amphetamine produces sensitized increases in locomotion and extracellular dopamine preferentially in the nucleus accumbens shell of rats administered repeated cocaine.</a> J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 275 (2), 1019-1029 (1995).</li><li>Pfaff, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Drive: Molecular and physiological analyses of a simple reproductive behavior. , (1999).</li><li>Carter, C. 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B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+microdialysis+study+of+ventral+striatal+dopamine+during+sexual+behavior+in+female+Syrian+hamsters.">A microdialysis study of ventral striatal dopamine during sexual behavior in female Syrian hamsters.</a> Beh Brain Res. 55 (2), 151-157 (1993).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> 4 Channel EEG/EMG/Biosensor Manual V005. , (2012).</li><li>Pellis, S. M., Pellis, V. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Play-fighting+differs+from+serious+play+fighting+in+both+target+of+attack+and+tactics+of+fighting+in+the+laboratory+rats+Rattus+norvegicus.">Play-fighting differs from serious play fighting in both target of attack and tactics of fighting in the laboratory rats Rattus norvegicus.</a> Aggress Behav. 13 (3), 227-242 (1987).</li><li>Pellis, S. M., Pellis, V. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+rates+of+attack,+defense+and+counterattack+during+the+developmental+decrease+in+play+fighting+by+male+and+female+rats.">Differential rates of attack, defense and counterattack during the developmental decrease in play fighting by male and female rats.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 23 (3), 215-231 (1990).</li><li>Pellis, S. M., Hastings, E., Shimizu, T., Kamitakahara, H., Komorowska, J., Forgie, M. L., Kolb, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+orbital+frontal+cortex+damage+on+the+modulation+of+defensive+responses+by+rats+in+playful+and+non-playful+social+contexts.">The effects of orbital frontal cortex damage on the modulation of defensive responses by rats in playful and non-playful social contexts.</a> Behav Neurosci. 120 (1), 72-84 (2006).</li><li>Wakabayashi, K. T., Kiyatkin, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+changes+in+extracellular+glutamate+induced+by+natural+arousing+stimuli+and+intravenous+cocaine+in+the+nucleus+accumbens+shell+and+core.">Rapid changes in extracellular glutamate induced by natural arousing stimuli and intravenous cocaine in the nucleus accumbens shell and core.</a> J Neurophysiol. 108 (1), 285-299 (2012).</li><li>Kapelsohn, K. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+methods+for+cutting,+mounting,+and+staining+tissue+for+neural+histology.">Improved methods for cutting, mounting, and staining tissue for neural histology.</a> Protoc Exch. , (2015).</li><li>Siegel, H. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chapter+7:+Male+sexual+behavior.">Chapter 7: Male sexual behavior.</a> The Hamster: Reproduction and Behavior. , (1985).</li><li>Day, J. J., Carelli, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+nucleus+accumbens+and+pavlovian+reward+learning.">The nucleus accumbens and pavlovian reward learning.</a> Neuroscientist. 13 (2), 148-159 (2007).</li><li>Meisel, R. L., Mullins, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sexual+experience+in+female+rodents:+Cellular+mechanisms+and+functional+consequences.">Sexual experience in female rodents: Cellular mechanisms and functional consequences.</a> Brain Res. 1126 (1), 56-65 (2006).</li><li>Meredith, G. E., Pennartz, C. M., Groenewegen, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cellular+framework+for+chemical+signaling+in+the+nucleus+accumbens.">The cellular framework for chemical signaling in the nucleus accumbens.</a> Prog Brain Res. 99, 3-24 (1993).</li><li>Hedges, V. L., Staffend, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+mechanisms+of+reproduction+in+females+as+a+predisposing+factor+for+drug+addiction.">Neural mechanisms of reproduction in females as a predisposing factor for drug addiction.</a> Front Neuroendocrinol. 31 (2), 217-231 (2010).</li></ol>

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Anche se relativamente semplice, alcuni problemi possono sorgere quando si impiegano questa tecnica. In primo luogo, il posizionamento delle sonde stereotassica deve essere preciso: a differenza di microdialysis che campiona un raggio più ampio del milieu extracellulare che circonda la sonda, questa tecnica permette solo la misura di un neurotrasmettitore che entra in contatto diretto con la sonda. In secondo luogo, nel caso la registrazione di fibra di carbonio, a causa della piccola larghezza di fibra, può verificars...

