Authors would like to thank Charisse Montgomery for her editing service. A. Alomran&#8217;s work partially fulfills the requirements for a master&#8217;s degree in Pharmacology.This work is funded by The University of Toledo&#8217;s intramural startup fund for W.A.A and NIH grant (DK080640) for S.M.N.

動物使用のための手順は、国立衛生研究所と管理と使用のためのガイドでの制度的動物実験委員会のガイドラインに従ってトレド大学の施設内動物管理使用委員会（IACUC）によって承認されました実験動物の。 1.脳抽出、セクショニングおよび組織調製<ol><li>深く5分間のCO 2窒息で安楽死によって、野生型マウス系統C57BL / 6を生け贄に捧げます。頸椎脱臼により死を保証します。 </li><li> 70％エタノールでマウスのヘッドを清掃してください。 </li><li>最初の頭蓋骨を露出させるために頭の上から開始し、肌をオフに引いて、滅菌ハサミとピンセットを用いて頭蓋骨切除術を行います。 </li><li>その後、頭蓋骨が露出した時点で、骨の部分部分を剥離後側から開始し、前方側に移動させることで頭蓋骨を削除します。脳室を破壊しないように注意してください。 </li><li>脳全体を収集します。 </li><li>ペニシリン10,000単位/ mlおよびストレプトマイシンと予め温め10,000μgの/ mlを含有する10％ウシ胎児血清（FBS）を補充したDMEM /高グルコースおよび1％ペニシリン/ストレプトマイシン溶液を含む100mMペトリ皿に脳を置き37℃です。 </li><li>鋭利な刃で手で正中矢状面上の脳をスライスし、ビブラトームを用いて各半分から最初の100〜200ミリメートルのセクションを取得します。 </li><li>予め温めた37℃のリン酸緩衝生理食塩水（1×PBS）溶液を用いて脳組織をすすぎます。 </li><li>すぐにメディア37℃に予熱した高グルコースDMEM /脳セクションを配置します。 </li></ol> 2.ライブイメージング構成と​​セットアップ<ol><li>高グルコースDMEM /培地1mlを含む30ミリメートルのガラス底培養皿に脳組織切片を置きます。 95％/ 10％のO 2 / CO 2含有量37°C、（ 図1には、顕微鏡の密閉チャンバの環境を調整します</strオング&gt;）。 </li><li> 60X油浸対物レンズを使用して、最初の60X対物レンズで油滴を置き、定期的なDICを用いて細胞に着目して上衣細胞/繊毛画像を収集し、光を伝送されます。 </li><li>繊毛殴打がエリア内に気泡の動きのようなものを作成するようにそして、運動性上衣繊毛の場所へのガイドとして、DMEMバブル移動の方向に従ってください。 DICフィルタを使用して、脳の側脳室に運動性繊毛で健康な細胞を含む領域を選択してください。上衣繊毛が発見されると、光を調整し、良好な画像を得ること焦点を合わせます。 </li><li>をMetamorphイメージングソフトウェアを使用して、特定の目的に応じたライブイメージングパラメータを設定します。本デモでは、60X対物レンズと、5〜10ミリ秒の露光時間と合わせ、1×1のカメラビニングを設定して24ビットの画像を取得します。 </li><li>最小EXPを得るために最適なレベルに顕微鏡開口部を開くことにより、DIC画像を収集osure時間。遅滞なく迅速かつ即時の画像取得を提供するために、カメラにライブ映像ストリームを確認します。十分な画像コントラストを得るために、最小限の露光時間の要件に基づいて、繊毛の鼓動の速度を計算します。 </li></ol> 3.データの可視化と分析<ol><li> 1分で殴打数をカウントすることにより繊毛の殴打の数を計算します。ビデオの速度を減少させ、細胞カウンターまたは同様のツールを使用して、拍数をカウントすることによってこれを行います。 </li><li>殴打の頻度を計算するために、ビデオは秒数を取得し、取得したフレームまたはタイムラプス画像の数によって記録された露光時間を乗算します。 （例：露光時間5ミリ秒200フレーム=千ミリ秒または1秒）。 </li><li> 1秒あたりの鼓動の数として表現さ​​れる周波数を得るために、1秒間に殴打の数を計算します。 1秒のタイム間にわたって繊毛殴打の数を割ることによってこれを行いますvalが（例：繊毛= 1秒5ミリ秒、すなわち 5ミリ×200フレームの露光時間で記録された200枚の映像で50回を打つが、今1秒= 50 Hzの50ビートを分割します）。 </li><li>両方の電源と回復ストローク中に上衣繊毛によって撮影されたパスを評価することにより、繊毛運動の角度を計算します。小さ ​​な修正11で、前述した方法に従って、これを実行します。個々の繊毛の正確な動きは、完全な拍動サイクル中に観察されます。 </li><li>モニターの上に配置アセテートシートで、上衣エッジとパワーストロークの開始時の繊毛の正中位置を通る垂直線に沿って水平線を描画します。 </li><li>それは動力行程中に前進するように、フレームによって繊毛フレームの正確な位置をプロットします。同様に、回復ストローク中に繊毛の動きをプロット。 </li><li> T中の正中線から繊毛の最大偏差から繊毛運動の角度を計算します彼のパワーストロークだけでなく、回復ストローク。 </li></ol> 4.カルシウム信号記録<ol><li>脳をスライスした後、簡単に1×PBSまたはダルベッコPBS（pH7.0）で脳切片をすすぎます。蛍光消光を回避するために、良好な信号対雑音比を得るために、新鮮なのFluo-2を調製します。 </li><li> 、ジメチルスルホキシド（DMSO）中のFluo-2溶液の1mMストック溶液を調製し、混合のFluo-2が均一DMSOに溶解されていることを確認するために、少なくとも5分間、溶液をボルテックス。 </li><li> 20 mg / mlの最終濃度まで37℃に2％のB27を暖め予め添加したDMEM /高グルコース500ml中のFluo-2ストック溶液を希釈します。 注：B-27は、ビタミンA、酸化防止剤カクテルおよび海馬および他のCNSニューロンの短期または長期の生存性をサポートするために使用されるインスリンを含む最適化された無血清サプリメントです。 </li><li>直ちにガラス底プレート中で、37℃で30分間、20 mg / mlでのFluo-2で脳切片をインキュベートします。 </li><li>カルシウムフルオロフォアのFluo-2の最適添加濃度を決定するためにカルシウム色素細胞毒性を回避するために、ATPでのチャレンジ細胞、およびATPに応答してカルシウムシグナルの時間経過およびピークの大きさを決定することによって、細胞の生存率をチェックします。 </li><li> 488 nmおよび515 nmで、それぞれ（ 動画2）の励起波長および発光波長で、1秒（毎秒200フレーム）の最低5ミリ秒のキャプチャ速度でカルシウム振動のための映像を記録します。 </li><li>自家蛍光や動きアーチファクトからのFluo-2カルシウム信号を区別するために、515 nmで放出された強度を別々に監視されていることを確認。 注：フルオ-2は、細胞内カルシウムを定量化するのに適したカルシウムfluoremetricではありません。しかし、このようなカルシウム振動の速カルシウムの変化を検出するための優れた動的カルシウム色素です。より正確なカルシウム定量のために、フラ-2を推奨します。しかし、フラ-2の動的変化は、そのレシオメトリックによって制限されています染料の性質。 </li><li>正確な無料の細胞内カルシウム値を計算するために、製造業者によって提供される式に従ってください。例の[Ca 2+] = の K d×（R - R 分 ）/（R 最大 - R）。 K dはカルシウム放出された色素からの解離定数である場合、Rは、488で、測定された蛍光であり、そしてR minおよびR maxは、最小および最大のイオン濃度12で蛍光比です。 </li></ol> 5.免疫蛍光顕微鏡<ol><li> 4％パラホルムアルデヒド（PFA）で10分間、2％スクロースを含有するリン酸緩衝生理食塩水を用いて脳切片を固定します。あるいは、4％PFAで脳全体を修正してから、クライオスタットを用いて、50ミリメートルのセクションにセクション。 </li><li>毎回5分間、1×PBSで組織を3回洗浄します。 </li><li> solutiで脳切片をインキュベート5分間1×PBSで各回3回すすぎ、次いで5分間、1×PBS中0.1％のTriton-Xの上で、。 </li><li>室温（RT）で、または一晩、4℃で1時間、1×PBS中10％FBS中で5,000：マウス一次抗体を用いて脳切片をインキュベートし、1の希釈で用い、チューブリンをantiacetylated。 </li><li>毎回5分間、1×PBSで組織を3回洗浄します。 </li><li> 1の希釈で二次抗体で脳切片をインキュベートし、フルオレセイン抗マウスIgG：RTで1時間、1×PBS溶液中で、10％FBS中で500。 </li><li> 5分は、核（またはDNA）13を染色するための4 &#39;、6-ジアミジノ-2-フェニルインドール（DAPI）のセクション対比蛍光顕微鏡下で観察する前に。可能な最小露光時間で光退色、画像すぐにセクションを最小限に抑えます。 </li></ol>

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ライブイメージングおよび脳室上衣内繊毛の迅速かつ高感度近接観察を提供し、蛍光顕微鏡の両方のマウス脳組織の調製のためのプロトコールは、ここで説明します。この技術は、側脳室のみに限定されません。それは、他の脳室に繊毛を観察するために利用することができます。このイメージング技術は、ex vivo環境で繊毛運動によってCSFの動きに似ているライブストリームを提供し...

