The authors have no acknowledgements.

All animal experiments are performed in accordance with the National Institutes of Health guidelines and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of Toledo.
1. Phenotyping of pIL1-DsRed Mice
NOTE: Offspring are generated by breeding heterozygous pIL1-DsRed mice with wild-type (WT) C57BL6 mice. Three to four week old pups are considered ready for phenotyping. Submandibular bleeding of mice follows an established protocol with minor ...

<ol>
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G., Kubes, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antibodies+against+neutrophil+LY6G+do+not+inhibit+leukocyte+recruitment+in+mice+in+vivo.">Antibodies against neutrophil LY6G do not inhibit leukocyte recruitment in mice in vivo.</a> Blood. 121 (1), 241-242 (2013).</li><li>Kikushima, K., Kita, S., Higuchi, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+non-invasive+imaging+for+the+in+vivo+tracking+of+high-speed+vesicle+transport+in+mouse+neutrophils.">A non-invasive imaging for the in vivo tracking of high-speed vesicle transport in mouse neutrophils.</a> Sci. 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The aim of this study is to develop a technology for monitoring the process of neutrophil priming in living animals, which has not yet been fulfilled by the currently available techniques. To achieve this goal, three established methodologies are performed: 1) induction of skin inflammation in IL-1&#946; promoter-driven DsRed reporter mice as a measure of priming, 2) in vivo labeling of neutrophils with low doses of fluorescence-conjugated anti-Ly6G mAb, and 3) intravital confocal microscopy imaging. The combina...