La capacità di misurare il rilascio di neurotrasmettitori in animali svegli comportamento permette ai ricercatori di collegare comportamenti specifici con i modelli spaziali e temporali di neurotrasmissione-un potente strumento per indagare i meccanismi e circuiteria sottostante sia naturale e comportamenti operanti in tempo reale. Storicamente, il microdialysis è stato impiegato per misurare sostanze sia elettricamente reattivi e non reattivi nell'ambiente extracellulare del cervello1. Questa tecnica utilizza un flusso continuo di una soluzione acquosa di composizione ionica simile al liquido extracellulare, attraverso una sonda di microdialysis composta da un piccolo albero con una punta di una membrana semipermeabile fibra cava2. Dopo l'inserimento della sonda, neurotrasmettitori o altri analiti di interesse possono attraversare la membrana semipermeabile con la diffusione passiva prima di essere raccolti a intervalli per la successiva analisi mediante cromatografia liquida ad alte prestazioni (HPLC), un chimica analitica tecnica comunemente utilizzata per separare, identificare e quantificare i componenti in una miscela eterogenea3.
Anche se il microdialysis è una tecnica sensibile che può essere utilizzata per misurare praticamente qualsiasi analita di interesse, la risoluzione temporale è bassa, con frequenze di campionamento massima dell'ordine di minuti a decine di minuti1,2. L'invenzione della scansione rapida voltammetria ciclica (FSCV), una tecnica che si basa sul potenziale redox di specie elettroattivi, può delucidare vicino istantanee concentrazioni dell'analita di interesse nel liquido extracellulare. In breve (Vedi Robinson et al. 4 per una vasta revisione), un elettrodo è applicato per alzare e abbassare la tensione in una moda onda triangolare su una scala di tempo veloce4. Quando la tensione è nell'intervallo corretto, il composto di interesse ripetutamente è ossidato e ridotto. Questa ossidazione e riduzione si traduce in un movimento di elettroni che crea una piccola corrente alternata. Scansione tariffe avvengono sulla scala di frazioni di secondo con ossidazione e riduzione dei composti che si verificano in microsecondi. Sottraendo lo sfondo corrente creato dalla sonda dalla corrente risultante, uno può generare una tensione vs attuale trama unica per ogni composto. Poiché la scala temporale delle oscillazioni della tensione è conosciuta, questi dati possono essere utilizzati per calcolare un complotto della corrente in funzione del tempo. Così, le concentrazioni relative del composto possono essere determinate, purché il numero di elettroni trasferiti in ogni ossidazione e reazione di riduzione è nota4.
Questa specificità chimica ed elevata risoluzione temporale fare FSCV una potente tecnica per la rilevazione cambiando concentrazioni chimiche in vivo. Tuttavia, nonostante questi molteplici vantaggi, questa tecnica richiede ampie competenze tecniche e attrezzature costose e installazione. Ulteriormente, i neurotrasmettitori nonelectroactive (ad es., glutammato) non possono essere misurati utilizzando questa tecnica. Fortunatamente, i progressi tecnologici nel campo della elettrochimica5, come pure la commercializzazione di queste invenzioni, ha introdotto un approccio relativamente semplice per misurare non-elettroattivi neurotrasmettitori in animali comportamento svegli senza compromettere temporale precisione-una tecnica nota come tecnologia dei biosensori enzimatici. Questa tecnica utilizza la conversione enzimatica del neurotrasmettitore nonelectroactive di interesse nei due substrati, uno dei quali è il perossido di idrogeno elettroattivi viene rilevato come un'ossidazione amperometrici corrente generata da un potenziale applicato5 . Biosensore commercialmente disponibili sonde (vedere Figura 1) selettivamente misurano analiti di interesse competitivo riducendo il contributo di interferenti endogeni. Nel caso di glutammato, il contributo di comune interferent acido ascorbico (AA) competitivo viene ridotto alla corrente misurata di co-localizzazione di ossidasi AA sulla superficie enzimatica attiva del sensore, conversione AA in non-elettroattivi dihydroascorbate e acqua. Inoltre, uno strato di polimero Nafion caricato negativa presente sotto lo strato di enzima esclude composti anionici endogeni.
Questa stessa impostazione sperimentale di biosensore in grado di misurare elettroattivi neurotrasmettitori come in FSCV, ma invece impiega un potenziale fisso registrazione6. In contrasto con la tensione oscillante applicata in FSCV, in una registrazione di potenziale fissa la tensione è mantenuta a redox potenziale per l'analita di interesse. Anche se è meno chimicamente selettivo rispetto FSCV come neurotrasmettitori multipli possono avere la stessa potenziale, redox nelle aree del cervello che schiacciante inclinare verso un neurotrasmettitore, la natura di turno-chiave di questo approccio supera la mancanza di sostanza chimica specificità.
La possibilità di misurare sia elettroattivi e nonelectroactive rilascio di neurotrasmettitori in tempo quasi reale e collegarlo a specifici eventi comportamentali offre l'opportunità di esaminare convergenti del rilascio di neurotrasmettitore. Questo manoscritto descrive in dettaglio l'utilizzo di questo sistema per interrogare la neurotrasmissione del glutammato e della dopamina in risposta alla naturale ricompensa in criceti comportamento svegli. Lo scopo di questa carta è di dettagliare il processo di misurazione questo rilascio di neurotrasmettitore durante il comportamento sessuale nei criceti femminili, con l'obiettivo di dimostrare la fattibilità per l'esame di altri comportamenti e paradigmi sperimentali.
I criceti sono un modello ideale per l'uso in elettrochimiche registrazioni Storicamente, i modelli del ratto e topi sono stati impiegati nello studio del comportamento sessuale. Queste specie di roditori impegnano in una sequenza dinamica di copula, che coinvolge numerosi comportamenti femminili sollecitazione che includono hopping, guizzanti e orecchio dimenando per attirare il maschio inseguire e infine montare la femmina7. Il montaggio da parte del maschio (con o senza penetrazione vaginale) dura solo pochi secondi, durante il quale la donna si impegna nella sua postura di comportamento sessuale (chiamato lordosi) anche solo per pochi secondi prima di riprendere i comportamenti attivi sollecitazione. Questo modello di comportamento, composto da alti livelli di attività intervallati da brevi periodi di immobilità, è problematico per la misurazione di neurotrasmissione nel comportarsi animali. In primo luogo, possono esserci artefatti di movimento nelle registrazioni amperometrico che non sono correlate all'attività neurale. In secondo luogo, la locomozione è associata con il rilascio di neurotrasmettitori particolare in determinate regioni del cervello. Ad esempio, rilascio della dopamina è stato accoppiato ad attività locomotrice nel corpo striato dorsale e ventrale8,9, trovando quello ha costituito la base per le misurazioni di microdialisi della dopamina seguendo psicostimolante amministrazione10. Perché i comportamenti di donna-tipica sollecitazione a most roditori comportano alti livelli di attività locomotrice e sono rappresentati dalla mole di un test di comportamento sessuale di 10 minuti, questo rende difficile attribuire i cambiamenti nella neurotrasmissione ai componenti esplicite di comportamento sessuale che collettivamente durano solo minuti.
Per analizzare il profilo del neurochemical del comportamento sessuale femminile, questo laboratorio ha cercato una specie in cui c'è minima attività locomotrice che accompagna il comportamento sessuale. La sequenza copulatoria in criceti siriani (Mesocricetus auratus) è ideale per le registrazioni del neurochemical a causa della mancanza di comportamenti di sollecitazione tipicamente osservati in ratti e topi11. Di conseguenza, criceti femminile entrerà e mantenere la postura di lordosi per verso l'alto 9 minuti fuori 10 minuti test sessione12. Con la mancanza di movimenti estranei locomotore dalla femmina, in vivo si ottengono registrazioni elettrochimiche che possono essere associate a componenti di interazioni sessuali con l'uomo.