繊毛は、細胞外環境に細胞表面から延びる感覚微小管ベースの細胞小器官です。 「9 + 0」または「9 + 2 &quot; - それらの微小管の組織に応じて、繊毛は、2つのタイプに分類することができます。機能的には、それらの運動性に基づいて、これらの運動性または非運動性繊毛1のように分類することができます。一次繊毛は、一般に「9 + 0 &quot;非運動性繊毛を示すために使用される用語です。これらは（「9」によって示される）9平行二重微小管を有し、微小管の中心対は（ &#39;0&#39;で示される）中心シース内に存在しません。しかし、胚の左右差を調節するような結節繊毛のようないくつかの「9 + 0」の繊毛は、2運動性です。一方、運動性繊毛は、微小管のダブレットの追加の中央対によって、9平行微小管のダブレットに加えて、特徴とし、運動性を容易にするために、ダイニンモータータンパク質に関連します。また、いくつかの「92」は、嗅覚繊毛のような繊毛は3非運動性です。脳室および脊髄の中心管の内側を覆う上衣細胞は、脳室4に沿って脳脊髄液（CSF）を推進運動性繊毛によって特徴付けられます。 この方法の全体的な目標は、運動性繊毛のダイナミクスと構造異常を研究促進することです。脳の健康と開発は多額の脳室内のCSFの効率的な循環に依存します。例えば、正常なCSFの流れおよび流体バランスは正常な鼓動ひいては神経細胞の指向性移動の調節に重要な役割を果たし、細胞遊走7幹機能上衣繊毛5,6を必要とします。このような、異常な上衣繊毛機能や構造などの水頭症に関連付けられている異常なCSFの流れにおいて、a、bの心室におけるCSFの異常な蓄積がある医学的状態につながることができます雨。この結果、頭蓋内圧亢進とヘッドの進行性肥大、痙攣、トンネルビジョン、精神障害8を引き起こす可能性があります。 独自の繊毛拍動頻度と叩解角度に基づいて、I、II、およびIII：既存の方法に対するこの手法の利点は、三つの異なる上衣細胞タイプを報告する最初の時間に許可することです。これらの上衣細胞は、脳室内の特定の領域内に局在しています。また、年齢や、上衣細胞型またはそれらのローカライズを変更することで、アルコールおよびシロスタゾールなどの薬理学的薬剤の効果は、上衣細胞のこの分類の前には不可能であった、実証することができます。シロスタゾールは、ホスホジエステラーゼ3の阻害剤、cAMPのAMPへの代謝酵素であり、それはまた、細胞内カルシウムを調節する9。高速蛍光画像分析を使用して、ユニークな細胞内のイメージングおよび定量化を可能にします上衣細胞のカルシウム振動特性。例えば、アルコールおよびシロスタゾールの両方が大幅に順番に、上衣繊毛10による脳脊髄液の体積交換の変化につながる可能性上衣繊毛運動の周波数だけでなく、細胞内のカルシウム振動特性を変化させました。要約すると、この手法は、異なるカルシウム振動特性を有する上衣細胞の三つの異なる種類の最初の証拠を提供するための鍵でした。 次のセクションでは、手順の詳細なステップバイステップの概要は、組織調製および取り扱いに細心の注意を払って、提供されます。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM/HIGH GLUCOSE</td>
			<td>Cellgro Mediatech Inc.</td>
			<td>10-013-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Hyclone</td>
			<td>SH30088-03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>SV30010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffered saline</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>SH30256-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde&#160;</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>15710-SP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S-2395</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton-X</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T9284</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluo-2&#160;</td>
			<td>TEF Labs</td>
			<td>#0200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B27</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>17504044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VECTASHIELD HardSet Mounting Medium with DAPI</td>
			<td>Vector Labs</td>
			<td>H-1500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-acetylated a-tubulin antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T7451&#160;</td>
			<td>clone 6-11B1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FITC Anti-mouse antibody</td>
			<td>Vector Labs</td>
			<td>FI-2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Culture plate</td>
			<td>VWR Vista Vision</td>
			<td>30-2041</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cover Slip (18x18)</td>
			<td>VWR Vista Vision</td>
			<td>16004.326</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibratome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>Leica VT1200S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryostat</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>Leica CM1860</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted Fluorescence Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon&#160;</td>
			<td>Nikon TE2000</td>
			<td>60X oil&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope cover glass 24x60mm</td>
			<td>VWR Vista Vision</td>
			<td>16004-312</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mounting Medium with DAPI</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>H-1500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI filter cube</td>
			<td>Chroma Technology</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

