The research was supported by the National Research Council (CNR) of Italy. The authors thank GIRE members for collecting seed samples and are grateful to Alison Garside for revising the English.

1.種子採取と保管<ol><li>不利な気候条件や低品質の除草剤処理に起因するものではない不当な貧弱な除草剤の性能のための耕地、 すなわち、監視します。 </li><li>一度に一つの種からの種子のサンプルを収集し、一意のコードを割り当てます。成熟した種子は、通常、除草剤処理（複数可）を生き残った植物から作物の収穫前に収集されます。ときに成熟した種子は母植物により流されているかどうかを観察するためのタイムリーなモニター。 </li><li>種、収集日、GPS座標、市町村、農業者の名前、フィールドのサイズ、蔓延レベル、作物、除草剤（複数可）シーズン中に使用すると、フィールドの歴史的な記録の割り当てられた固有のコード、名前を示す各サンプルのフォームに記入。 </li><li>フィールドの侵入を代表するものであり、少なくとも30ランダムに選択された植物からの種子を収集します。種子サンプルは、少なくとも5,000成熟種子が含まれていることを確認してください。絶対異系交雑雑草種のための（ 例えば、ライグラス属やアマランサス属 ）、5,000 11周りの種子の総数を維持し、10〜15に植物の数を減らします。 </li><li>別の除草剤抵抗性生物型が選択されているように雑草のパッチが大面積（ヘクタール以上）に散在している場合は、フィールドをサブサンプル。 </li><li>割り当てられた固有のコードで標識された密閉されていない紙袋で種子を保管してください。 </li><li>水分を蒸発させるが、二次休眠の誘導を回避するために高温に（ すなわち、太陽の下で車の中でそれらを残さない）、または極端な温度変動に種子が公開されていません。 </li><li> （籾殻、デ船体の種子などを削除）し、乾燥室で、周囲温度で保管してくださいきれいな。第1の抵抗のテストを行った後、真空封止されたプラスチック袋であることが好ましく、4℃で暗い部屋で長時間の種を保存します。このようにして、種子はかなり長い時間のために彼らの生存能力を維持します。 </li></ol>注：種子の休眠は、農業生態系に適応し、永続化するために雑草を可能にする、柔軟で効率的なメカニズムを提供します。休眠を打破し、種子の発芽を可能にするために、異なるプロトコルは雑草種、 すなわち、休眠16の種類に応じて使用する必要があります。 休眠を削除するには、3つの主な方法があります。 <ol><li>春化 注：同時発芽と実生発生を取得するには、数日から一週間の範囲の種子春化の期間は、多くの種からの生理的休眠を除去する必要がある：例えば、アオゲイトウ 、 シロザ 、 ライグラス属、カラスムギ、タデタデ属、Phalarisは 17-19を paradoxa。最大15日間の長い期間がSchoenoplectus mucronatusのために30日までヒナゲシ 、 タマガヤツリとAmmaniaのcoccineaのために必要とされています<suP&gt; 20。 <ol><li>プラスチック皿にいくつかの脱イオン水を入れてください。ろ紙の二つの層をカットし、水に浸し、余分なを削除します。紙の上で空気乾燥させた種子を置きます。時間の必要な期間、4℃で冷蔵庫にプラスチック皿を転送します。 </li></ol></li><li>乱切 注：一部の雑草種は、機械的休眠、 すなわち種皮特性に他のものより発芽に対してより難治であり、21を発芽さ硫酸を用いて化学乱切の使用を必要とします。 <ol><li>濃硫酸（95から98パーセント）を入れたビーカーを準備します。一杯の水ビーカーを準備します。不織布の袋に種子を入れてください。 </li><li>濃硫酸に、それぞれ、20分または5分間例えば、ノビエ。またはソルガムhalepense種子を浸します。 </li><li>ピンセットを用いて、ビーカーから封筒を取り出し、水を完全にビーカーに入れます。開きます封筒、小ザルに種子を入れ、流水でそれらを徹底的にすすぎます。 </li></ol>バリアント：A.オオバコ·アクアティカは、異なるプロトコルを必要とする22、23 <ol><li>クロロホルムで2分間の種子を浸します。脱イオン水で種子をすすぎ、吸収紙でそれらを乾燥させます。 5分間、80％硫酸中で種子をダンク。 </li><li>小ザルに種子を入れ、十分に流水でそれらをすすぎます。 </li></ol></li><li>収穫後の種子成熟 注：他の雑草種の種子は関係なく、休眠を打破するために使用される方法の、成熟した後、数ヶ月のために全く発芽しないでください。 <ol><li> RTおよび低湿度で少なくとも3〜4ヶ月の期間のための種子を保存した後、休眠打破（ 例えば、オリザサティバのVAR。sylvaticaまたはP. rhoeas）については、上記のプロトコルに従ってください。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3.種子発芽<ol><li> PLASで発芽する種子を置き、0.6％を含むチック皿0.1％の硝酸カリウムと（M / V）、寒天（KNO 3）を添加しました。 <ol><li>脱イオン水を用いて0.6％+ 0.1％のKNO 3の寒天の溶液を調製します。電子レンジで寒天を溶解します。 </li><li>プラスチック皿に寒天溶液を注ぎます。基板を冷却した後、種子に入れます。 </li></ol>バリアント：土壌をプラスチック皿に基質としても使用することができます。この方法は、 ノビエのために特に効率的です。、S. halepenseとライグラス属 。 </li><li>各雑草種の最適条件に応じて、光と温度条件で約一週間発芽キャビネットにプラスチック製の皿を置きます。ほとんどの冬の種について、温度範囲は15/25℃の夜/日と15〜30マイクロモルのM -2秒-1の光合成光量子束密度（PPFD）を提供するネオン管で12時間の光周期です。多くの夏の種については、温度範囲は15/30℃の夜/日です。 バリアント：S例えばS.などOME種、 halepense、熱処理を必要としています。したがって乱切後、Sの種子45℃で4時間のサイクルと20時間24℃で発芽キャビネットで3日間、その後通常の状態で三日：halepenseは、以下の条件に供されます。 </li></ol> 4.苗の移植と成長<ol><li>移植標準ポッティングミックスを充填したプラスチック製のトレイ（325 X 265 X 95ミリメートル）に十五から二十苗（60％シルト質壌土、15％の砂、15％agriperliteと10％の泥炭 - 体積）。 注：移植は、代わりに直接播種、除草剤処理の性能を最適化するために重要な前提条件である、同じ成長段階における植物の均一なスタンドを得ることができます。 </li><li>数プログレッシブトレイ番号を複製、人口コード、除草剤が試験されている&lt;：固有の識別のためのすべての情報を含むバーコードと、各トレイを識別します。/ LI&gt; <li>フィールド容量またはその付近に基板を維持するために必要に応じて加熱された温室効果、水、植物に入れトレイ。 