Neutrophils are the most abundant and short-lived leukocytes in circulation. They are rapidly recruited to the sites of infection or injury, where they serve as professional phagocytes through release of reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates along with granules containing antimicrobial peptides and proteases1. During their recruitment, neutrophils are &#34;primed&#34; by various agents including microbial products, chemoattractants, and inflammatory cytokines, resulting in markedly enhanced phagocyte functionality upon arrival at a site of inflammation2. The mechanisms of neutrophil priming have been extensively studied in vitro3,4; however, dynamic monitoring of the process in vivo has not been possible to date.
Recently, intravital imaging has become an important technique for visualizing and quantifying the cellular dynamics of biological processes in living organisms. Intravital imaging can be performed via conventional one-photon excitation microscopy (e.g., confocal) or multiphoton microscopy approaches5. Over time, substantial improvements have been achieved in this technique enabling increased image resolution, improved imaging depth, decreased tissue photodamage, and enhanced image stabilization6,7. Given its unique ability to enable dynamic visualization of cellular migration and interaction over time, intravital microscopy has been extensively applied to diverse areas of study in immunology8. Intravital imaging enables immunologists to better understand and contextualize immune responses at both the cellular and molecular level in living animal models.
Recent advances in transgenic as well as knock-in reporter mice have provided useful tools for monitoring the dynamic behaviors of neutrophils in living animals. Lysozyme M promoter-driven enhanced green fluorescent protein knock-in mice have been broadly used to characterize motility of neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages during various inflammatory processes including extravasation, bacterial infection, and sterile inflammation9-15. Further, transgenic mice expressing a cytoplasmic fluorescence resonance energy transfer biosensor have been employed in studying the activities of neutrophil extracellular-regulated mitogen kinase and protein kinase A within inflamed intestine16. A murine model with high specificity for fluorescence expression in neutrophils is the Catchup knock-in mouse, which produces Cre recombinase as well as the fluorescent protein tdTomato, which itself is coupled to expression of lymphocyte antigen 6G (Ly6G)17. Visualization of Ly6G-deficient neutrophils via this model has demonstrated that these cells exert normal functionality in a variety of sterile or infectious in vivo inflammatory contexts. Transgenic mice expressing the DsRed fluorescent protein gene under the control of the mouse interleuikin-1&#946; (IL-1&#946;) promoter (pIL1-DsRed) have been utilized to visualize the motile behaviors of IL-1&#946; producing cells &#8212; believed to include neutrophils, inflammatory monocytes, and activated macrophages &#8212; emerging in inflamed skin18.
In vivo labeling can serve as an alternative approach for tracing the cellular and molecular behaviors of neutrophils in inflamed tissues. After intravenous injection of low doses of fluorescently labeled anti-Gr-1 monoclonal antibody (mAb), the recruitment cascade of Gr-1+ neutrophils has been visualized in mouse skin lesions infected with Staphylococcus aureus19. In vivo administration of conjugates containing streptavidin-conjugated 705 nm quantum dots and biotinylated anti-Ly6G mAb specifically label circulating neutrophils20. Moreover, endocytosis of such conjugates into neutrophil vesicles allows tracking of high-speed vesicle transport in neutrophils migrating into the interstitium. In vivo labeling with fluorescence-conjugated antibodies against P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1), L-selectin (CD62L), integrin &#945;M (CD11b) and chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 2 (CXCR2) in a TNF&#945;-induced inflammatory model has elucidated the regulatory mechanisms at play during early inflammation21. Polarized neutrophils protrude PSGL-1-enriched uropods to interact with CD62L present on activated platelets, resulting in the redistribution of CD11b and CXCR2, receptors that drive neutrophil migration and initiate the inflammation.
IL-1&#946; is one of the signature genes that is elevated in primed neutrophils22. In pIL1-DsRed reporter mice, DsRed fluorescence signals (i.e., activation of IL-1&#946; promoter) positively correlate with IL-1&#946; mRNA expression and IL-1&#946; protein production.18 To monitor the process of neutrophil priming, an intravital microscopy method was developed involving induction of skin inflammation with oxazolone (OX) in the pIL1-DsRed mouse model following in vivo labeling of neutrophils with fluorescence-conjugated anti-Ly6G mAb. Via this model, it is possible to study the behavior and function of primed neutrophils in animal models of various diseases and disorders.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:196px;">Heparin sodium</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">APP Pharmaceuticals</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">NDC 63323-540-31</td>
			<td style="width:191px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:196px;">ACK lysing buffer</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">10-548E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:196px;">Fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">F0926</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:196px;">Lipopolysaccharides</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">L4391</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:196px;">Ketamine hydrochloride</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Hospira</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">NDC 0409-2051-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Xylazine</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">LLOYD Laboratory</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">NADA #139-236</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Acepromazine</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Boehringer Ingelheim</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">ANADA 200-361</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hair-removal cream</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Church &#38; Dwight</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Acetone</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">A16P4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Oxazolone</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">E0753</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:196px;">Alexa Fluor 647 anti-mouse Ly6G antibody</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">127610</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:196px;">U-100 insulin syringe with 28 G needle</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>329461</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:196px;">FITC-CM-Dextran, 150 Kda</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">74817</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:196px;">Butterfly infusion set (27 G needle)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">387312</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FACSCalibur cytometer</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CellQuest Pro software</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>FV1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Metamorph Software</td>
			<td>Universal Imaging</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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intravital imaging of neutrophil priming using il-1&#946; promoter-driven dsred reporter mice

Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in human blood circulation and are quickly recruited to inflammatory sites. Priming is a critical event that enhances the phagocytic functionality of neutrophils. Although extensive studies have unveiled the existence and importance of neutrophil priming during infection and injury, means of visualizing this process in vivo have been unavailable. The protocol provided enables monitoring of the dynamic process of neutrophil priming in living animals by combining three methodologies: 1) DsRed reporter signal &#8212; used as a measure of priming 2) in vivo neutrophil labeling &#8212; achieved by injection of fluorescence-conjugated anti-lymphocyte antigen 6G (Ly6G) monoclonal antibody (mAb) and 3) intravital confocal imaging. Several critical steps are involved in this protocol: oxazolone-induced mouse ear skin inflammation, appropriate sedation of animals, repeated injections of anti-Ly6G mAb, and prevention of focus drift during imaging. Although a few limitations have been observed, such as the limit of continuous imaging time (~ 8 hr) in one mouse and the leakage of fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran from blood vessels in the inflammatory state, this protocol provides a fundamental framework for intravital imaging of primed neutrophil behavior and function, which can easily be expanded to examination of other immune cells in mouse inflammation models.

