The authors would like to thank Professor Yuzuru Takashima at the University of Arizona for discussions on optical imaging, Mr. Karl Urbanek for assistance with high power lasers, and Max Yuen for discussions of Brownian motion. The authors send further thanks to Professor Kenneth Crozier at Harvard University for helpful discussions on optical trapping experiments. Funding was provided in part by the United States National Science Foundation (award number 1028372).

1. Design the C-shaped Engraving (CSE) Array
<ol>
	<li>Design the array pattern.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52842/52842fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1.&#160;CSE Layout. Depiction of conveyor belt repeating element. Successful transport has been achieved using dy = 320 nm and dx = 360 nm. Adjacent pairs of engravings have a 60&#186; relative rotational offset. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_up...

<ol>
	<li>Ashkin, A., Dziedzic, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+Trapping+and+Manipulation+Of+Viruses+and+Bacteria.">Optical Trapping and Manipulation Of Viruses and Bacteria.</a> Science. 235 (4795), 1517-1520 (1987).</li><li>Svoboda, K., Block, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biological+Applications+of+Optical+Forces.">Biological Applications of Optical Forces.</a> Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 23 (1), 247-285 (1994).</li><li>Neuman, K., Block, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+Trapping.">Optical Trapping.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 75 (9), 2787-2809 (2004).</li><li>Fazal, F. M., Block, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+Tweezers+Study+Life+Under+Tension.">Optical Tweezers Study Life Under Tension.</a> Nat. Photonics. 5 (6), 318-321 (2011).</li><li>Bockelmann, U., Thomen, P., Essevaz-Roulet, B., Viasnoff, V., Heslot, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unzipping+DNA+with+Optical+Tweezers:+High+Sequence+Sensitivity+and+Force+Flips.">Unzipping DNA with Optical Tweezers: High Sequence Sensitivity and Force Flips.</a> Biophys. J. 82 (3), 1537-1553 (2002).</li><li>Pang, Y., Gordon, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+Trapping+of+Single+Protein.">Optical Trapping of Single Protein.</a> Nano Lett. 12 (1), 402-406 (2012).</li><li>Dholakia, K., C&#780;izm&#780;ar&#769;, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shaping+the+Future+of+Manipulation.">Shaping the Future of Manipulation.</a> Nat. Photonics. 5 (6), 335-342 (2011).</li><li>Grier, D. G., Roichman, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Holographic+Optical+Trapping.">Holographic Optical Trapping.</a> Appl. Opt. 45 (5), 880-887 (2006).</li><li>Korda, P. T., Taylor, M. B., Grier, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinetically+Locked-in+Colloidal+Transport+in+an+Array+of+Optical+Tweezers.">Kinetically Locked-in Colloidal Transport in an Array of Optical Tweezers.</a> Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 (12), 128301 (2002).</li><li>Pelton, M., Ladavac, K., Grier, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transport+and+Fractionation+in+Periodic+Potential-energy+Landscapes.">Transport and Fractionation in Periodic Potential-energy Landscapes.</a> Phys. Rev. E. 70 (3), 031108 (2004).</li><li>Eriksson, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Microfluidic+System+in+Combination+with+Optical+Tweezers+for+Analyzing+Rapid+and+Reversible+Cytological+Alterations+in+Single+Cells+upon+Environmental+Changes.">A Microfluidic System in Combination with Optical Tweezers for Analyzing Rapid and Reversible Cytological Alterations in Single Cells upon Environmental Changes.</a> Lab Chip. 7 (1), 71-76 (2007).</li><li>Applegate, R. W., Squier, J., Vestad, T., Oakey, J., Marr, D. W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Optical Trapping, Manipulation, and Sorting of Cells and Colloids in Microfluidic Systems with Diode Laser. 12 (19), 4390-4398 (2004).