注：成長温度は雑草種に依存して変化します。多くの場合、テストは秋/冬/春の間に行われているので、光は約150マイクロモルのM -2秒-1および12時間の光周期24、19のPPFDを提供400 Wのメタルハライドランプを使用して補充される。夏の雑草種でC 4光合成サイクルは、通常、より高い光強度を必要とするため、試験は後期の春夏または補充した光強度で行われ、約400マイクロモルのM -2秒-1 14時間の光周期です。 </li><li>水稲に寄生いくつかの雑草種のための異なるプロトコルを使用して、 例えば、A。オオバコ·アクアティカ、S. mucronatusとC. 22で説明したようにdifformis。 <ol><li> 24ラウンドの細胞（55ミリメートルの直径、深64ミリメートル）FILとポリスチレントレイに苗を移植60％シルト質壌土、30％の砂と（体積比）の10％ピートと導きました。 </li><li> 12センチメートルでトレイ深いプラスチック容器を水で満たし、彼らが（ 図1）をフローティング防止するために、ネジ止めのステンレス鋼棒によりダウンbattenedを設定します。 </li><li>土壌表面のレベル以下の1〜2センチメートルで容器内の水位を維持し、藻類の増殖を回避するために、（水の10〜12 Lを含む）の各コンテナに硫酸銅1.5gを追加します。 </li></ol></li></ol> 5.の除草剤処理<ol><li>発芽前除草剤との処置： <ol><li>第3章で説明したように発芽キャビネット内の約3日後に、上述の基板を含むプラスチックトレイに発芽種子を移植し、土壌の層（約1cm）でカバー。これは、苗は、除草剤の効果ではなく、過度の埋没深さに起因して出現しないことを確実にするために重要なステップです。 </li><li>フィールドCAPAに基板を取ります水の入った皿の上に、下部にいくつかの穴を有するトレイを配置することで都市。 </li><li>発芽前除草剤25でトレイを治療、移植後のある日。 </li><li>受け皿から毛細管現象により上方および下方の両方から、必要に応じて水を添加しての基板または近接場の容量にしてください。この手順では、良好な治療効果のために（ すなわち、発芽種子がどこにあるか）適切な深さでの除草剤の耐久性に有利に働きます。 </li></ol></li><li>発芽後の除草剤との処置： <ol><li>彼らは2-3葉期に達したときに植物をスプレー（ すなわち、成長段階拡張BBCH成長スケール26の12〜13）。 </li><li>治療後の日から開始し、 ノビエのために、例えば （雑草種や季節の水の要件に応じて灌漑システムを設定します。それが3分間水を提供して1日4回、定期的な間隔で午前9時から9に午後）。水はDISであります自動スプリンクラー灌漑システムを使用してtributed。 バリアント：グリホサートは、植物ステージBBCH 14-21で適用されます。 </li></ol></li><li>除草剤の準備と配布。 注：（前および発芽後）すべての除草剤は、2つの用量で推奨界面活性剤と市販の製剤として適用される推奨フィールド用量（1×）および3回（3回）こと。 <ol><li>必要に応じて、ラベルの指示に従って、バルク中の界面活性剤溶液を調製。最終濃度は、通常、最終的な体積（ 例えば、0.3％）の百分率として、または体積が単位面積（ 例えば、1ヘクタールL -1）毎に分散されるように表現されます。 </li><li>有効成分の右の濃度を維持するために除草剤（溶質）溶液の溶媒として、界面活性剤溶液を使用してください。最初の最も濃縮除草剤溶液を調製する（3回）。場合、界面活性剤溶液中（または脱イオン水に溶解される商品の数量を計算します界面活性剤は、以下の式を使用して）必要はありません。 線量ハーブ = [（投与量フィールド x線量最大 ）×V フィン ] / V·デル ここで、用量ハーブ =除草剤の量（ml）を、用量フィールド =除草フィールド用量（HAミリリットル-1）、用量maxは =最大用量送達、V フィンは =溶液（L）の最終体積は、V デルはによって送出量を=ベンチ噴霧器（Lヘクタール-1）。 </li><li>希釈（2：1、v / v）の除草剤溶液は、低濃度一方（1×）を調製するために3倍。この手順では、除草剤を計量するか、ピペッティング時にミスを作るチャンスを減少させます。体積が単位面積（Lハ-1）ごとに配信するように除草剤溶液濃度が表現されます。 </li><li>低い除草剤用量（1×）での処理のシーケンスを開始します。このように、同じ除草剤との2つの処置の間に噴霧キャビネットを洗浄する必要はありません。 </li><li>除草剤solutioを配布nは215キロパスカルの圧力で、300 Lヘクタール-1（±1％）を配信精密ベンチ噴霧器を使用して、および0.75メートル秒の速度-1、3フラットファン（拡張範囲）油圧ノズルを装備したブームに。 </li><li>除草剤は、漂白剤を1％を使用して変更されたときに二回噴霧キャビネットを洗浄（v / v）で、次いですすぎます。 バリアント：グリホサート、200 Lヘクタール-1 27の噴霧量で塗布されます。 注：特に注意は非常に生物学的な除草剤は、例えば、スルホニル尿素のスルホメツロンやフラザスルフロンは、使用された場合に支払われなければなりません。後者の場合、アンモニアと、ワン漂白溶液で洗浄し、別の操作を行い（2.5％v / v）を、水で注意深くリンスしました。 </li></ol></li></ol> 6.データの収集および分析<ol><li>自動的に各トレイを識別するバーコードリーダーを介して、治療だけでなく、ビジュアル推定バイオマス（VEB）を生き残った植物の数を記録します。植物はお尻です彼らは関係なく、色やその他の外観のアクティブな成長を示していない場合は死んでいるようessed。 <ol><li>試験された除草剤に応じて3週間または4週間の治療（WAT）の後に評価をする（ 例えば、ACCアーゼ阻害剤のための3つのWATおよびALS阻害剤またはグリホサートのための4つのWAT）。 </li><li> すなわち感受性集団（Sを確認してください）すべての実験では、決してまたはめったに除草剤で処理されなかったサイトで収集した人口を含めることにより、一般的な治療の有効性を評価します。 </li><li>処理された植物の数の割合としてExpressの植物の生存は、（2つの複製の平均値）だけ除草剤処理の前にカウントし、平均値あたりの標準誤差（SE）を計算します。 </li><li> VEBは、同じ人口25の処理され、処理されていないチェック、28との間の植物バイオマスを視覚的に比較して得られる。スコアを、除草剤の影響を受けていない植物のための10の範囲（処理されていない検査と比較して）0にいつ植物が明らかに死んでいる、各処理されたトレイに与えられます。 </li></ol></li><li> S生存者よりも多くの除草剤用量1X、Rで5％〜20％の範囲であったときに、植物の5％未満が、除草剤用量1X、SRを生き延びた二つ除草剤用量で処理から得られた結果に基づいて、4つのカテゴリへの帰属集団生存者は除草剤の用量1倍で20％以上と除草剤の投与量の3倍17で10％以上である場合には、植物の20％が除草剤の用量1XとRRを生き延びました。 </li></ol>