live imaging of the ependymal cilia in the lateral ventricles of the mouse brain

Multiciliated上衣細胞は、成人の脳内脳室を裏打ちします。上衣繊毛の異常機能または構造は、様々な神経障害と関連しています。運動性上衣繊毛技術の現在のex vivoでのライブイメージングは、いくつかの手順に従って、毛様体のダイナミクスの詳細な研究を可能にします。これらの手順は次のとおりです。マウス二酸化炭素で安楽死をトレドの施設内動物管理使用委員会（IACUC）の大学のプロトコルに従って、頭蓋骨切除術は、脳の除去と上衣繊毛を可視化することができる脳側脳室を介して、非常に薄い部分を得るためにビブラトームまたは鋭利​​な刃で矢状脳解剖を行いました。 95％/ 5％Oの存在下で、2 / CO 2混合物を37℃でのダルベッコ改変イーグル培地（DMEM）/高グルコースを含むカスタマイズされたガラス底プレート中の脳のスライスのインキュベーションは、生きた組織を維持するために不可欠です間に実験。繊毛の鼓動のビデオは、高解像度の微分干渉顕微鏡を用いて記録されています。ビデオは、次に、繊毛拍動頻度を計算するために、フレーム毎に解析されます。これは彼らの繊毛運動の周波数と角度に基づいて三つのカテゴリーやタイプに上衣細胞の明確な分類を可能にします。さらに、この技術は、上衣細胞の固有の細胞内カルシウム振動特性ならびにカルシウム振動における薬剤の効果および繊毛拍動頻度を特徴付ける高速蛍光イメージング分析の使用を可能にします。また、この技術は、毛様体及び毛様体構造タンパク質の局在化研究のための免疫蛍光イメージングに適しています。これは、疾患の診断および表現型の研究において特に重要です。脳組織が死ぬことを始めると技術の主な制限は、ライブ運動性繊毛運動の減少に起因します。

生きたマウスの脳において上衣繊毛機能の測定このプロトコールに記載された方法は、マウス脳から切除新鮮組織における上衣繊毛の機能と構造を監視するため、並びに繊毛拍動頻度を監視し、研究するために使用されます。完全な実験を遂行するために、その後の工程は、概略フローチャート（図1）に示されています。それは非常に実験が可能な限り積極...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live Imaging of the Ependymal Cilia in the Lateral Ventricles of the Mouse Brain at JoVE.com

Live Imaging of the Ependymal Cilia in the Lateral Ventricles of the Mouse Brain

高解像度の微分干渉コントラスト（DIC）顕微鏡を用いて、マウス脳室の中に位置運動上衣繊毛の鼓動のex vivo観察ライブイメージングによって実証されます。技術はユニークな繊毛運動の周波数の記録や暴行角度ならびにそれらの細胞内カルシウム振動ペーシング特性を可能にします。

マウスの脳の側脳室における上衣繊毛のライブイメージング

Multiciliated ependymal cells line the ventricles in the adult brain. Abnormal function or structure of ependymal cilia is associated with various ...

live-imaging-ependymal-cilia-lateral-ventricles-mouse

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

13.6K ビュー.  University of Toledo, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 高解像度の微分干渉コントラスト（DIC）顕微鏡を用いて、マウス脳室の中に位置運動上衣繊毛の鼓動のex vivo観察ライブイメージングによって実証されます。技術はユニークな繊毛運動の周波数の記録や暴行角度ならびにそれらの細胞内カルシウム振動ペーシング特性を可能にします。 

ビデオ: Live Imaging of the Ependymal Cilia in the Lateral Ventricles of the Mouse Brain

Neuromodulation and Mitochondrial Transport: Live Imaging in Hippocampal Neurons over Long Durations