Bouts copulatoria in criceti Dopo l'introduzione di un animale maschio stimolo nella camera di prova, l'uomo inizialmente si impegnerà nell'inchiesta anogenital (AI) della femmina prima di montare il suo (Figura 2A). In ordine per il maschio montare, la donna deve assumere un atteggiamento di sessuale ricettivo conosciuto come lordosi, in cui lei inarca la schiena e devia la coda in modo che il maschio di montaggio possa accedere del pene vagina per lei. Il maschio monterà la femmina, stringendo il suoi quarti posteriori con entrambe le zampe (Figura 2B) e iniziare spingendo nel tentativo di guadagnare intromission penile (Figura 2C). Il maschio montare la femmina (senza inserimento) così come cooptare un numero di volte prima di raggiungere alla fine eiaculazione precoce. Questa sequenza di Monti e intromissions che conduce alla eiaculazione è definita un "incontro copulatoria". I maschi avranno diversi attacchi copulatore all'interno di una singola sessione.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:329px;">Nembutal</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Oak Pharmaceuticals Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">76478-501-50</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Pentobarbital sodium injection, USP. This lab uses 8.5mg/100g body weight, injected intraperotineally.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:329px;">Loxicom analgesic&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Norbrook Laboratories&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">6451603670</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">NSAID antinflammatory and analgesic used for post-operative pain control. Generic: meloxicam.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:329px;">Enroflox antibiotic&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Norbrook Laboratories&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">5552915411</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Fluoroquinolone antibiotic for post-operative infection prevention. Generic: Enrofloxacin.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:329px;">Beuthanasia-D&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Merck Animal Health</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">00061047305</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Pentobarbital Sodium, Phenytoin Sodium euthanasia agent.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bone screws</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>8111-16</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">1/8&#34; bone screw (Pkg. of 16) used to affix skull cap to skull.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Dental acrylic (Bosworth Duz-All)</td>
			<td>Bosworth&#160;</td>
			<td>166261C&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Self curing dental acrylic is used in construction of a skull cap to affix cannula and head mount to skull.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">Hardware biosensor setup&#160;</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>8400-K2</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Pinnacle offers complete hardware kits for new users of our tethered biosensor system for rats. Kits include a commutator, preamplifier, and data conditioning and acquisition system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;">Base video computer package</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>9000-K1</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">The base computer package includes a preconfigured computer with ample hard disk storage, a high-definition monitor, a keyboard and mouse, an uninterruptible power supply, and all necessary cables.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;">Video EQ700 EverFocus camera&#160; package</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>&#160;9000-K10&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">EQ700 night vision capable box camera with independent IR source was obtained as part of Pinnacle video computer package. Dome camera (9000-K9) and HD camera (9000-K11) options are also available.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="126">
			<td height="126" style="height:126px;">Sirenia Acquisition software</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>Free--available to download from pinnaclet.com</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Sirenia&#160;Acquisition provides a single platform for recording data from any Pinnacle hardware system. The software features synchronization of all data streams, user-configurable settings, data consolidation, and multiple export options. In addition, the software includes basic review and analysis modules for biosensor recordings. Sirenia&#160;delivers free ll-in-one software that is ideal for data acquisition and review.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="147">
			<td height="147" style="height:147px;">Tethered rat&#160;in vitro&#160;calibration kit</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>7000-K2-T-BAS&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">In order to relate the current changes measured by a biosensor to actual changes in analyte concentration, it is necessary to calibrate the biosensor prior to implantation into the animal. The process also confirms the integrity and selectivity of the sensors.&#160;Calibration kit includes 20 mL jacketed beaker (#7058), 1/2&#34; by 1/8&#34; magnetic stir bar (#7059), right angle clamp (#7056), 2 prong single-adjustment clamp (#7055), 4-channel calibration preamplifer (#7053), and calibration holder (#7051).&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">Stir plate&#160;</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>6795-410D</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Corning digital Stirrer, 5&#34; x 7&#34;, 120 VAC used to spin magnetic stirrer in jacketed beaker during in vitro calibration of glutamate biosensors.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">Water bath capable of closed loop circulation</td>
			<td>PolyScience</td>
			<td>8006A11B</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">PolyScience 8006A11B 6L Standard Digital Heated Circulating Bath, 120VAC water bath was used with plastic tubing to heat jacketed beaker to physiological temperature.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Carbon fiber sensor with BASi rat cannulae</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>7002-CFS</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Carbon fiber electrode used for recording dopamine neurotransmission.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ag/AgCl reference electrode</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>7065</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Necessary for carbon fiber recordings.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Glutamate biosensors&#160;</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>7001&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Enzymatic biosensor probe used for recording glutamatergic neurotransmission.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BASi guide cannulae</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>7030&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Guide cannulae implanted into brain region of interest to guide probe.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BASi cannula plastic headpiece for rats&#160;</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>7011&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Headmount stabilizes probe and attaches to potentiostat.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measuring in vivo changes in extracellular neurotransmitters during naturally rewarding behaviors in female syrian hamsters