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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Seeds, Ecology, Biogeography and Evolution of dormancy and Germination. , 27-42 (1998).</li><li>Sattin, M., Gasparetto, M. A., Campagna, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Situation+and+management+of+Avena+sterilis.+ssp.+ludoviciana.+and+Phalaris+paradoxa.+resistant+to+ACCase+inhibitors+in+Italy.">Situation and management of Avena sterilis. ssp. ludoviciana. and Phalaris paradoxa. resistant to ACCase inhibitors in Italy.</a> Proc. BCPC - Weeds. , 755-762 (2001).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Varotto, S., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+European+biotype+of+Amaranthus+retroflexus.+cross-resistant+to+ALS+inhibitors+and+response+to+alternative+herbicides.">A European biotype of Amaranthus retroflexus. cross-resistant to ALS inhibitors and response to alternative herbicides.</a> Weed Res. 47 (6), 527-533 (2007).</li><li>Collavo, A., Panozzo, S., Lucchesi, G., Scarabel, L., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterisation+and+management+of+Phalaris+paradoxa.+resistant+to+ACCase-inhibitors.">Characterisation and management of Phalaris paradoxa. resistant to ACCase-inhibitors.</a> Crop Prot. 30 (3), 293-299 (2011).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Carraro, N., Sattin, M., Varotto, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+basis+and+genetic+characterisation+of+evolved+resistance+to+ALS-inhibitors+in+Papaver+rhoeas.">Molecular basis and genetic characterisation of evolved resistance to ALS-inhibitors in Papaver rhoeas.</a> Plant Sci. 166 (3), 703-709 (2004).</li><li>Panozzo, S., Scarabel, L., Tranel, P. J., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Target-site+resistance+to+ALS+inhibitors+in+the+polyploid+species+Echinochloa+crus-galli.">Target-site resistance to ALS inhibitors in the polyploid species Echinochloa crus-galli.</a> Pestic. Biochem. Phys. 105 (2), 93-101 (2013).</li><li>Sattin, M., Berto, D., Zanin, G., Tabacchi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resistance+to+ALS+inhibitors+in+rice+in+north-western+Italy.">Resistance to ALS inhibitors in rice in north-western Italy.</a> Proc. BCPC. Weeds. , 783-790 (1999).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Berto, D., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dormancy+breaking+and+germination+of+Alisma+plantago-aquatica.+and+Scirpus+mucronatus.">Dormancy breaking and germination of Alisma plantago-aquatica. and Scirpus mucronatus.</a> Aspects of Applied Biology. 69, 285-292 (2003).</li><li>Collavo, A., Strek, H., Beffa, R., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Management+of+an+ACCase-inhibitor-resistant+Lolium+rigidum.+population+based+on+the+use+of+ALS+inhibitors:+weed+population+evolution+observed+over+a+7+years+field-scale+investigation.">Management of an ACCase-inhibitor-resistant Lolium rigidum. population based on the use of ALS inhibitors: weed population evolution observed over a 7 years field-scale investigation.</a> Pest Manag. Sci. 69 (2), 200-208 (2013).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Panozzo, S., Savoia, W., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Target-site+ACCase-resistant+Johnsongrass+(Sorghum+halepense).+selected+in+summer+dicot+crops.">Target-site ACCase-resistant Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense). selected in summer dicot crops.</a> Weed Technol. 28 (2), 307-315 (2014).</li><li>Hess, M., Barralis, H., Bleiholder, H., Buhur, L., Eggers, T., Hack, H., Strauss, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+extended+BBCH+scale+-+general+for+the+description+of+the+growth+stages+of+mono-+and+dicotyledonous+weed+species.">Use of the extended BBCH scale - general for the description of the growth stages of mono- and dicotyledonous weed species.</a> Weed Res. 37 (6), 433-441 (1997).</li><li>Collavo, A., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=First+glyphosate-resistant+Lolium.+spp.+biotypes+found+in+a+European+annual+arable+cropping+system+also+affected+by+ACCase+and+ALS+resistance.">First glyphosate-resistant Lolium. spp. biotypes found in a European annual arable cropping system also affected by ACCase and ALS resistance.</a> Weed Res. 54 (4), 325-334 (2014).</li><li>Scarabel, L., Cenghialta, C., Manuello, D., Sattin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monitoring+and+management+of+imidazolinone-resistant+red+rice+(Oryza+sativa.+L.,+var.+sylvatica.)+in+Clearfield&#174;+Italian+paddy+rice.">Monitoring and management of imidazolinone-resistant red rice (Oryza sativa. L., var. sylvatica.) in Clearfield&#174; Italian paddy rice.</a> Agronomy. 2 (4), 371-383 (2012).</li><li>Zelaya, I. A., Anderson, J. A. H., Owen, M. D. K., Landes, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+spectrophotometric+and+HPLC+methods+for+shikimic+acid+determination+in+plants:+Models+in+glyphosate-resistant+and-susceptible+crops.">Evaluation of spectrophotometric and HPLC methods for shikimic acid determination in plants: Models in glyphosate-resistant and-susceptible crops.</a> J. Agric. Food Chem. 59 (6), 2202-2212 (2011).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