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured neurons for extended durations1-3. This is now possible through the use of vital dyes and fluorescent proteins with which cytoskeletal components, organelles, and other structures in living cells can be labeled and then visualized via dynamic fluorescence microscopy. For example, in embryonic chicken sympathetic neurons, mitochondrial movement was characterized using the vital dye rhodamine 1234. In another study, mitochondria were visualized in rat forebrain neurons by transfection of mitochondrially targeted eYFP5. However, imaging of primary neurons over minutes, hours, or even days presents a number of issues. Foremost among these are: 1) maintenance of culture conditions such as temperature, humidity, and pH during long imaging sessions; 2) a strong, stable fluorescent signal to assure both the quality of acquired images and accurate measurement of signal intensity during image analysis; and 3) limiting exposure times during image acquisition to minimize photobleaching and avoid phototoxicity.
Here, we describe a protocol that permits the observation, visualization, and analysis of mitochondrial movement in cultured hippocampal neurons with high temporal resolution and under optimal life support conditions. We have constructed an affordable stage-top incubator that provides good temperature regulation and atmospheric gas flow, and also limits the degree of media evaporation, assuring stable pH and osmolarity. This incubator is connected, via inlet and outlet hoses, to a standard tissue culture incubator, which provides constant humidity levels and an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2/air. This design offers a cost-effective alternative to significantly more expensive microscope incubators that don't necessarily assure the viability of cells over many hours or even days. To visualize mitochondria, we infect cells with a lentivirus encoding a red fluorescent protein that is targeted to the mitochondrion. This assures a strong and persistent signal, which, in conjunction with the use of a stable xenon light source, allows us to limit exposure times during image acquisition and all but precludes photobleaching and phototoxicity. Two injection ports on the top of the stage-top incubator allow the acute administration of neurotransmitters and other reagents intended to modulate mitochondrial movement. In sum, lentivirus-mediated expression of an organelle-targeted red fluorescent protein and the combination of our stage-top incubator, a conventional inverted fluorescence microscope, CCD camera, and xenon light source allow us to acquire time-lapse images of mitochondrial transport in living neurons over longer durations than those possible in studies deploying conventional vital dyes and off-the-shelf life support systems.

We describe a protocol that allows imaging of mitochondria in living neurons via fluorescence microscopy over long durations. Imaging over extended periods is accomplished through lentivirus-mediated expression of a mitochondrially targeted fluorescent protein and use of an inexpensive stage-top incubator that was designed and built in our laboratory.

ニューロモデュレーションとミトコンドリア輸送：長時間にわたって海馬ニューロンのライブイメージング

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured ...

神経科学

Manual Drainage of the Zebrafish Embryonic Brain Ventricles

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a protein rich fluid contained within the brain ventricles. It is present during early vertebrate embryonic development and persists throughout life. Adult CSF is thought to cushion the brain, remove waste, and carry secreted molecules1,2. In the adult and older embryo, the majority of CSF is made by the choroid plexus, a series of highly vascularized secretory regions located adjacent to the brain ventricles3-5. In zebrafish, the choroid plexus is fully formed at 144 hours post fertilization (hpf)6. Prior to this, in both zebrafish and other vertebrate embryos including mouse, a significant amount of embryonic CSF (eCSF) is present . These data and studies in chick suggest that the neuroepithelium is secretory early in development and may be the major source of eCSF prior to choroid plexus development7.
eCSF contains about three times more protein than adult CSF, suggesting that it may have an important role during development8,9. Studies in chick and mouse demonstrate that secreted factors in the eCSF, fluid pressure, or a combination of these, are important for neurogenesis, gene expression, cell proliferation, and cell survival in the neuroepithelium10-20. Proteomic analyses of human, rat, mouse, and chick eCSF have identified many proteins that may be necessary for CSF function. These include extracellular matrix components, apolipoproteins, osmotic pressure regulating proteins, and proteins involved in cell death and proliferation21-24. However, the complex functions of the eCSF are largely unknown.
We have developed a method for removing eCSF from zebrafish brain ventricles, thus allowing for identification of eCSF components and for analysis of the eCSF requirement during development. Although more eCSF can be collected from other vertebrate systems with larger embryos, eCSF can be collected from the earliest stages of zebrafish development, and under genetic or environmental conditions that lead to abnormal brain ventricle volume or morphology. Removal and collection of eCSF allows for mass spectrometric analysis, investigation of eCSF function, and reintroduction of select factors into the ventricles to assay their function. Thus the accessibility of the early zebrafish embryo allows for detailed analysis of eCSF function during development.

We present a method to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and to create a system which lacks CSF within the embryonic zebrafish brain ventricular system. This allows for further examination of CSF composition and its requirement during embryonic brain development.

ゼブラフィッシュ胚の脳室の手動排水

Cerebrospinal fluid  (CSF) is a protein rich fluid contained within the brain ventricles. It is  present during early vertebrate embryonic development and ...