La capacità di misurare il rilascio di neurotrasmettitore su una scala di tempi rapidi consente modelli della neurotrasmissione per essere collegati a specifici comportamenti o manipolazioni; un potente strumento nel delucidamento sottostanti meccanismi e circuiti. Mentre la tecnica della microdialisi è stata utilizzata per decenni per misurare quasi qualsiasi analita di interesse nel cervello, questa tecnica è limitata nella risoluzione temporale. In alternativa, voltammetria ciclica scansione veloce è sia temporalmente preciso ed estremamente sensibile; Tuttavia, poiché questo metodo tecnicamente difficile si basa sull'electroactivity dell'analita di interesse, è eliminata la possibilità di rilevare sostanze nonelectroactive (ad es., il glutammato, un neurotrasmettitore). Questo documento descrive in dettaglio l'utilizzo di un sistema di chiavi che unisce potenziale fisso amperometria e biosensori enzimatici per misurare sia elettroattivi e nonelectroactive neurotrasmettitori con precisione temporale. L'abbinamento di questi due potenti tecniche consente la misurazione di tonico e fasico neurotrasmissione con relativa facilità e permette di registrare dei neurotrasmettitori multipli contemporaneamente. Lo scopo di questo manoscritto è per illustrare il processo di misurazione della dopamina e glutammato neurotrasmissione in vivo mediante un comportamento naturalmente gratificante (cioè, comportamento sessuale) in criceti femminile, con l'obiettivo finale di visualizzare il fattibilità tecnica di questo test per l'esame di altri comportamenti e paradigmi sperimentali.