1）種子が成熟した除草剤処理（複数可）を生き残った植物から収集する必要がありますプロトコル内のいくつかのステップは、集団における除草剤耐性の成功を評価するために重要です。マザー工場の種子の成熟は、後に種子の発芽における困難を回避することが重要です。 2）種子の適切な保管が発芽を妨げるカビの増殖を回避することをお勧めします。除草剤パッケージのラベルに報告...

<html>除草剤はグローバル植物保護市場1の最大50％を占め、雑草防除対策を最も広く使用されています。彼らは労働集約的で時間のかかる土壌栽培慣行を回避するには、比較的安価なツールであり、最終的に費用対効果の高い、安全かつ収益性の高い食糧生産2をもたらします。しかし、一緒に除草剤の使用上の過度の依存を持つ多くの雑草種に大きな生物季節と遺伝的変異の存在は、しばしば除草剤抵抗性雑草集団の選択をもたらします。非常に特定の代謝ターゲット3-5と選択性除草剤の導入が飛躍的に年間で抵抗症例数が増加しています。現在までに、世界中の240雑草種（140双子葉植物と単子葉植物は100）アクション（SOA）4の異なる除草剤サイトに対する抵抗性を進化させてきました。これは、持続可能な作物生産のための雑草管理と一般的に多くのための主要な関心事です。 頻繁に温室で行う信頼性試験、に基づいてe_content &quot;&gt;抵抗の早期検出は、除草剤抵抗性雑草を管理するための重要なステップである。別のアプローチがよう、目的、精度、時間と利用可能なリソースの要求レベルに応じて開発されていますよく6-12を考え雑草種とし ​​て。しかし、新しい雑草バイオタイプの抵抗状態の確認が（必要とされる場合、すなわち、に属する1つまたは複数の除草剤に耐える能力を含むいくつかの生理学的特性を共有する個人のグループ、通常、それらを制御することになる用量で使用される特定の基）、強固な全植物バイオアッセイは、制御された環境4、11で実行される必要があります。 バイオタイプはただ1つの除草剤に耐性めったにあります。各生物型は、従って、一定の抵抗パターンを特徴とする、除草剤、SOAの、すなわち、数と種類は、それは、与えられた抵抗によってに耐性であります各除草剤13のレベル。クロスまたは複数の抵抗5のパターンの早期かつ信頼性の高い決意、14は、圃場抵抗性管理のために重要です。 それは、その除草剤抵抗性は自然寛容とは何の関係もない言及する価値があるいくつかの除草剤、 例えば、ACCアーゼ阻害除草剤、単子葉植物種対2,4-D対双子葉植物種、 スギナarvense対に向けていくつかの雑草種の展示グリホサート。 本稿では、除草剤（複数可）によって制御不良が報告されていた分野でサンプリング推定される除草剤抵抗性生物型をテストするための堅牢なアプローチを提示します。関連する雑草種に関連する標準的なプロトコルに関連する変異体が提示されています。唯一の除草剤の投与量15を使用して全植物バイオアッセイのいずれかに基づいて、代替技術/プロトコル経由での利点、または8が高いreliabに関連しているペトリ皿に種子を処理しますilityとための実験における2つの除草剤の投与量を含めることの抵抗レベルを推定する可能性。しかし、ルーチン抵抗試験のため、同一の方法がそのようにコストを削減し、唯一の除草剤用量で適用することができます。 同様に、抵抗状態の確認を可能にするように、得られた情報は、両方の研究は、以下の工程を最適化し、および/または音響抵抗管理戦略を考案するために使用することができます。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Paper bags</td>
			<td>Celcar SAS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic dishes</td>
			<td>ISI plast S.p.A.</td>
			<td>SO600</td>
			<td>Transparent plastic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulfuric acid 95-98%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>320501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-woven fabric</td>
			<td>Carretta Tessitura</td>
			<td>Art.TNT17</td>
			<td>Weight&#160; 17 gr m-&#178;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform &#62;99.5%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C2432</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A1296</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium nitrate &#62;99.0%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8394</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic containers</td>
			<td>Giganplast</td>
			<td>1875/M</td>
			<td>600 x 400 x 110 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic trays</td>
			<td>Piber plast</td>
			<td>G1210A</td>
			<td>325 x 265 x 95 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polystyrene trays</td>
			<td>Plastisavio</td>
			<td>S24</td>
			<td>537x328x72 mm, 24 round cells (6x4)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>451657</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agriperlite</td>
			<td>Blu Agroingross sas</td>
			<td>AGRI100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peat</td>
			<td>Blu Agroingross sas</td>
			<td>TORBA250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Germination cabinet</td>
			<td>KW</td>
			<td>W87R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nozzles</td>
			<td>Teejet</td>
			<td>&#160;XR11002-VK, TP11001-VH</td>
			<td>The second type of nozzles are used only for glyphosate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Barcode generator</td>
			<td>Toshiba TEC</td>
			<td>SX4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Labels with barcode</td>
			<td>Felga</td>
			<td>TT20200</td>
			<td>Stick-in labels with rounded corners</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Barcode reader</td>
			<td>Cipherlab</td>
			<td>8300-L</td>
			<td>Portable data terminal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bench sprayer</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Built in house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">HERBICIDES INCLUDED IN THE RESULTS:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Commercial product</td>
			<td>Active ingredient</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Altorex</td>
			<td>imazamox</td>
			<td>BASF</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Azimut&#160;</td>
			<td>florasulam</td>
			<td>Dow AgroSciences</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biopower</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Bayer Crop Science</td>
			<td>Surfact to be used with Hussar WG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dash</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BASF</td>
			<td>Surfact to be used with Altorex</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Granstar&#160;</td>
			<td>tribenuron-methyl</td>
			<td>Dupont</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gulliver&#160;</td>
			<td>azimsulfuron</td>
			<td>Dupont</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hussar WG&#160;</td>
			<td>iodosulfuron</td>
			<td>Bayer Crop Science</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nominee&#160;</td>
			<td>bispyribac-Na</td>
			<td>Bayer Crop Science</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Roundup</td>
			<td>glyphosate</td>
			<td>Monsanto</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trend</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Dupont</td>
			<td>Surfact to be used with Granstar and Gulliver</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Viper&#160;</td>
			<td>penoxsulam</td>
			<td>Dow AgroSciences</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Weedone LV4</td>
			<td>2,4-D</td>
			<td>Isagro</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