</li><li>MacDonald, G. C., Spalding, G. C., Dholakia, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfluidic+Sorting+in+an+Optical+Lattice.">Microfluidic Sorting in an Optical Lattice.</a> Nature. 426 (6965), 421-424 (2003).</li><li>Neale, S. L., MacDonald, M. P., Dholakia, K., Krauss, T. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=All-optical+Control+of+Microfluidic+Components+using+Form.">All-optical Control of Microfluidic Components using Form.</a> Nat. Mater. 4 (7), 530-533 (2005).</li><li>Juan, M. L., Righini, M., Quidant, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasmon+Nano-optical+Tweezers.+.">Plasmon Nano-optical Tweezers. .</a> Nat. Photonics. 5 (6), 349-356 (2011).</li><li>Kwak, E. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+Trapping+with+Integrated+Near-Field+Apertures.">Optical Trapping with Integrated Near-Field Apertures.</a> J. Phys. Chem. B. 108 (36), 13607-13612 (2004).</li><li>Righini, M., Zelenina, A. S., Girard, C., Quidant, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parallel+and+Selective+Trapping+in+a+Patterned+Plasmonic+Landscape.">Parallel and Selective Trapping in a Patterned Plasmonic Landscape.</a> Nat. Phys. 3 (7), 477-480 (2007).</li><li>Zhang, W., Huang, L., Santschi, C., Martin, O. J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trapping+and+Sensing+10+nm+Metal+Nanoparticles+using+Plasmonic+Dipole+Antennas.">Trapping and Sensing 10 nm Metal Nanoparticles using Plasmonic Dipole Antennas.</a> Nano Lett. 10 (3), 1006-1011 (2010).</li><li>Wang, K., Schonbrun, E., Steinvurzel, P., Crozier, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trapping+and+Rotating+Nanoparticles+using+a+Plasmonic+Nano-tweezer+with+an+Integrated+Heat+Sink.">Trapping and Rotating Nanoparticles using a Plasmonic Nano-tweezer with an Integrated Heat Sink.</a> Nat. Commun. 2, 469 (2011).</li><li>Shi, X., Hesselink, L., Thornton, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrahigh+Light+Trans-+mission+through+a+C-shaped+Nanoaperture.">Ultrahigh Light Trans- mission through a C-shaped Nanoaperture.</a> Opt. Lett. 28 (15), 1320-1322 (2003).</li><li>Chen, K., Lee, A., Hung, C., Huang, J., Yang, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transport+and+Trapping+in+Two-Dimensional+Nanoscale+Plasmonic+Optical+Lattice.">Transport and Trapping in Two-Dimensional Nanoscale Plasmonic Optical Lattice.</a> Nano Lett. 13, 4118-4122 (2013).</li><li>Cuche, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sorting+Nanoparticles+with+Intertwined+Plasmonic+and+Thermo-Hydrodynamical+Forces.">Sorting Nanoparticles with Intertwined Plasmonic and Thermo-Hydrodynamical Forces.</a> Nano Lett. 13, 4230-4235 (2013).</li><li>Hansen, P., Zheng, Y., Ryan, J., Hesselink, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nano-Optical+Conveyor+Belt,+Part+I:+Theory.">Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt, Part I: Theory.</a> Nano Lett. 14, 2965-2970 (2014).</li><li>Zheng, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nano-Optical+Conveyor+Belt,+Part+II:+Demonstration+of+Handoff+Between+Near-Field+Optical+Traps.">Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt, Part II: Demonstration of Handoff Between Near-Field Optical Traps.</a> Nano Lett. 14, 2971-2976 (2014).</li><li>Vogel, N., Zieleniecki, J., Koper, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=As+flat+as+it+gets:+Ultrasmooth+Surfaces+from+Template-stripping+Procedures.">As flat as it gets: Ultrasmooth Surfaces from Template-stripping Procedures.</a> Nanoscale. 4 (13), 3820-3832 (2012).</li><li>Zhu, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrafine+and+Smooth+Full+Metal+Nanostructures+for+Plasmonics.">Ultrafine and Smooth Full Metal Nanostructures for Plasmonics.</a> Adv. Mater. 22 (39), 4345-4349 (2010).</li><li>Kaleli, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+Beam+Lithography+of+HSQ+and+PMMA+Resists+and+Importance+of+their+Properties+to+Link+the+Nano+World+to+the+Micro+World.">Electron Beam Lithography of HSQ and PMMA Resists and Importance of their Properties to Link the Nano World to the Micro World.</a> , 105-108 (2010).</li></ol>