Utilizzando l'elettrochimica e comportamentali codifica metodologia descritta sopra, questo laboratorio ha cominciato a caratterizzare sia tonico e fasiche fluttuazioni in dopamina e glutammato durante le registrazioni in vivo del comportamento sessuale. A causa del modo temporalmente precisa di questa metodologia, noi possiamo caratterizzare più accuratamente neurotrasmissione durante il comportamento sessuale; così come attribuire specifici cambiamenti nei modelli di rilascio...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters at JoVE.com

Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

Questa carta dettaglia l'uso di registrazioni di fisso-potenziale amperometrico utilizzando elettrodi in fibra di carbonio e tecnologia dei biosensori enzimatici per misurare il rilascio di dopamina e glutammato con elevata risoluzione temporale durante il naturale comportamento gratificante nella criceto femmina.

Misurare In Vivo i cambiamenti in neurotrasmettitori extracellulare durante naturalmente Premiando i comportamenti in criceti siriani femminili

The ability to measure neurotransmitter release on a rapid time scale allows patterns of neurotransmission to be linked to specific behaviors or ...

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Introduction to Psychology

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Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

Biopsychology

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10.1K Views.  University of Minnesota. Questa carta dettaglia l'uso di registrazioni di fisso-potenziale amperometrico utilizzando elettrodi in fibra di carbonio e tecnologia dei biosensori enzimatici per misurare il rilascio di dopamina e glutammato con elevata risoluzione temporale durante il naturale comportamento gratificante nella criceto femmina.

Video: Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural connectivity form during development. In mice, retinofugal projections are arranged in a topographic manner and form eye-specific layers in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (dLGN) of the thalamus and the Superior Colliculus (SC). The development of these precise patterns of retinofugal projections has typically been studied by labeling populations of RGCs with fluorescent dyes and tracers, such as horseradish peroxidase1-4. However, these methods are too coarse to provide insight into developmental changes in individual RGC axonal arbor morphology that are the basis of retinotopic map formation. They also do not allow for the genetic manipulation of RGCs.
Recently, electroporation has become an effective method for providing precise spatial and temporal control for delivery of charged molecules into the retina5-11. Current retinal electroporation protocols do not allow for genetic manipulation and tracing of retinofugal projections of a single or small cluster of RGCs in postnatal mice. It has been argued that postnatal in vivo electroporation is not a viable method for transfecting RGCs since the labeling efficiency is extremely low and hence requires targeting at embryonic ages when RGC progenitors are undergoing differentiation and proliferation6. 
In this video we describe an in vivo electroporation protocol for targeted delivery of genes, shRNA, and fluorescent dextrans to murine RGCs postnatally. This technique provides a cost effective, fast and relatively easy platform for efficient screening of candidate genes involved in several aspects of neural development including axon retraction, branching, lamination, regeneration and synapse formation at various stages of circuit development. In summary we describe here a valuable tool which will provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying sensory map development.