protocols for robust herbicide resistance testing in different weed species

Robust protocols to test putative herbicide resistant weed populations at whole plant level are essential to confirm the resistance status. The presented protocols, based on whole-plant bioassays performed in a greenhouse, can be readily adapted to a wide range of weed species and herbicides through appropriate variants. Seed samples from plants that survived a field herbicide treatment are collected and stored dry at low temperature until used. Germination methods differ according to weed species and seed dormancy type. Seedlings at similar growth stage are transplanted and maintained in the greenhouse under appropriate conditions until plants have reached the right growth stage for herbicide treatment. Accuracy is required to prepare the herbicide solution to avoid unverifiable mistakes. Other critical steps such as the application volume and spray speed are also evaluated. The advantages of this protocol, compared to others based on whole plant bioassays using one herbicide dose, are related to the higher reliability and the possibility of inferring the resistance level. Quicker and less expensive in vivo or in vitro diagnostic screening tests have been proposed (Petri dish bioassays, spectrophotometric tests), but they provide only qualitative information and their widespread use is hindered by the laborious set-up that some species may require. For routine resistance testing, the proposed whole plant bioassay can be applied at only one herbicide dose, so reducing the costs.

推定上の耐性集団の抵抗状態を評価するためには、除草剤の有効性を確認するためにアッセイにおける感受性の検査を含むことが基本です。 P.で行ったスクリーニング試験の結果rhoeas集団は、小麦畑に寄生雑草は、感受性の検査（09から36）のと疑わ耐性1（10-91）上の4つの発芽後除草剤の有効性が示されている図2に報告されています。人口09から36は、完全に唯一の?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Protocols for Robust Herbicide Resistance Testing in Different Weed Species at JoVE.com

Protocols for Robust Herbicide Resistance Testing in Different Weed Species

A robust and flexible approach to confirm herbicide resistance in weed populations is presented. This protocol allows the herbicide resistance levels to be inferred and applied to a wide range of weed species and herbicides with minor adaptations.

別の雑草種の堅牢な除草剤抵抗性試験のためのプロトコル

Robust protocols to test putative herbicide resistant weed populations at whole plant level are essential to confirm the resistance status. The presented ...

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Environment

14.4K ビュー.  National Research Council (CNR), Italy. A robust and flexible approach to confirm herbicide resistance in weed populations is presented. This protocol allows the herbicide resistance levels to be inferred and applied to a wide range of weed species and herbicides with minor adaptations.