The NOCB combines the strong trapping forces and small trap size of plasmonic approaches with the capability to transport particles, long available only for conventional focused-beam techniques. Unique to the NOCB, the trapping and transport properties of the system are a result of surface patterning and not of shaping the illumination beam. Provided the illumination is bright enough and its polarization or wavelength can be modulated, particles can be held or moved in complicated protocols on the surface. We have demons...

Capture, interrogation and manipulation of single nanoparticles are of growing importance in nanotechnology. Optical tweezers have become a particularly successful manipulation technique for experiments in molecular biology1-4, chemistry5-7 and nano-assembly7-10, where they have enabled breakthrough experiments such as the measurement of the mechanical properties of single DNA molecules4&#160;and the sorting of cells by their optical properties11,12. Discoveries on these frontiers open up the study of even smaller systems, and they make way for the engineering of new practically beneficial products and techniques. In turn, this trend drives the need for new techniques to manipulate smaller, more rudimentary particles. In addition, there is a push to build &#39;lab-on-a-chip&#39; devices to perform these functions more cheaply and in a smaller package in order to bring chemical and biological tests out of the lab and into the field for medical and other purposes13,14.
Unfortunately, conventional optical trapping (COT) cannot meet all of nanotechnology&#39;s growing demands. COT operates on the mechanism of using a high numerical aperture (N.A.) objective lens to bring laser light to a tight focus, creating a localized peak in optical intensity and high gradients in the electromagnetic field energy. These energy density gradients exert a net force on light-scattering particles which generally draws them in towards the center of the focus. Trapping smaller particles requires higher optical power or a tighter focus. However, focused beams of light obey the principle of diffraction, which limits the minimal size of the focal spot and places an upper bound on the energy density gradient. This has two immediate consequences: COT cannot trap small objects efficiently, and COT has trouble discriminating between closely spaced particles, a trapping resolution limitation known as the &#39;fat fingers&#39; problem. In addition, implementing multiple particle trapping with COT requires systems of beam-steering optics or spatial light modulators, components which drastically increase the cost and complexity of an optical trapping system.
One way to circumvent the fundamental limitations of conventional focused beams of light, said to propagate in the far field, is to instead exploit the gradients of optical electromagnetic energy in the near field. The near field decays exponentially away from sources of electromagnetic fields, which means that not only is it highly localized to these sources, but it also exhibits very high gradients in its energy density. The near fields of nano-metallic resonators, such as bowtie apertures, nano pillars, and C-shaped engravings, have been shown to exhibit extraordinary concentrations of electromagnetic energy, further enhanced by the plasmonic action of gold and silver at near-infrared and optical wavelengths. These resonators have been used to trap extremely small particles at high efficiency and resolution15-22. While this technique has proven effective at trapping small particles, it has also proven to be limited in its ability to transport particles over appreciable range, which is necessary if near-field systems are to interface with far-field systems or microfluidics.
Recently, our group has proposed a solution to this problem. When resonators are placed very close together, a particle can in principle migrate from one near-field optical trap to the next without being released from the surface. The direction of transport can be determined if adjacent traps can be turned on and off separately. A linear array of three or more addressable resonators, in which each resonator is sensitive to a polarization or wavelength of light different from that of its neighbors, works as an optical conveyor belt, transporting nanoparticles over a distance of several microns on a chip.
The so-called &#39;Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt&#39; (NOCB) is unique among plasmonic resonator trapping schemes, as not only can it hold particles in place, but it can also move them at high speed along patterned tracks, gather or disperse particles, mix and queue them, and even sort them by properties such as their mobility23. All of these functions are controlled by modulating the polarization or wavelength of illumination, with no need for beam-steering optics. As a near-field optical trap, the NOCB trapping resolution is higher than that of conventional focused-beam optical traps, so it can differentiate between particles in close proximity; because it uses a metal nanostructure to concentrate light into a trapping well, it is power-efficient, and does not require expensive optical components such as a high N.A. objective. Furthermore, many NOCBs may be operated in parallel, at high packing density, on the same substrate, and 1 W of power can drive over 1200 apertures23.
We have recently demonstrated the first polarization-driven NOCB, smoothly propelling a nanoparticle back and forth along a 4.5 &#181;m track24. In this article we present the steps necessary to design and fabricate the device, optically activate it and reproduce the transport experiment. We hope that making this technique more widely available will help bridge the size gap between microfluidics, far-field optics, and nanoscale devices and experiments.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>HSQ e-beam resist</td>
			<td>Dow Corning</td>
			<td>XR-1541-006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PMMA</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td>950A2 M230002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fast curing optical adhesive</td>
			<td>Norland Optical Adhesive</td>
			<td>NOA 81</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent carboxyl microspheres</td>
			<td>Bangs Laboratories</td>
			<td>FC02F, FC03F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent carboxylate-modified microspheres</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes</td>
			<td>F-8888</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quartz slide</td>
			<td>SPI Supplies</td>
			<td>1020-AB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted fluorescent microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>ECLIPSE TE2000-U</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nd:YAG laser</td>
			<td>Lightwave Electronics</td>
			<td>221-HD-V04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sCMOS camera</td>
			<td>PCO</td>
			<td>EDGE55</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD camera</td>
			<td>Watec</td>
			<td>WAT-120N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zero-order half-wave plate</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>WPH05M-1064</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T8787</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled water</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10977-023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Si Wafer</td>
			<td>Silicon Quest International</td>
			<td>708069</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical lenses</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabrication and operation of a nano-optical conveyor belt