Live Imaging of Mitosis in the Developing Mouse Embryonic Cortex

Although of short duration, mitosis is a complex and dynamic multi-step process fundamental for development of organs including the brain. In the developing cerebral cortex, abnormal mitosis of neural progenitors can cause defects in brain size and function. Hence, there is a critical need for tools to understand the mechanisms of neural progenitor mitosis. Cortical development in rodents is an outstanding model for studying this process. Neural progenitor mitosis is commonly examined in fixed brain sections. This protocol will describe in detail an approach for live imaging of mitosis in ex vivo embryonic brain slices. We will describe the critical steps for this procedure, which include: brain extraction, brain embedding, vibratome sectioning of brain slices, staining and culturing of slices, and time-lapse imaging. We will then demonstrate and describe in detail how to perform post-acquisition analysis of mitosis. We include representative results from this assay using the vital dye Syto11, transgenic mice (histone H2B-EGFP and centrin-EGFP), and in utero electroporation (mCherry-&#945;-tubulin). We will discuss how this procedure can be best optimized and how it can be modified for study of genetic regulation of mitosis. Live imaging of mitosis in brain slices is a flexible approach to assess the impact of age, anatomy, and genetic perturbation in a controlled environment, and to generate a large amount of data with high temporal and spatial resolution. Hence this protocol will complement existing tools for analysis of neural progenitor mitosis.

Neural progenitor mitosis is a critical parameter of neurogenesis. Much of our understanding of neural progenitor mitosis is based on analysis of fixed tissue. Live imaging in embryonic brain slices is a versatile technique to assess mitosis with high temporal and spatial resolution in a controlled environment.

発生中のマウス胚性皮質における有糸分裂のライブイメージング

Although of short duration, mitosis is a complex and dynamic multi-step process fundamental for development of organs including the brain. In the ...

Telomerase Activity in the Various Regions of Mouse Brain: Non-Radioactive Telomerase Repeat Amplification Protocol (TRAP) Assay

Telomerase, a ribonucleoprotein, is responsible for maintaining the telomere length and therefore promoting genomic integrity, proliferation, and lifespan. In addition, telomerase protects the mitochondria from oxidative stress and confers resistance to apoptosis, suggesting its possible importance for the surviving of non-mitotic, highly active cells such as neurons. We previously demonstrated the ability of novel telomerase activators to increase telomerase activity and expression in the various mouse brain regions and to protect motor neurons cells from oxidative stress. These results strengthen the notion that telomerase is involved in the protection of neurons from various lesions. To underline the role of telomerase in the brain, we here compare the activity of telomerase in male and female mouse brain and its dependence on age. TRAP assay is a standard method for detecting telomerase activity in various tissues or cell lines. Here we demonstrate the analysis of telomerase activity in three regions of the mouse brain by non-denaturing protein extraction using CHAPS lysis buffer followed by modification of the standard TRAP assay.
In this 2-step assay, endogenous telomerase elongates a specific telomerase substrate (TS primer) by adding TTAGGG 6 bp repeats (telomerase reaction). The telomerase reaction products are amplified by PCR reaction creating a DNA ladder of 6 bp increments. The analysis of the DNA ladder is made by 4.5% high resolution agarose gel electrophoresis followed by staining with highly sensitive nucleic acid stain.
Compared to the traditional TRAP assay that utilize 32P labeled radioactive dCTP&#39;s for DNA detection and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis for resolving the DNA ladder, this protocol offers a non-toxic time saving TRAP assay for evaluating telomerase activity in the mouse brain, demonstrating the ability to detect differences in telomerase activity in the various female and male mouse brain region.

Telomerase Activity in the Various Regions of Mouse Brain: Non-Radioactive Telomerase Repeat Amplification Protocol TRAP Assay

Telomerase is expressed in the neonatal brain and also in distinct regions of the adult brain. We present a non-toxic time saving TRAP assay for the analysis of telomerase activity in various regions of the mouse brain and detection of differences in telomerase activity between male and female mouse brains.

マウス脳のさまざまな領域におけるテロメラーゼ活性：非放射性テロメラーゼリピート増幅プロトコル（TRAP）アッセイ

Telomerase, a ribonucleoprotein, is responsible for maintaining the telomere length and therefore promoting genomic integrity, proliferation, and ...