ビデオ: Protocols for Robust Herbicide Resistance Testing in Different Weed Species

An Optimized Enrichment Technique for the Isolation of Arthrobacter Bacteriophage Species from Soil Sample Isolates

Bacteriophage isolation from environmental samples has been performed for decades using principles set forth by pioneers in microbiology. The isolation of phages infecting Arthrobacter hosts has been limited, perhaps due to the low success rate of many previous isolation techniques, resulting in an underrepresented group of Arthrobacter phages available for study. The enrichment technique described here, unlike many others, uses a filtered extract free of contaminating bacteria as the base for indicator bacteria growth, Arthrobactersp. KY3901, specifically. By first removing soil bacteria the target phages are not hindered by competition with native soil bacteria present in initial soil samples. This enrichment method has resulted in dozens of unique phages from several different soil types and even produced different types of phages from the same enriched soil sample isolate. The use of this procedure can be expanded to most nutrient rich aerobic media for the isolation of phages in a vast diversity of interesting host bacteria.

An Optimized Enrichment Technique for the Isolation of Arthrobacter Bacteriophage Species from Soil Sample Isolates

We present an enrichment protocol for the isolation of bacteriophages infecting bacteria in the Arthrobacter genus. This enrichment protocol produces fast and reproducible results for the isolation and amplification of Arthrobacter phages from soil isolates.

の単離のための最適化された濃縮技術<em&gt;アルスロ</em&gt;バクテリオファージ種土壌サンプルの分離株から

Bacteriophage isolation from environmental samples has been performed for decades using principles set forth by pioneers in microbiology. The isolation of ...

環境学

Measuring Rates of Herbicide Metabolism in Dicot Weeds with an Excised Leaf Assay

In order to isolate and accurately determine rates of herbicide metabolism in an obligate-outcrossing dicot weed, waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), we developed an excised leaf assay combined with a vegetative cloning strategy to normalize herbicide uptake and remove translocation as contributing factors in herbicide-resistant (R) and &#8211;sensitive (S) waterhemp populations. Biokinetic analyses of organic pesticides in plants typically include the determination of uptake, translocation (delivery to the target site), metabolic fate, and interactions with the target site. Herbicide metabolism is an important parameter to measure in herbicide-resistant weeds and herbicide-tolerant crops, and is typically accomplished with whole-plant tests using radiolabeled herbicides. However, one difficulty with interpreting biokinetic parameters derived from whole-plant methods is that translocation is often affected by rates of herbicide metabolism, since polar metabolites are usually not mobile within the plant following herbicide detoxification reactions. Advantages of the protocol described in this manuscript include reproducible, accurate, and rapid determination of herbicide degradation rates in R and S populations, a substantial decrease in the amount of radiolabeled herbicide consumed, a large reduction in radiolabeled plant materials requiring further handling and disposal, and the ability to perform radiolabeled herbicide experiments in the lab or growth chamber instead of a greenhouse. As herbicide resistance continues to develop and spread in dicot weed populations worldwide, the excised leaf assay method developed and described herein will provide an invaluable technique for investigating non-target site-based resistance due to enhanced rates of herbicide metabolism and detoxification.

This manuscript describes how herbicide metabolism rates can be effectively quantified with excised leaves from a dicot weed, thereby reducing variability and removing any possible confounding effects of herbicide uptake or translocation typically observed in whole-plant assays.

摘出葉のアッセイで双子葉雑草除草剤代謝の速度を測定します

In order to isolate and accurately determine rates of herbicide metabolism in an obligate-outcrossing dicot weed, waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), we ...

Potentiodynamic Corrosion Testing

Different metallic materials have different polarization characteristics as dictated by the open circuit potential, breakdown potential, and passivation potential of the material. The detection of these electrochemical parameters identifies the corrosion factors of a material. A reliable and well-functioning corrosion system is required to achieve this.
Corrosion of the samples was achieved via a potentiodynamic polarization technique employing a three-electrode configuration, consisting of reference, counter, and working electrodes. Prior to commencement a baseline potential is obtained. Following the stabilization of the corrosion potential (Ecorr), the applied potential is ramped at a slow rate in the positive direction relative to the reference electrode. The working electrode was a stainless steel screw. The reference electrode was a standard Ag/AgCl. The counter electrode used was a platinum mesh. Having a reliable and well-functioning in vitro corrosion system to test biomaterials provides an in-expensive technique that allows for the systematic characterization of the material by determining the breakdown potential, to further understand the material's response to corrosion. The goal of the protocol is to set up and run an in vitro potentiodynamic corrosion system to analyze pitting corrosion for small metallic medical devices.

Here, we present a protocol to set up and run an in vitro potentiodynamic corrosion system to analyze pitting corrosion for small metallic medical devices.

動電位腐食試験

Different metallic materials have different polarization characteristics as dictated by the open circuit potential, breakdown potential, and passivation ...

Protocols for Quantifying Transferable Pesticide Residues in Turfgrass Systems

Plant canopies in established turfgrass systems can intercept an appreciable amount of sprayed pesticides, which can be transferred through various routes onto humans. For this reason, transferable pesticide residue experiments are required for registration and re-registration by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Although such experiments are required, limited specificity is required pertaining to experimental approach. Experimental approaches used to assess pesticide transfer to humans including hand wiping with cotton gloves, modified California roller (moving a roller of known mass over cotton cloth) and soccer ball roll (ball wrapped with sorbent strip) over three treated turfgrass species (creeping bentgrass, hybrid bermudagrass and tall fescue maintained at 0.4, 5 and 9 cm, respectively) are presented. The modified California roller is the most extensively utilized approach to date, and is best suited for use at low mowing heights due to its reproducibility and large sampling area. The soccer ball roll is a less aggressive transfer approach; however, it mimics a very common occurrence in the most popular international sport, and has many implications for nondietary pesticide exposure from hand-to-mouth contact. Additionally, this approach may be adjusted for other athletic activities with limited modification. Hand wiping is the best approach to transfer pesticides at higher mowing heights, as roller-based approaches can lay blades over; however, it is more subjective due to more variable sampling pressure. Utility of these methods across turfgrass species is presented, and additional considerations to conduct transferable pesticide residue research in turfgrass systems are discussed.