The technique of using focused laser beams to trap and exert forces on small particles has enabled many pivotal discoveries in the nanoscale biological and physical sciences over the past few decades. The progress made in this field invites further study of even smaller systems and at a larger scale, with tools that could be distributed more easily and made more widely available. Unfortunately, the fundamental laws of diffraction limit the minimum size of the focal spot of a laser beam, which makes particles smaller than a half-wavelength in diameter hard to trap and generally prevents an operator from discriminating between particles which are closer together than one half-wavelength. This precludes the optical manipulation of many closely-spaced nanoparticles and&#160;limits the&#160;resolution of optical-mechanical systems. Furthermore, manipulation using focused beams requires beam-forming or steering optics, which can be very bulky and expensive. To address these limitations in the system scalability of conventional optical trapping our lab has devised an alternative technique which utilizes near-field optics to move particles across a chip. Instead of focusing laser beams in the far-field, the optical near field of plasmonic resonators produces the necessary local optical intensity enhancement to overcome the restrictions of diffraction and manipulate particles at higher resolution. Closely-spaced resonators produce strong optical traps which can be addressed to mediate the hand-off of particles from one to the next in a conveyor-belt-like fashion. Here, we describe how to design and produce a conveyor belt using a gold surface patterned with plasmonic C-shaped resonators and how to operate it with polarized laser light to achieve super-resolution nanoparticle manipulation and transport. The nano-optical conveyor belt chip can be produced using lithography techniques and easily packaged and distributed.

Figure 7 is a picture of the final device. At the center of the 1 cm x 1 cm gold surface is the matrix of CSE and conveyor patterns, which can be barely seen from an angled view. Figure 6 is a scanning electron microscopy image of an example CSE pattern on the final device.
The particle motion of a 390 nm polystyrene bead traveling across a nano-optical conveyor belt 5 &#181;m in length is shown in Figure 9. The curve shows the particle&#8217;...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication and Operation of a Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt at JoVE.com

Fabrication and Operation of a Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt

The scalability and resolution of conventional optical manipulation techniques are limited by diffraction. We circumvent the diffraction limit and describe a method of optically transporting nanoparticles across a chip using a gold surface patterned with a path of closely spaced C-shaped plasmonic resonators.

The technique of using focused laser beams to trap and exert forces on small particles has enabled many pivotal discoveries in the nanoscale biological ...

fabrication-and-operation-of-a-nano-optical-conveyor-belt

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Physics

Engineering

Unit 1

Electromagnetic Waves

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

11.4K ビュー.  Stanford University. The scalability and resolution of conventional optical manipulation techniques are limited by diffraction. We circumvent the diffraction limit and describe a method of optically transporting nanoparticles across a chip using a gold surface patterned with a path of closely spaced C-shaped plasmonic resonators.

ビデオ: Fabrication and Operation of a Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt

The scalability and resolution of conventional optical manipulation techniques are limited by diffraction. We circumvent the diffraction limit and describe a method of optically transporting nanoparticles across a chip using a gold surface patterned with a path of closely spaced C-shaped plasmonic...

in situ surface temperature measurement in a conveyor belt furnace via inline infrared thermography

In Situ Surface Temperature Measurement in a Conveyor Belt Furnace via Inline Infrared Thermography

This protocol describes how to install an infrared camera into a conveyor belt furnace, conduct a customer correction of a factory calibrated IR camera, and evaluate the spatial surface temperature distribution of an object of interest. The example objects are industrial silicon solar...

the fabrication and operation of a continuous flow, micro-electroporation system with permeabilization detection

The Fabrication and Operation of a Continuous Flow, Micro-Electroporation System with Permeabilization Detection

This protocol describes the microfabrication techniques required to build a lab-on-a-chip, microfluidic electroporation device. The experimental setup performs controlled, single-cell-level transfections in a continuous flow and can be extended to higher throughputs with population-based control. An analysis is provided showcasing the ability to electrically monitor the degree of cell membrane permeabilization in...

nano-pad fabrication using micro-embossing

Nano-PAD Fabrication Using Micro-Embossing  

microembossing: a convenient process for fabricating microchannels on nanocellulose paper-based microfluidics

Author Spotlight: Revolutionizing Microfluidics Through Microchannel Fabrication on Nanopaper 

This protocol describes a straightforward process that utilizes convenient plastic micro-molds for simple microembossing operations to fabricate microchannels on nanofibrillated cellulose paper, achieving a minimum width of 200...

Micro-Embossed Fabrication of Nanocellulose Paper-Based Analytical Devices  

https://cloudfront.jove.com/CDNSource/teasers/65965_b.jpg

patterning via optical saturable transitions - fabrication and characterization

Patterning via Optical Saturable Transitions - Fabrication and Characterization

We report that the diffraction limit of conventional optical lithography can be overcome by exploiting the transitions of organic photochromic derivatives induced by their photoisomerization at low light intensities.1-3 This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two locking mechanisms, namely: dissolution of one photoisomer and electrochemical...

fabrication and characterization of optical tissue phantoms containing macrostructure

Fabrication and Characterization of Optical Tissue Phantoms Containing Macrostructure

Optical tissue phantoms are essential tools for calibration and characterization of optical imaging systems and validation of theoretical models. This article details a method for phantom fabrication that includes replication of tissue optical properties and three-dimensional tissue...

fabrication and operation of an oxygen insert for adherent cellular cultures 

Fabrication and Operation of an Oxygen Insert for Adherent Cellular Cultures

Fabrication and validation of an add-on platform that offers enhanced control over the spatial and temporal oxygenation in a 6-well plate.  The device is adaptable to a number of culture systems and can be used to investigate the effects of oxygen on wound healing.