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

We demonstrate an in vivo electroporation protocol for transfecting single or small clusters of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and other retinal cell types in postnatal mice over a wide range of ages. The ability to label and genetically manipulate postnatal RGCs in vivo is a powerful tool for developmental studies.

Trasfezione delle cellule gangliari della retina di topo In vivo Elettroporazione

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural ...

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Neuroscienze

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

In vivo Laser assotomia in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Retrograde Fluorescent Labeling Allows for Targeted Extracellular Single-unit Recording from Identified Neurons In vivo

The overall goal of this method is to record single-unit responses from an identified population of neurons. In vivo electrophysiological recordings from individual neurons are critical for understanding how neural circuits function under natural conditions. Traditionally, these recordings have been performed 'blind', meaning the identity of the recorded cell is unknown at the start of the recording. Cellular identity can be subsequently determined via intracellular1, juxtacellular2 or loose-patch3 iontophoresis of dye, but these recordings cannot be pre-targeted to specific neurons in regions with functionally heterogeneous cell types. Fluorescent proteins can be expressed in a cell-type specific manner permitting visually-guided single-cell electrophysiology4-6. However, there are many model systems for which these genetic tools are not available. Even in genetically accessible model systems, the desired promoter may be unknown or genetically homogenous neurons may have varying projection patterns. Similarly, viral vectors have been used to label specific subgroups of projection neurons7, but use of this method is limited by toxicity and lack of trans-synaptic specificity. Thus, additional techniques that offer specific pre-visualization to record from identified single neurons in vivo are needed. Pre-visualization of the target neuron is particularly useful for challenging recording conditions, for which classical single-cell recordings are often prohibitively difficult8-11. The novel technique described in this paper uses retrograde transport of a fluorescent dye applied using tungsten needles to rapidly and selectively label a specific subset of cells within a particular brain region based on their unique axonal projections, thereby providing a visual cue to obtain targeted electrophysiological recordings from identified neurons in an intact circuit within a vertebrate CNS.
The most significant novel advancement of our method is the use of fluorescent labeling to target specific cell types in a non-genetically accessible model system. Weakly electric fish are an excellent model system for studying neural circuits in awake, behaving animals12. We utilized this technique to study sensory processing by "small cells" in the anterior exterolateral nucleus (ELa) of weakly electric mormyrid fish. "Small cells" are hypothesized to be time comparator neurons important for detecting submillisecond differences in the arrival times of presynaptic spikes13. However, anatomical features such as dense myelin, engulfing synapses, and small cell bodies have made it extremely difficult to record from these cells using traditional methods11, 14. Here we demonstrate that our novel method selectively labels these cells in 28% of preparations, allowing for reliable, robust recordings and characterization of responses to electrosensory stimulation.

Retrograde Fluorescent Labeling Allows for Targeted Extracellular Single-unit Recording from Identified Neurons In vivo

Retrograde transport of fluorescent dye labels a sub-population of neurons based on anatomical projection. Labeled axons can be visually targeted in vivo, permitting extracellular recording from identified axons. This technique facilitates recording when neurons cannot be labeled through genetic manipulation or are difficult to isolate using 'blind' in vivo approaches.