Transferable pesticide residue experiments in turfgrass systems are integral components of human risk exposure assessments. Experimental approaches to measure transferable residues should be adjusted to the human interaction of interest and turfgrass system dynamics. Three transferable pesticide residue protocols are presented and the suitability across three turfgrass systems is discussed.

芝草システムズに譲渡残留農薬を定量化するためのプロトコル

Plant canopies in established turfgrass systems can intercept an appreciable amount of sprayed pesticides, which can be transferred through various routes ...

Dispersion of Nanomaterials in Aqueous Media: Towards Protocol Optimization

The sonication process is commonly used for de-agglomerating and dispersing nanomaterials in aqueous based media, necessary to improve homogeneity and stability of the suspension. In this study, a systematic step-wise approach is carried out to identify optimal sonication conditions in order to achieve a stable dispersion. This approach has been adopted and shown to be suitable for several nanomaterials (cerium oxide, zinc oxide, and carbon nanotubes) dispersed in deionized (DI) water. However, with any change in either the nanomaterial type or dispersing medium, there needs to be optimization of the basic protocol by adjusting various factors such as sonication time, power, and sonicator type as well as temperature rise during the process. The approach records the dispersion process in detail. This is necessary to identify the time points as well as other above-mentioned conditions during the sonication process in which there may be undesirable changes, such as damage to the particle surface thus affecting surface properties. Our goal is to offer a harmonized approach that can control the quality of the final, produced dispersion. Such a guideline is instrumental in ensuring dispersion quality repeatability in the nanoscience community, particularly in the field of nanotoxicology.

Here, we present a step-wise protocol for the dispersion of nanomaterials in aqueous media with real-time characterization to identify the optimal sonication conditions, intensity, and duration for improved stability and uniformity of nanoparticle dispersions without impacting the sample integrity.

水溶液中におけるナノ材料の分散: プロトコルの最適化に向けて

The sonication process is commonly used for de-agglomerating and dispersing nanomaterials in aqueous based media, necessary to improve homogeneity and ...

RGB and Spectral Root Imaging for Plant Phenotyping and Physiological Research: Experimental Setup and Imaging Protocols

Better understanding of plant root dynamics is essential to improve resource use efficiency of agricultural systems and increase the resistance of crop cultivars against environmental stresses. An experimental protocol is presented for RGB and hyperspectral imaging of root systems. The approach uses rhizoboxes where plants grow in natural soil over a longer time to observe fully developed root systems. Experimental settings are exemplified for assessing rhizobox plants under water stress and studying the role of roots. An RGB imaging setup is described for cheap and quick quantification of root development over time. Hyperspectral imaging improves root segmentation from the soil background compared to RGB color based thresholding. The particular strength of hyperspectral imaging is the acquisition of chemometric information on the root-soil system for functional understanding. This is demonstrated with high resolution water content mapping. Spectral imaging however is more complex in image acquisition, processing and analysis compared to the RGB approach. A combination of both methods can optimize a comprehensive assessment of the root system. Application examples integrating root and aboveground traits are given for the context of plant phenotyping and plant physiological research. Further improvement of root imaging can be obtained by optimizing RGB image quality with better illumination using different light sources and by extension of image analysis methods to infer on root zone properties from spectral data.

An experimental protocol is presented for assessment of soil grown plant root systems with RGB and hyperspectral imaging. Combination of RGB image time series with chemometric information from hyperspectral scans optimizes insights into plant root dynamics.

RGB とスペクトルのルート画像植物表現型解析および生理学的研究: 実験概要およびイメージ投射プロトコル

Better understanding of plant root dynamics is essential to improve resource use efficiency of agricultural systems and increase the resistance of crop ...

Ecosystem Fabrication (EcoFAB) Protocols for The Construction of Laboratory Ecosystems Designed to Study Plant-microbe Interactions

Beneficial plant-microbe interactions offer a sustainable biological solution with the potential to boost low-input food and bioenergy production. A better mechanistic understanding of these complex plant-microbe interactions will be crucial to improving plant production as well as performing basic ecological studies investigating plant-soil-microbe interactions. Here, a detailed description for ecosystem fabrication is presented, using widely available 3D printing technologies, to create controlled laboratory habitats (EcoFABs) for mechanistic studies of plant-microbe interactions within specific environmental conditions. Two sizes of EcoFABs are described that are suited for the investigation of microbial interactions with various plant species, including Arabidopsis thaliana, Brachypodium distachyon, and Panicum virgatum. These flow-through devices allow for controlled manipulation and sampling of root microbiomes, root chemistry as well as imaging of root morphology and microbial localization. This protocol includes the details for maintaining sterile conditions inside EcoFABs and mounting independent LED light systems onto EcoFABs. Detailed methods for addition of different forms of media, including soils, sand, and liquid growth media coupled to the characterization of these systems using imaging and metabolomics are described. Together, these systems enable dynamic and detailed investigation of plant and plant-microbial consortia including the manipulation of microbiome composition (including mutants), the monitoring of plant growth, root morphology, exudate composition, and microbial localization under controlled environmental conditions. We anticipate that these detailed protocols will serve as an important starting point for other researchers, ideally helping create standardized experimental systems for investigating plant-microbe interactions.