Fabrication and Operation of an Oxygen Insert for Adherent Cellular Cultures 

design and fabrication of an optical fiber made of water

Design and Fabrication of an Optical Fiber Made of Water

This protocol describes the design and manufacture of a water bridge and its activation as a water fiber. The experiment demonstrates that capillary resonances of the water fiber modulate its optical...

iron nanowire fabrication by nano-porous anodized aluminum and its characterization

Iron Nanowire Fabrication by Nano-Porous Anodized Aluminum and its Characterization

In this work, we describe a&#160;protocol to fabricate iron nanowires, including the formation of the porous alumina membrane that is used as the template, electrodeposition into templates using electrolyte solution, and the release of the nanowires into the...

fabrication of polymer microspheres for optical resonator and laser applications

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are...

fabrication of nano-engineered transparent conducting oxides by pulsed laser deposition

Fabrication of Nano-engineered Transparent Conducting Oxides by Pulsed Laser Deposition

We describe the experimental method to deposit nanostructured oxide thin films by nanosecond Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) in the presence of a background gas. By using this method Al-doped ZnO (AZO) films, from compact to hierarchically structured as nano-tree forests, can be...

fabrication of a biomimetic nano-matrix with janus base nanotubes and fibronectin for stem cell adhesion

Fabrication of a Biomimetic Nano-Matrix with Janus Base Nanotubes and Fibronectin for Stem Cell Adhesion

The goal of this protocol is to show the assembly of a biomimetic nanomatrix (NM) with Janus base nanotubes (JBNTs) and fibronectin (FN). When co-cultured with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), the NMs exhibit excellent bioactivity in encouraging hMSCs...

fabrication, operation and flow visualization in surface-acoustic-wave-driven acoustic-counterflow microfluidics

Fabrication, Operation and Flow Visualization in Surface-acoustic-wave-driven Acoustic-counterflow Microfluidics

In this video we first describe fabrication and operation procedures of a surface acoustic wave (SAW) acoustic counterflow device. We then demonstrate an experimental setup that allows for both qualitative flow visualization and quantitative analysis of complex flows within the SAW pumping...

fabrication and characterization of layer-by-layer janus base nano-matrix to promote cartilage regeneration

Fabrication and Characterization of Layer-By-Layer Janus Base Nano-Matrix to Promote Cartilage Regeneration

This protocol describes the assembly of a layer-by-layer Janus base nano-matrix (JBNm) scaffold by adding Janus base nanotubes (JBNts), matrilin-3, and Transforming Growth Factor Beta-1 (TGF-&#946;1) sequentially. The JBNm was fabricated and characterized; additionally, it displayed excellent bioactivity, encouraging cell functions such as adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation.

fabrication and operation of acoustofluidic devices supporting bulk acoustic standing waves for sheathless focusing of particles

Fabrication and Operation of Acoustofluidic Devices Supporting Bulk Acoustic Standing Waves for Sheathless Focusing of Particles

Acoustofluidic devices use ultrasonic waves within microfluidic channels to manipulate, concentrate and isolate suspended micro and nanoscopic entities. This protocol describes the fabrication and operation of such a device supporting bulk acoustic standing waves to focus particles in a central streamline without the aid of sheath...

fabrication of an optical cell dryer for the spectroscopic analysis cells

Fabrication of an Optical Cell Dryer for the Spectroscopic Analysis Cells

A protocol for fabricating a device for simultaneously drying multiple optical cells is...

microfluidic picoliter bioreactor for microbial single-cell analysis: fabrication, system setup, and operation

Microfluidic Picoliter Bioreactor for Microbial Single-cell Analysis: Fabrication, System Setup, and Operation

In this protocol the fabrication, setup and basic operation of a microfluidic picoliter bioreactor (PLBR) for single-cell analysis of prokaryotic microorganisms is introduced. Industrially relevant microorganisms were analyzed as proof of principle allowing insights into growth rate, morphology, and phenotypic heterogeneity over certain time periods, hardly possible with conventional...

low-cost custom fabrication and mode-locked operation of an all-normal-dispersion femtosecond fiber laser for multiphoton microscopy

Low-cost Custom Fabrication and Mode-locked Operation of an All-normal-dispersion Femtosecond Fiber Laser for Multiphoton Microscopy

A method is presented to build a custom low-cost, mode-locked femtosecond fiber laser for potential applications in multiphoton microscopy, endoscopy, and photomedicine. This laser is built using commercially available parts and basic splicing...

operation of a benchtop bioreactor

Operation of a Benchtop Bioreactor

Fermentors are used to increase culture yield and productivity of bioengineered cells.  After screening multiple microbial or animal cell culture candidates in shake flasks, the next logical step is to increase the selected culture&#x2019;s biomass with the fermentor. This video demonstrates the setup and operation of a typical benchtop bioreactor...