Screening of pIL1-DsRed mice is performed based on the phenotypic DsRed fluorescence signal produced by their peripheral blood leukocytes using flow cytometry. LPS stimulation is known to induce IL-1&#946; production in myeloid cells including neutrophils, monocytes, and dendritic cells26-28. Thus, isolated leukocytes are incubated with LPS for 4 hr prior to flow cytometry analysis. Next, gating is set for circulating myeloid cells based on cell size (FSC) and internal complexi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intravital Imaging of Neutrophil Priming Using IL-1Î² Promoter-driven DsRed Reporter Mice at JoVE.com

Intravital Imaging of Neutrophil Priming Using IL-1&amp;#946; Promoter-driven DsRed Reporter Mice

This current protocol employs fluorescent reporters, in vivo labeling, and intravital imaging techniques to enable monitoring of the dynamic process of neutrophil priming in living animals.

Intravital Imaging of Neutrophil Priming Using IL-1&#946; Promoter-driven DsRed Reporter Mice

Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in human blood circulation and are quickly recruited to inflammatory sites. Priming is a critical event that ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to present a technology for monitoring the process of neutrophil priming in living animals. This method can help answer the key questions in the immunology field, such as visualization of the behavior and the function of priming the neutrophils in animal models of rarest diseases and disorders. The main advantage of this technique is that it combines three established methodologies, including fluorescent reporters in viral labeling and intravital imaging.Breed heterozygous pIL1-DsRed mice with wild-type C57Black six mice. At three to four weeks, phenotype their pups. For each pup, prepare a 1.5 milliliter tube with 20 microliters of heparin.To collect blood, hold a pup by its neck scruff and pierce the submandibular vein in the cheek pouch using a 5 millimeter lancet. Only a small puncture is needed. Collect three to five drops of blood per tube.After making the collection, be sure to stop the bleeding and observe the animals for 30 minutes before returning them to the animal facility. To each sample tube, add 500 microliters of red blood cell lysing buffer. Then, vortex the tubes, and incubate them for five to 10 minutes on ice.After the incubation, slowly add 400 to 500 microliters of fetal bovine serum under the cell suspensions in each tube. A clear interface should form between the layers. Next, centrifuge the samples at 1, 500 Gs for five minutes to collect cell pellets.Discard the supernatent and resuspend the cells in 200 microliters of complete RPMI-1640 medium. Then, transfer each suspension to a flow cytometry tube and add 20 microliters of freshly made LPS Working Solution to each tube. Incubate the samples for four hours before performing flow cytometry.To begin, anesthetize the mouse with an intraparetoneal injection of an anesthetic cocktail and confirm adequate sedation with a toe pinch test. Next, apply hair removal cream to the dorsal surface of both ears, wipe it off within a minute, and wash the skin with water. Measure the thickness of the ear where the applications were made using a micrometer.Later, return the mouse in its own cage after it has recovered from the anesthesia, and allow the mouse to rest for at least three days before further testing. After three days, reanesthetize the mouse and measure the ear thickness again to make sure it is not irritated. Then, apply 12.5 microliters of 1.25%oxazolone onto each side of the right ear, and apply 12.5 microliters of the acetone olive oil vehicle solution onto each side of the left ear.As always, observe the mouse recover from the anesthesia. 24 hours later, measure the thickness of the ear again under anesthesia to ensure the oxazolone induced skin inflammation has occurred. To begin, transfer 100 microliters of anti-lyse XG monocolonal antibody into a U100 insulin syringe with a 28 gauge needle.Next, anesthetize a treated mouse as previously described. With the mouse abdomen down, apply gentle downward pressure to the skin dorsal and ventral to an eye to partially protrude the eyeball. Then, carefully place the needle, bevel down, approximately 30 degrees to the medial canthus and carefully insert the needle into the retro orbital sinus.The penetration pressure will be relieved when the needle enters the sinus. Then, eject the content and remove the needle quickly. A small amount of bleeding suggests successful injection.Now, immediately apply 1.25%oxazolone and vehicle solution onto the right and left mouse ears as before. Eight hours later, administer a second dose of the same antibody into each mouse. Also, to visualize the blood vessels, retro orbitally administer 100 microliters of fitc dextran.For this procedure, first anesthetize the mouse as before. Then, apply veterinary ointment to the eyes to prevent dryness during imaging. Next, place a glass coverslip at the center of an imaging stage, and secure the edges of the coverslip with tape.Also, add a drop of PVS to the coverslip. Now, position the mouse's ear over the coverslip, dorsal side down. Next, moisten the ventral surface of the mouse ear with a drop of PVS.Then, mount the tip of the ear with a glass slide on top and secure the slide with tape. Now, turn on a multi laser fluorescence confocal microscope and the related equipment. Turn off the room lights to minimize ambient light exposure.Then, record three dimensional images using the confocal microscope. For time lapse imaging experiments, record three dimensional images every two to four minutes for up to eight hours. All the while, watch for twitching whiskers, which indicates that the mouse is beginning to recover from the anesthesia.In such situations, administer five to 10 microliters of a half dose of anesthetic cocktail via a butterfly needle. pIL-1-DsRed mice were screened for phenotypic DsRed fluorescence produced in peripheral blood leukocytes via flow cytometry. Circulating myeloid cells from wild-type mice minimally express DsRed, while the same cells from pIL1-DsRed mice express distinguishable DsRed signals.IL-1 beta promoter activation is a marker of neutrophil priming, and can be best visualized in living pIL-1DsRed mice. Next, a skin sensitizer, oxazolone, was topically applied to the right ear. Later, the neutrophils were labeled before and after a second application of the oxazolone sensitizer via retro orbital injection.Likewise, fitc dextran was injected to locate blood vessels. Many double labeled cells were found in the extravascular space, which represent primed neutrophils. A small number of cells were only labeled by the lyse XG antibody, which were probably resting neutrophils.Moreover, a small population of DsRed positive cells were observed, which may comprise inflammatory monocytes and activated macrophage. Cell migratory paths were tracked to compare the two neutrophil populations. Both neutrophil populations showed a random migration once the extracellular space had been entered.Interestingly, the putatively primed neutrophils exhibited a significantly higher velocity compared with their putatively resting counterparts. After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field of immunology. Two explore the behavior and the function of many immune cells in various inflammatory states involving different t-cells.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to monitor the dynamic process of neutrophil priming in living animals.