3D Modeling of the Lateral Ventricles and Histological Characterization of Periventricular Tissue in Humans and Mouse

The ventricular system carries and circulates cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and facilitates clearance of solutes and toxins from the brain. The functional units of the ventricles are ciliated epithelial cells termed ependymal cells, which line the ventricles and through ciliary action are capable of generating laminar flow of CSF at the ventricle surface. This monolayer of ependymal cells also provides barrier and filtration functions that promote exchange between brain interstitial fluids (ISF) and circulating CSF. Biochemical changes in the brain are thereby reflected in the composition of the CSF and destruction of the ependyma can disrupt the delicate balance of CSF and ISF exchange. In humans there is a strong correlation between lateral ventricle expansion and aging. Age-associated ventriculomegaly can occur even in the absence of dementia or obstruction of CSF flow. The exact cause and progression of ventriculomegaly is often unknown; however, enlarged ventricles can show regional and, often, extensive loss of ependymal cell coverage with ventricle surface astrogliosis and associated periventricular edema replacing the functional ependymal cell monolayer. Using MRI scans together with postmortem human brain tissue, we describe how to prepare, image and compile 3D renderings of lateral ventricle volumes, calculate lateral ventricle volumes, and characterize periventricular tissue through immunohistochemical analysis of en face lateral ventricle wall tissue preparations. Corresponding analyses of mouse brain tissue are also presented supporting the use of mouse models as a means to evaluate changes to the lateral ventricles and periventricular tissue found in human aging and disease. Together, these protocols allow investigations into the cause and effect of ventriculomegaly and highlight techniques to study ventricular system health and its important barrier and filtration functions within the brain.

Using MRI scans (human), 3D imaging software, and immunohistological analysis, we document changes to the brain&#8217;s lateral ventricles. Longitudinal 3D mapping of lateral ventricle volume changes and characterization of periventricular cellular changes that occur in the human brain due to aging or disease are then modeled in mice.

ヒトとマウスにおける脳室周囲の組織の側脳室および組織学的特性の3次元モデリング

The ventricular system carries and circulates cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and facilitates clearance of solutes and toxins from the brain. The functional ...

Imaging Serotonergic Fibers in the Mouse Spinal Cord Using the CLARITY/CUBIC Technique

Long descending fibers to the spinal cord are essential for locomotion, pain perception, and other behaviors. The fiber termination pattern in the spinal cord of the majority of these fiber systems have not been thoroughly investigated in any species. Serotonergic fibers, which project to the spinal cord, have been studied in rats and opossums on histological sections and their functional significance has been deduced based on their fiber termination pattern in the spinal cord. With the development of CLARITY and CUBIC techniques, it is possible to investigate this fiber system and its distribution in the spinal cord, which is likely to reveal previously unknown features of serotonergic supraspinal pathways. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for imaging the serotonergic fibers in the mouse spinal cord using the combined CLARITY and CUBIC techniques. The method involves perfusion of a mouse with a hydrogel solution and clarification of the tissue with a combination of clearing reagents. Spinal cord tissue was cleared in just under two weeks, and the subsequent immunofluorescent staining against serotonin was completed in less than ten days. With a multi-photon fluorescent microscope, the tissue was scanned and a 3D image was reconstructed using Osirix software.

Supraspinal projections are important for pain perception and other behaviors, and serotonergic fibers are one of these fiber systems. The present study focused on the application of the combined CLARITY/CUBIC protocol to the mouse spinal cord in order to investigate the termination of these serotonergic fibers.

CLARITY / CUBIC技術を用いたマウスの脊髄にセロトニン繊維のイメージング

Long descending fibers to the spinal cord are essential for locomotion, pain perception, and other behaviors. The fiber termination pattern in the spinal ...

Recording Synaptic Plasticity in Acute Hippocampal Slices Maintained in a Small-volume Recycling-, Perfusion-, and Submersion-type Chamber System

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful analysis of synaptic transmission modulation when performing field potential or intracellular recordings. This manuscript describes methodological aspects that might be helpful in improving experimental conditions for the maintenance of acute brain slices and for recording field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in a commercially available submersion chamber with an outflow-carbogenation unit. The outflow-carbogenation helps to stabilize the oxygen level in experiments that rely on the recycling of a small buffer reservoir to enhance the cost-efficiency of drug experiments. In addition, the manuscript presents representative experiments that examine the effects of different carbogenation modes and stimulation paradigms on the activity-dependent synaptic plasticity of synaptic transmission.

This protocol describes the stabilization of the oxygen level in a small volume of recycled buffer and methodological aspects of recording activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in submerged acute hippocampal slices.

少量循環、血流 - と水没型チャンバー システムで管理急性海馬スライスにおけるシナプス可塑性を記録

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful ...