Fabrication, Densification, and Replica Molding of 3D Carbon Nanotube Microstructures

The introduction of new materials and processes to microfabrication has, in large part, enabled many important advances in microsystems, lab-on-a-chip devices, and their applications. In particular, capabilities for cost-effective fabrication of polymer microstructures were transformed by the advent of soft lithography and other micromolding techniques 1, 2, and this led a revolution in applications of microfabrication to biomedical engineering and biology. Nevertheless, it remains challenging to fabricate microstructures with well-defined nanoscale surface textures, and to fabricate arbitrary 3D shapes at the micro-scale. Robustness of master molds and maintenance of shape integrity is especially important to achieve high fidelity replication of complex structures and preserving their nanoscale surface texture. The combination of hierarchical textures, and heterogeneous shapes, is a profound challenge to existing microfabrication methods that largely rely upon top-down etching using fixed mask templates. On the other hand, the bottom-up synthesis of nanostructures such as nanotubes and nanowires can offer new capabilities to microfabrication, in particular by taking advantage of the collective self-organization of nanostructures, and local control of their growth behavior with respect to microfabricated patterns. 
Our goal is to introduce vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (CNTs), which we refer to as CNT "forests", as a new microfabrication material. We present details of a suite of related methods recently developed by our group: fabrication of CNT forest microstructures by thermal CVD from lithographically patterned catalyst thin films; self-directed elastocapillary densification of CNT microstructures; and replica molding of polymer microstructures using CNT composite master molds. In particular, our work shows that self-directed capillary densification ("capillary forming"), which is performed by condensation of a solvent onto the substrate with CNT microstructures, significantly increases the packing density of CNTs. This process enables directed transformation of vertical CNT microstructures into straight, inclined, and twisted shapes, which have robust mechanical properties exceeding those of typical microfabrication polymers. This in turn enables formation of nanocomposite CNT master molds by capillary-driven infiltration of polymers. The replica structures exhibit the anisotropic nanoscale texture of the aligned CNTs, and can have walls with sub-micron thickness and aspect ratios exceeding 50:1. Integration of CNT microstructures in fabrication offers further opportunity to exploit the electrical and thermal properties of CNTs, and diverse capabilities for chemical and biochemical functionalization 3.

We present methods for fabrication of patterned microstructures of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and their use as master molds for production of polymer microstructures with organized nanoscale surface texture. The CNT forests are densified by condensation of solvent onto the substrate, which significantly increases their packing density and enables self-directed formation of 3D shapes.

The introduction of new materials and processes to microfabrication has, in large part, enabled many important advances in microsystems, lab-on-a-chip ...

Synthesis and Operation of Fluorescent-core Microcavities for Refractometric Sensing

This paper discusses fluorescent core microcavity-based sensors that can operate in a microfluidic analysis setup. These structures are based on the formation of a fluorescent quantum-dot (QD) coating on the channel surface of a conventional microcapillary. Silicon QDs are especially attractive for this application, owing in part to their negligible toxicity compared to the II-VI and II-VI compound QDs, which are legislatively controlled substances in many countries. While the ensemble emission spectrum is broad and featureless, an Si-QD film on the channel wall of a capillary features a set of sharp, narrow peaks in the fluorescence spectrum, corresponding to the electromagnetic resonances for light trapped within the film. The peak wavelength of these resonances is sensitive to the external medium, thus permitting the device to function as a refractometric sensor in which the QDs never come into physical contact with the analyte. The experimental methods associated with the fabrication of the fluorescent-core microcapillaries are discussed in detail, as well as the analysis methods. Finally, a comparison is made between these structures and the more widely investigated liquid-core optical ring resonators, in terms of microfluidic sensing capabilities.

Fluorescent-core microcavity sensors employ a high-index quantum-dot coating in the channel of silica microcapillaries. Changes in the refractive index of fluids pumped into the capillary channel cause shifts in the microcavity fluorescence spectrum that can be used to analyze the channel medium.

This paper discusses  fluorescent core microcavity-based sensors that can operate in a microfluidic  analysis setup. These structures are based on the ...

Surface acoustic waves (SAWs) can be used to drive liquids in portable microfluidic chips via the acoustic counterflow phenomenon. In this video we present the fabrication protocol for a multilayered SAW acoustic counterflow device. The device is fabricated starting from a lithium niobate (LN) substrate onto which two interdigital transducers (IDTs) and appropriate markers are patterned. A polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) channel cast on an SU8 master mold is finally bonded on the patterned substrate. Following the fabrication procedure, we show the techniques that allow the characterization and operation of the acoustic counterflow device in order to pump fluids through the PDMS channel grid. We finally present the procedure to visualize liquid flow in the channels. The protocol is used to show on-chip fluid pumping under different flow regimes such as laminar flow and more complicated dynamics characterized by vortices and particle accumulation domains.