intravital-imaging-neutrophil-priming-using-il-1-promoter-driven

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

9.5K ビュー.  University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences. The overall goal of this procedure is to present a technology for monitoring the process of neutrophil priming in living animals. This method can help answer the key questions in the immunology field, such as visualization of the behavior and the function of priming the neutrophils in animal models of rarest diseases and disorders. The main advantage of this technique is that it combines three established methodologies, including fluorescent reporters in viral labeling and intravital imaging....

ビデオ: Intravital Imaging of Neutrophil Priming Using IL-1&#946; Promoter-driven DsRed Reporter Mice

Tracking Neutrophil Intraluminal Crawling, Transendothelial Migration and Chemotaxis in Tissue by Intravital Video Microscopy

The recruitment of circulating leukocytes from blood stream to the inflamed tissue is a crucial and complex process of inflammation1,2. In the postcapillary venules of inflamed tissue, leukocytes initially tether and roll on the luminal surface of venular wall. Rolling leukocytes arrest on endothelium and undergo firm adhesion in response to chemokine or other chemoattractants on the venular surface. Many adherent leukocytes relocate from the initial site of adhesion to the junctional extravasation site in endothelium, a process termed intraluminal crawling3. Following crawling, leukocytes move across endothelium (transmigration) and migrate in extravascular tissue toward the source of chemoattractant (chemotaxis)4. Intravital microscopy is a powerful tool for visualizing leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in vivo and revealing cellular and molecular mechanisms of leukocyte recruitment2,5. In this report, we provide a comprehensive description of using brightfield intravital microscopy to visualize and determine the detailed processes of neutrophil recruitment in mouse cremaster muscle in response to the gradient of a neutrophil chemoattractant. To induce neutrophil recruitment, a small piece of agarose gel (~1-mm3 size) containing neutrophil chemoattractant MIP-2 (CXCL2, a CXC chemokine) or WKYMVm (Trp-Lys-Tyr-Val-D-Met, a synthetic analog of bacterial peptide) is placed on the muscle tissue adjacent to the observed postcapillary venule. With time-lapsed video photography and computer software ImageJ, neutrophil intraluminal crawling on endothelium, neutrophil transendothelial migration and the migration and chemotaxis in tissue are visualized and tracked. This protocol allows reliable and quantitative analysis of many neutrophil recruitment parameters such as intraluminal crawling velocity, transmigration time, detachment time, migration velocity, chemotaxis velocity and chemotaxis index in tissue. We demonstrate that using this protocol, these neutrophil recruitment parameters can be stably determined and the single cell locomotion conveniently tracked in vivo.