Retrograda Etichettatura fluorescente Consente mirata extracellulare singola unità di registrazione da parte dei neuroni identificati<em&gt; In vivo</em

The overall goal of this method is to record single-unit responses from an identified population of neurons. In vivo electrophysiological recordings from ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

Neuroimaging funzionale con l&#39;impiego dell&#39;ecografia emato-encefalica e la barriera di Turbativa del Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs through activation of their ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, and process information in part through activity-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Furthermore, astrocytes constitute the main uptake system for glutamate, contribute to potassium spatial buffering, as well as to GABA clearance. These cells therefore constantly monitor synaptic activity, and are thereby sensitive indicators for alterations in synaptically-released glutamate, GABA and extracellular potassium levels. Additionally, alterations in astroglial uptake activity or buffering capacity can have severe effects on neuronal functions, and might be overlooked when characterizing physiopathological situations or knockout mice. Dual recording of neuronal and astroglial activities is therefore an important method to study alterations in synaptic strength associated to concomitant changes in astroglial uptake and buffering capacities. Here we describe how to prepare hippocampal slices, how to identify stratum radiatum astrocytes, and how to record simultaneously neuronal and astroglial electrophysiological responses. Furthermore, we describe how to isolate pharmacologically the synaptically-evoked astroglial currents.

The preparation of acute brain slices from isolated hippocampi, as well as the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings of astrocytes and neurons in stratum radiatum during stimulation of schaffer collaterals is described. The pharmacological isolation of astroglial potassium and glutamate transporter currents is demonstrated.

Due registrazioni elettrofisiologiche di sinapticamente-evocati Risposte astrogliale e neuronale in acute fettine di ippocampo

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety of brain disorders1,2. To better understand the mechanisms by which brain circuits react to an animal's experience requires the ability to monitor the experience-dependent molecular changes in a given set of neurons, over a prolonged period of time, in the live animal. While experience and associated neural activity is known to trigger gene expression changes in neurons1,2, most of the methods to detect such changes do not allow repeated observation of the same neurons over multiple days or do not have sufficient resolution to observe individual neurons3,4. Here, we describe a method that combines in vivo two-photon microscopy with a genetically encoded fluorescent reporter to track experience-dependent gene expression changes in individual cortical neurons over the course of day-to-day experience. 
One of the well-established experience-dependent genes is Activity-regulated cytoskeletal associated protein (Arc)5,6. The transcription of Arc is rapidly and highly induced by intensified neuronal activity3, and its protein product regulates the endocytosis of glutamate receptors and long-term synaptic plasticity7. The expression of Arc has been widely used as a molecular marker to map neuronal circuits involved in specific behaviors3. In most of those studies, Arc expression was detected by in situ hybridization or immunohistochemistry in fixed brain sections. Although those methods revealed that the expression of Arc was localized to a subset of excitatory neurons after behavioral experience, how the cellular patterns of Arc expression might change with multiple episodes of repeated or distinctive experiences over days was not investigated. 
In vivo two-photon microscopy offers a powerful way to examine experience-dependent cellular changes in the living brain8,9. To enable the examination of Arc expression in live neurons by two-photon microscopy, we previously generated a knock-in mouse line in which a GFP reporter is placed under the control of the endogenous Arc promoter10. This protocol describes the surgical preparations and imaging procedures for tracking experience-dependent Arc-GFP expression patterns in neuronal ensembles in the live animal. In this method, chronic cranial windows were first implanted in Arc-GFP mice over the cortical regions of interest. Those animals were then repeatedly imaged by two-photon microscopy after desired behavioral paradigms over the course of several days. This method may be generally applicable to animals carrying other fluorescent reporters of experience-dependent molecular changes4.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

Experience-dependent molecular changes in neurons are essential for the brain's ability to adapt in response to behavioral challenges. An in vivo two-photon imaging method is described here that allows the tracking of such molecular changes in individual cortical neurons through genetically encoded reporters.

In Vivo a due fotoni di imaging dei cambi molecolari esperienza-dipendenti nei neuroni corticali

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety ...

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first neural circuit in the AOS pathway, called the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), plays an important role in establishing sex-typical behaviors such as territorial aggression and mating. This small (&#60;1 mm3) circuit possesses the capacity to distinguish unique behavioral states, such as sex, strain, and stress from chemosensory cues in the secretions and excretions of conspecifics. While the compact organization of this system presents unique opportunities for recording from large portions of the circuit simultaneously, investigation of sensory processing in the AOB remains challenging, largely due to its experimentally disadvantageous location in the brain. Here, we demonstrate a multi-stage dissection that removes the intact AOB inside a single hemisphere of the anterior mouse skull, leaving connections to both the peripheral vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) and local neuronal circuitry intact. The procedure exposes the AOB surface to direct visual inspection, facilitating electrophysiological and optical recordings from AOB circuit elements in the absence of anesthetics. Upon inserting a thin cannula into the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which houses the VSNs, one can directly expose the periphery to social odors and pheromones while recording downstream activity in the AOB. This procedure enables controlled inquiries into AOS information processing, which can shed light on mechanisms linking pheromone exposure to changes in behavior.