In this video we first describe fabrication and operation procedures of a surface acoustic wave (SAW) acoustic counterflow device. We then demonstrate an experimental setup that allows for both qualitative flow visualization and quantitative analysis of complex flows within the SAW pumping device.

Surface acoustic waves (SAWs) can be used to drive liquids in portable microfluidic chips via the acoustic counterflow phenomenon. In this video we ...

Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including microresonators. However, because of the increased acoustic radiative losses during direct liquid immersion of optomechanical devices, almost all published optomechanical experiments have been performed in solid phase. This paper discusses a recently introduced hollow microfluidic optomechanical resonator. Detailed methodology is provided to fabricate these ultra-high-Q microfluidic resonators, perform optomechanical testing, and measure radiation pressure-driven breathing mode and SBS-driven whispering gallery mode parametric vibrations. By confining liquids inside the capillary resonator, high mechanical- and optical- quality factors are simultaneously maintained.

Parametric optomechanical excitations have recently been experimentally demonstrated in microfluidic optomechanical resonators by means of optical radiation pressure and stimulated Brillouin scattering. This paper describes the fabrication of these microfluidic resonators along with methodologies for generating and verifying optomechanical oscillations.

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including ...

Fabrication Process of Silicone-based Dielectric Elastomer Actuators

This contribution demonstrates the fabrication process of dielectric elastomer transducers (DETs). DETs are stretchable capacitors consisting of an elastomeric dielectric membrane sandwiched between two compliant electrodes. The large actuation strains of these transducers when used as actuators (over 300% area strain) and their soft and compliant nature has been exploited for a wide range of applications, including electrically tunable optics, haptic feedback devices, wave-energy harvesting, deformable cell-culture devices, compliant grippers, and propulsion of a bio-inspired fish-like airship. In most cases, DETs are made with a commercial proprietary acrylic elastomer and with hand-applied electrodes of carbon powder or carbon grease. This combination leads to non-reproducible and slow actuators exhibiting viscoelastic creep and a short lifetime. We present here a complete process flow for the reproducible fabrication of DETs based on thin elastomeric silicone films, including casting of thin silicone membranes, membrane release and prestretching, patterning of robust compliant electrodes, assembly and testing. The membranes are cast on flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates coated with a water-soluble sacrificial layer for ease of release. The electrodes consist of carbon black particles dispersed into a silicone matrix and patterned using a stamping technique, which leads to precisely-defined compliant electrodes that present a high adhesion to the dielectric membrane on which they are applied.

This manuscript shows the fabrication process for the manufacture of dielectric elastomer soft actuators based on silicone membranes. The three key stages of production are presented in detail: blade casting of thin silicone membranes; pad printing of compliant electrodes; and the assembly of all the components.

This contribution demonstrates the fabrication process of dielectric elastomer transducers (DETs). DETs are stretchable capacitors consisting of an ...

Acoustophoresis refers to the displacement of suspended objects in response to directional forces from sound energy. Given that the suspended objects must be smaller than the incident wavelength of sound and the width of the fluidic channels are typically tens to hundreds of micrometers across, acoustofluidic devices typically use ultrasonic waves generated from a piezoelectric transducer pulsating at high frequencies (in the megahertz range). At characteristic frequencies that depend on the geometry of the device, it is possible to induce the formation of standing waves that can focus particles along desired fluidic streamlines within a bulk flow. Here, we describe a method for the fabrication of acoustophoretic devices from common materials and clean room equipment. We show representative results for the focusing of particles with positive or negative acoustic contrast factors, which move towards the pressure nodes or antinodes of the standing waves, respectively. These devices offer enormous practical utility for precisely positioning large numbers of microscopic entities (e.g., cells) in stationary or flowing fluids for applications ranging from cytometry to assembly.

Acoustofluidic devices use ultrasonic waves within microfluidic channels to manipulate, concentrate and isolate suspended micro and nanoscopic entities. This protocol describes the fabrication and operation of such a device supporting bulk acoustic standing waves to focus particles in a central streamline without the aid of sheath fluids.

Acoustophoresis refers to the displacement of suspended objects in response to directional forces from sound energy. Given that the suspended objects must ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) for the detection of faint astrophysical signatures, as well as for quantum computing applications and materials characterization. In this paper, procedures are presented for the fabrication and characterization of thin-film superconducting microwave resonators. The fabrication methodology allows for the realization of superconducting transmission-line resonators with features on both sides of an atomically smooth single-crystal silicon dielectric. This work describes the procedure for the installation of resonator devices into a cryogenic microwave testbed and for cool-down below the superconducting transition temperature. The set-up of the cryogenic microwave testbed allows one to do careful measurements of the complex microwave transmission of these resonator devices, enabling the extraction of the properties of the superconducting lines and dielectric substrate (e.g., internal quality factors, loss and kinetic inductance fractions), which are important for device design and performance.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for detection of light, quantum computing applications and materials characterization. This work presents a detailed procedure for fabrication and characterization of superconducting microwave resonator scattering parameters.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