We describe a protocol of brightfield intravital microscopy for measuring dynamic neutrophil-endothelial cell interactions during neutrophil recruitment in response to the source of a neutrophil chemoattractant in vivo. Neutrophil intraluminal crawling, transendothelial migration and chemotaxis in mouse cremaster muscle tissue are visualized with time-lapsed video photography and tracked with ImageJ.

The recruitment of circulating leukocytes from blood stream to the inflamed tissue is a crucial and complex process of inflammation1,2. In the ...

Intravital Imaging of the Mouse Thymus using 2-Photon Microscopy

Two-photon Microscopy (TPM) provides image acquisition in deep areas inside tissues and organs. In combination with the development of new stereotactic tools and surgical procedures, TPM becomes a powerful technique to identify "niches" inside organs and to document cellular "behaviors" in live animals. While intravital imaging provides information that best resembles the real cellular behavior inside the organ, it is both more laborious and technically demanding in terms of required equipment/procedures than alternative ex vivo imaging acquisition. Thus, we describe a surgical procedure and novel "stereotactic" organ holder that allows us to follow the movements of Foxp3+ cells within the thymus.
Foxp3 is the master regulator for the generation of regulatory T cells (Tregs). Moreover, these cells can be classified according to their origin: ie. thymus-differentiated Tregs are called "naturally-occurring Tregs" (nTregs), as opposed to peripherally-converted Tregs (pTregs). Although significant amount of research has been reported in the literature concerning the phenotype and physiology of these T cells, very little is known about their in vivo interactions with other cells. This deficiency may be due to the absence of techniques that would permit such observations. The protocol described in this paper provides a remedy for this situation.
Our protocol consists of using nude mice that lack an endogenous thymus since they have a punctual mutation in the DNA sequence that compromises the differentiation of some epithelial cells, including thymic epithelial cells. Nude mice were gamma-irradiated and reconstituted with bone marrows (BM) from Foxp3-KIgfp/gfp mice. After BM recovery (6 weeks), each animal received embryonic thymus transplantation inside the kidney capsule. After thymus acceptance (6 weeks), the animals were anesthetized; the kidney containing the transplanted thymus was exposed, fixed in our organ holder, and kept under physiological conditions for in vivo imaging by TPM. We have been using this approach to study the influence of drugs in the generation of regulatory T cells.

We have developed novel laboratory tools and protocols for intravital imaging acquisition of the thymus. Our technique should help in the identification of &#x201C;niches&#x201D; within the thymus where T cell development occurs.

Two-photon Microscopy (TPM) provides image acquisition in deep areas inside tissues and organs. In combination with the development of new stereotactic ...