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) has been difficult to study in the context of sensory coding. Here, we demonstrate a dissection that produces an ex vivo preparation in which AOB neurons remain functionally connected to their peripheral inputs, facilitating research into information processing of mouse pheromones and kairomones.

Ex Vivo preparati della lampadina vomeronasale Organo e accessori olfattivo intatto

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first ...

A Simple and Inexpensive Method for Determining Cold Sensitivity and Adaptation in Mice

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life. The cold plantar assay allows the objective and inexpensive assessment of cold sensitivity in mice, and can quantify both analgesia and hypersensitivity. Mice are acclimated on a glass plate, and a compressed dry ice pellet is held against the glass surface underneath the hindpaw. The latency to withdrawal from the cooling glass is used as a measure of cold sensitivity.
Cold sensation is also important for survival in regions with seasonal temperature shifts, and in order to maintain sensitivity animals must be able to adjust their thermal response thresholds to match the ambient temperature. The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) also allows the study of adaptation to changes in ambient temperature by testing the cold sensitivity of mice at temperatures ranging from 30 &#176;C to 5 &#176;C. Mice are acclimated as described above, but the glass plate is cooled to the desired starting temperature using aluminum boxes (or aluminum foil packets) filled with hot water, wet ice, or dry ice. The temperature of the plate is measured at the center using a filament T-type thermocouple probe. Once the plate has reached the desired starting temperature, the animals are tested as described above.
This assay allows testing of mice at temperatures ranging from innocuous to noxious. The CPA yields unambiguous and consistent behavioral responses in uninjured mice and can be used to quantify both hypersensitivity and analgesia. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) measures cold responsiveness between 30 &#176;C and 5 &#176;C, and can also measure cold adaptation. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

Un metodo semplice e poco costoso per la determinazione fredda sensibilità e adattamento nei topi

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life.  The cold ...

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

Simultaneo<em&gt; Ex vivo</em&gt; Test funzionale di due retine per<em&gt; In vivo</em&gt; Sistema Elettroretinogramma

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

Construction of Cell-based Neurotransmitter Fluorescent Engineered Reporters (CNiFERs) for Optical Detection of Neurotransmitters In Vivo

Cell-based neurotransmitter fluorescent engineered reporters (CNiFERs) provide a new tool for neuroscientists to optically detect the release of neurotransmitters in the brain in vivo. A specific CNiFER is created from a human embryonic kidney cell that stably expresses a specific G protein-coupled receptor, which couples to Gq/11 G proteins, and a FRET-based Ca2+-detector, TN-XXL. Activation of the receptor leads to an increase in the FRET signal. CNiFERs have nM sensitivity and a temporal response of seconds because a CNiFER clone utilizes the native receptor for a particular neurotransmitter, e.g., D2R for dopamine. CNiFERs are directly implanted into the brain, enabling them to sense neurotransmitter release with a spatial resolution of less than one hundred &#181;m, making them ideal to measure volume transmission in vivo. CNiFERs can also be used to screen other drugs for potential cross-reactivity in vivo. We recently expanded the family of CNiFERs to include GPCRs that couple to Gi/o G proteins. CNiFERs are available for detecting acetylcholine (ACh), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE). Given that any GPCR can be used to create a novel CNiFER and that there are approximately 800 GPCRs in the human genome, we describe here the general procedure to design, realize, and test any type of CNiFER.

Construction of Cell-based Neurotransmitter Fluorescent Engineered Reporters CNiFERs for Optical Detection of Neurotransmitters In Vivo

We present a protocol to create cell-based neurotransmitter fluorescent engineered reporters (CNiFERs) for the optical detection of volumetric neurotransmitter release.

Costruzione di Cell-based neurotrasmettitore fluorescenti Engineered Reporters (CNiFERs) per il rilevamento ottico dei neurotrasmettitori<em&gt; In Vivo</em