Ecosystem Fabrication EcoFAB Protocols for The Construction of Laboratory Ecosystems Designed to Study Plant-microbe Interactions

This article describes detailed protocols for ecosystem fabrication of devices (EcoFABs) that enable the studies of plants and plant-microbe interactions in highly controlled laboratory conditions.

植物と微生物の相互作用を調査するように設計研究所生態系の建設のため生態系製造 (EcoFAB) のプロトコル

Beneficial plant-microbe interactions offer a sustainable biological solution with the potential to boost low-input food and bioenergy production. A ...

Composition and Distribution Analysis of Bioaerosols Under Different Environmental Conditions

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, we described a protocol for multiple analyses of the biological compositions in environmental PM. Five experiments are presented: (1) PM number monitoring by using a laser particle counter; (2) PM collection by using a cyclonic aerosol sampler; (3) PM collection by using a high-volume air sampler with filters; (4) culturable microbes collection by the Andersen six-stage sampler; and (5) detection of biological composition of environmental PM by bacterial 16SrDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing. We selected hazy days and a livestock farm as two typical examples of the application in this protocol. In this study, these two sampling methods, cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler, showed different sampling efficiency. The cyclonic aerosol sampler performed much better in terms of collecting bacteria, while these two methods showed the same efficiency in collecting fungi. Filter samplers can work under low temperature conditions while cyclonic aerosol samplers have a sampling limitation for temperature. A solid impacting sampler, such as an Andersen six-stage sampler, can be used to sample bioaerosols directly into the culture medium, which increases the survival rate of culturable microorganisms. However, this method mainly relies on culture while more than 99% of microbes cannot be cultured. DNA extracted from the culturable bacteria collected by the Andersen six-stage sampler and samples collected by cyclonic aerosol sampler and filter sampler were detected by bacterial 16S rDNA and fungal ITS region sequencing.All the methods above may have wide application in many fields of study, such as environmental monitoring and airborne pathogen detection. From these results, we can conclude that these methods can be used under different conditions and may help other researchers further explore the health impacts of environmental bioaerosols.

Understanding the biological composition of environmental particulate matter is important for the study of its significant impacts on human health and disease spread. Here, we used three types of bioaerosol sampling methods and a biological analysis of airborne microbes to better explore airborne microbial communities under different environmental conditions.

組成と異なる環境条件下におけるバイオエアロゾルの分布解析

Variable microorganisms in particulate matter (PM) under different environmental conditions may have significant impacts on human health. In this study, ...

Identifying Per- and Polyfluorinated Chemical Species with a Combined Targeted and Non-Targeted-Screening High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Workflow

Historical and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have garnered significant interest from the public and government agencies from the local to federal levels. The continuing evolution of PFAS chemistries presents a challenge to the environmental monitoring, where ongoing development of targeted methods necessarily lags the discovery of new chemical compounds. There is a need, therefore, to have forward-looking methodologies that can detect emerging and unexpected compounds, monitor these species over time, and resolve details of their chemical structure to enable future work in human health. To this end, non-targeted analysis by high-resolution mass spectrometry offers a broad base detection approach that can be combined with almost any sample preparation scheme and provides significant capabilities for compound identification after detection. Herein, we describe a solid-phase extraction (SPE) based sample concentration method tuned for shorter chain and more hydrophilic PFAS chemistries, such as per fluorinated ether acids and sulfonates, and describe analysis of samples prepared in this fashion in both targeted and non-targeted modes. Targeted methods provide superior quantification when reference standards are available but are intrinsically limited to expected compounds when performing analysis. In contrast, a non-targeted approach can identify the presence of unexpected compounds and provide some information about their chemical structure. Information about chemical features can be used to correlate compounds across sample locations and track abundance and occurrence over time.

Here, we present a protocol for the sequential targeted quantification and non-targeted analysis of fluorinated compounds in water by mass spectrometry. This methodology provides quantitative levels of known fluorochemical compounds and identifies unknown chemicals in related samples with semi-quantitative estimates of their abundance.

あたりを識別する-ポリフルオロ化学種の結合対象・非対象と検診高分解能質量分析ワークフロー

Historical and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have garnered significant interest from the public and government agencies from the ...

Sampling for Estimating Frankliniella Species Flower Thrips and Orius Species Predators in Field Experiments

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a polyphagous pest that has been spread worldwide. The extensive use of insecticides in attempts to control its populations eliminates natural enemies and competitor flower thrips species, thereby increasing its populations. An unsustainable situation develops with concomitant resistant pest populations, secondary pest outbreaks, and environmental degradation. Integrated pest management utilizes knowledge of pest and natural enemy relationships to implement tactics that are environmentally friendly and sustainable. Minute pirate bugs are the most important worldwide predators of thrips. They can suppress and ultimately control Frankliniella species flower thrips. Flower samples taken at least weekly are needed to understand predator-prey dynamics. Shown here is the sampling of the flowers of fruiting vegetables and companion plants to estimate the densities of individual thrips and minute pirate bug species. Representative data illustrates how the protocol is used to determine the efficacy of management tactics over time and how to evaluate the benefits of predation by minute pirate bugs. The sampling protocol is similarly adaptable to sampling thrips and minute pirate bugs in other plant species hosts.

Sampling for Estimating Frankliniella Species Flower Thrips and Orius Species Predators in Field Experiments

Presented here is a protocol to determine the number of thrips and minute pirate bug predators in crops over multiple dates in field experiments. Also illustrated is how to determine the efficacy of management tactics against thrips and evaluate the benefits of predation by minute pirate bugs.

フィールド実験におけるラクリネリア種花のスクリップとオリウス種捕食者の推定サンプリング

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a polyphagous pest that has been spread worldwide. The extensive use of insecticides ...