Solvent Bonding for Fabrication of PMMA and COP Microfluidic Devices

Thermoplastic microfluidic devices offer many advantages over those made from silicone elastomers, but bonding procedures must be developed for each thermoplastic of interest. Solvent bonding is a simple and versatile method that can be used to fabricate devices from a variety of plastics. An appropriate solvent is added between two device layers to be bonded, and heat and pressure are applied to the device to facilitate the bonding. By using an appropriate combination of solvent, plastic, heat, and pressure, the device can be sealed with a high quality bond, characterized as having high bond coverage, bond strength, optical clarity, durability over time, and low deformation or damage to microfeature geometry. We describe the procedure for bonding devices made from two popular thermoplastics, poly(methyl-methacrylate) (PMMA), and cyclo-olefin polymer (COP), as well as a variety of methods to characterize the quality of the resulting bonds, and strategies to troubleshoot low quality bonds. These methods can be used to develop new solvent bonding protocols for other plastic-solvent systems.

Solvent bonding is a simple and versatile method for fabricating thermoplastic microfluidic devices with high quality bonds. We describe a protocol to achieve strong, optically clear bonds in PMMA and COP microfluidic devices that preserve microfeature details, by a judicious combination of pressure, temperature, an appropriate solvent, and device geometry.

Thermoplastic microfluidic devices offer many advantages over those made from silicone elastomers, but bonding procedures must be developed for each ...

Construction and Operation of a Light-driven Gold Nanorod Rotary Motor System

The possibility to generate and measure rotation and torque at the nanoscale is of fundamental interest to the study and application of biological and artificial nanomotors and may provide new routes towards single cell analysis, studies of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, and mechanical actuation of nanoscale systems. A facile way to drive rotation is to use focused circularly polarized laser light in optical tweezers. Using this approach, metallic nanoparticles can be operated as highly efficient scattering-driven rotary motors spinning at unprecedented rotation frequencies in water.
In this protocol, we outline the construction and operation of circularly-polarized optical tweezers for nanoparticle rotation and describe the instrumentation needed for recording the Brownian dynamics and Rayleigh scattering of the trapped particle. The rotational motion and the scattering spectra provides independent information on the properties of the nanoparticle and its immediate environment. The experimental platform has proven useful as a nanoscopic gauge of viscosity and local temperature, for tracking morphological changes of nanorods and molecular coatings, and as a transducer and probe of photothermal and thermodynamic processes.

Plasmonic gold nanorods can be trapped in liquids and rotated at kHz frequencies using circularly-polarized optical tweezers. Introducing tools for Brownian dynamics analysis and light scatteringspectroscopy leads to a powerful system for research and application in numerous fields of science.

The possibility to generate and measure rotation and torque at the nanoscale is of fundamental interest to the study and application of biological and ...

Fabrication of Refractive-index-matched Devices for Biomedical Microfluidics

The use of microfluidic devices has emerged as a defining tool for biomedical applications. When combined with modern microscopy techniques, these devices can be implemented as part of a robust platform capable of making simultaneous complementary measurements. The primary challenge created by the combination of these two techniques is the mismatch in refractive index between the materials traditionally used to make microfluidic devices and the aqueous solutions typically used in biomedicine. This mismatch can create optical artifacts near the channel or device edges. One solution is to reduce the refractive index of the material used to fabricate the device by using a fluorinated polymer such as MY133-V2000 whose refractive index is similar to that of water (n = 1.33). Here, the construction of a microfluidic device made out of MY133-V2000 using soft lithography techniques is demonstrated, using O2 plasma in conjunction with an acrylic holder to increase the adhesion between the MY133-V2000 fabricated device and the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrate. The device is then tested by incubating it filled with cell culture media for 24 h to demonstrate the ability of the device to maintain cell culture conditions during the course of a typical imaging experiment. Finally, quantitative phase microscopy (QPM) is used to measure the distribution of mass within the live adherent cells in the microchannel. This way, the increased precision, enabled by fabricating the device from a low index of refraction polymer such as MY133-V2000 in lieu of traditional soft lithography materials such as PDMS, is demonstrated. Overall, this approach for fabricating microfluidic devices can be readily integrated into existing soft lithography workflows in order to reduce optical artifacts and increase measurement precision.

This protocol describes the fabrication of microfluidic devices from MY133-V2000 to eliminate artifacts that often arise in microchannels due to the mismatching refractive indices between microchannel structures and an aqueous solution. This protocol uses an acrylic holder to compress the encapsulated device, improving adhesion both chemically and mechanically.

The use of microfluidic devices has emerged as a defining tool for biomedical applications. When combined with modern microscopy techniques, these devices ...