Live Imaging of Primary Cerebral Cortex Cells Using a 2D Culture System

During cerebral cortex development, progenitor cells undergo several rounds of symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions to generate new progenitors or postmitotic neurons. Later, some progenitors switch to a gliogenic fate, adding to the astrocyte and oligodendrocyte populations. Using time-lapse video-microscopy of primary cerebral cortex cell cultures, it is possible to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling the mode of cell division and cell cycle parameters of progenitor cells. Similarly, the fate of postmitotic cells can be examined using cell-specific fluorescent reporter proteins or post-imaging immunocytochemistry. More importantly, all these features can be analyzed at the single-cell level, allowing the identification of progenitors committed to the generation of specific cell types. Manipulation of gene expression can also be performed using viral-mediated transfection, allowing the study of cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous phenomena. Finally, the use of fusion fluorescent proteins allows the study of symmetric and asymmetric distribution of selected proteins during division and the correlation with daughter cells fate. Here, we describe the time-lapse video-microscopy method to image primary cerebral cortex murine cells for up to several days and analyze the mode of cell division, cell cycle length and fate of newly generated cells. We also describe a simple method to transfect progenitor cells, which can be applied to manipulate genes of interest or simply label cells with reporter proteins.

Live imaging is a powerful tool to study cellular behaviors in real time. Here, we describe a protocol for time-lapse video-microscopy of primary cerebral cortex cells that allows a detailed examination of the phases enacted during the lineage progression from primary neural stem cells to differentiated neurons and glia.

2次元培養系を用いた主な大脳皮質細胞のイメージングをライブします。

During cerebral cortex development, progenitor cells undergo several rounds of symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions to generate new progenitors or ...

Exploring Deep Space - Uncovering the Anatomy of Periventricular Structures to Reveal the Lateral Ventricles of the Human Brain

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this challenging. Because the ventricles are negative spaces located deep within the brain, the only way to understand their anatomy is by appreciating their boundaries formed by related structures. Looking at a 2D representation of these spaces, in any of the cardinal planes, will not enable visualisation of all of the structures that form the boundaries of the ventricles. Thus, using 2D sections alone requires students to compute their own mental image of the 3D ventricular spaces. The aim of this study was to develop a reproducible method for dissecting the human brain to create an educational resource to enhance student understanding of the intricate relationships between the ventricles and periventricular structures. To achieve this, we created a video resource that features a step-by-step guide using a fiber dissection method to reveal the lateral and third ventricles together with the closely related limbic system and basal ganglia structures. One of the advantages of this method is that it enables delineation of the white matter tracts that are difficult to distinguish using other dissection techniques. This video is accompanied by a written protocol that provides a systematic description of the process to aid in the reproduction of the brain dissection. This package offers a valuable anatomy teaching resource for educators and students alike. By following these instructions educators can create teaching resources and students can be guided to produce their own brain dissection as a hands-on practical activity. We recommend that this video guide be incorporated into neuroanatomy teaching to enhance student understanding of the morphology and clinical relevance of the ventricles.

This paper demonstrates the effective use of a fiber dissection method to reveal the superficial white matter tracts and periventricular structures of the human brain, in three-dimensional space, to aid student comprehension of ventricular morphology.

人間の脳の側脳室を明らかにする脳室周囲構造の解剖学を暴く - 深宇宙の探索

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this ...

Large-scale Three-dimensional Imaging of Cellular Organization in the Mouse Neocortex

The mammalian neocortex is composed of many types of excitatory and inhibitory neurons, each with specific electrophysiological and biochemical properties, synaptic connections, and in vivo functions, but their basic functional and anatomical organization from cellular to network scale is poorly understood. Here we describe a method for the three-dimensional imaging of fluorescently-labeled neurons across large areas of the brain for the investigation of the cortical cellular organization. Specific types of neurons are labeled by the injection of fluorescent retrograde neuronal tracers or expression of fluorescent proteins in transgenic mice. Block brain samples, e.g., a hemisphere, are prepared after fixation, made transparent with tissue clearing methods, and subjected to fluorescent immunolabeling of the specific cell types. Large areas are scanned using confocal or two-photon microscopes equipped with large working distance objectives and motorized stages. This method can resolve the periodic organization of the cell type-specific microcolumn functional modules in the mouse neocortex. The procedure can be useful for the study of three-dimensional cellular architecture in the diverse brain areas and other complex tissues.

Here we describe a procedure for tissue clearing, fluorescent labeling, and large-scale imaging of mouse brain tissue which, thereby, enables visualization of the three-dimensional organization of cell types in the neocortex.