Intravital Imaging of the Mouse Popliteal Lymph Node

Lymph nodes (LNs) are secondary lymphoid organs, which are strategically located throughout the body to allow for trapping and presentation of foreign antigens from peripheral tissues to prime the adaptive immune response. Juxtaposed between innate and adaptive immune responses, the LN is an ideal site to study immune cell interactions1,2. Lymphocytes (T cells, B cells and NK cells), dendritic cells (DCs), and macrophages comprise the bulk of bone marrow-derived cellular elements of the LN. These cells are strategically positioned in the LN to allow efficient surveillance of self antigens and potential foreign antigens3-5. The process by which lymphocytes successfully encounter cognate antigens is a subject of intense investigation in recent years, and involves an integration of molecular contacts including antigen receptors, adhesion molecules, chemokines, and stromal structures such as the fibro-reticular network2,6-12. 
Prior to the development of high-resolution real-time fluorescent in vivo imaging, investigators relied on static imaging, which only offers answers regarding morphology, position, and architecture. While these questions are fundamental in our understanding of immune cell behavior, the limitations intrinsic with this technique does not permit analysis to decipher lymphocyte trafficking and environmental clues that affect dynamic cell behavior. Recently, the development of intravital two-photon laser scanning microscopy (2P-LSM) has allowed investigators to view the dynamic movements and interactions of individual cells within live LNs in situ12-16. In particular, we and others have applied this technique to image cellular behavior and interactions within the popliteal LN, where its compact, dense nature offers the advantage of multiplex data acquisition over a large tissue area with diverse tissue sub-structures11,17-18. It is important to note that this technique offers added benefits over explanted tissue imaging techniques, which require disruption of blood, lymph flow, and ultimately the cellular dynamics of the system. Additionally, explanted tissues have a very limited window of time in which the tissue remains viable for imaging after explant. With proper hydration and monitoring of the animal's environmental conditions, the imaging time can be significantly extended with this intravital technique. Here, we present a detailed method of preparing mouse popliteal LN for the purpose of performing intravital imaging.

Recent advances in 2-photon microscopy have enabled real-time in situ imaging of live tissues in animal models, thereby enhancing our ability to investigate cellular behavior in both physiologic and pathologic conditions. Here, we outline the preparations required to perform intravital imaging of the mouse popliteal lymph node.

Lymph nodes (LNs) are secondary lymphoid organs, which are strategically located throughout the body to allow for trapping and presentation of foreign ...

Highly Resolved Intravital Striped-illumination Microscopy of Germinal Centers

Monitoring cellular communication by intravital deep-tissue multi-photon microscopy is the key for understanding the fate of immune cells within thick tissue samples and organs in health and disease. By controlling the scanning pattern in multi-photon microscopy and applying appropriate numerical algorithms, we developed a striped-illumination approach, which enabled us to achieve 3-fold better axial resolution and improved signal-to-noise ratio, i.e. contrast, in more than 100 &#181;m tissue depth within highly scattering tissue of lymphoid organs as compared to standard multi-photon microscopy. The acquisition speed as well as photobleaching and photodamage effects were similar to standard photo-multiplier-based technique, whereas the imaging depth was slightly lower due to the use of field detectors. By using the striped-illumination approach, we are able to observe the dynamics of immune complex deposits on secondary follicular dendritic cells &#8211; on the level of a few protein molecules in germinal centers.

High-resolution intravital imaging with enhanced contrast up to 120 &#181;m depth in lymph nodes of adult mice is achieved by spatially modulating the excitation pattern of a multi-focal two-photon microscope. In 100 &#181;m depth we measured resolutions of 487 nm (lateral) and 551 nm (axial), thus circumventing scattering and diffraction limits.

Monitoring cellular communication by intravital deep-tissue multi-photon microscopy is the key for understanding the fate of immune cells within thick ...

Long Term Intravital Multiphoton Microscopy Imaging of Immune Cells in Healthy and Diseased Liver Using CXCR6.Gfp Reporter Mice

Liver inflammation as a response to injury is a highly dynamic process involving the infiltration of distinct subtypes of leukocytes including monocytes, neutrophils, T cell subsets, B cells, natural killer (NK) and NKT cells. Intravital microscopy of the liver for monitoring immune cell migration is particularly challenging due to the high requirements regarding sample preparation and fixation, optical resolution and long-term animal survival. Yet, the dynamics of inflammatory processes as well as cellular interaction studies could provide critical information to better understand the initiation, progression and regression of inflammatory liver disease. Therefore, a highly sensitive and reliable method was established to study migration and cell-cell-interactions of different immune cells in mouse liver over long periods (about 6 hr) by intravital two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) in combination with intensive care monitoring.
The method provided includes a gentle preparation and stable fixation of the liver with minimal perturbation of the organ; long term intravital imaging using multicolor multiphoton microscopy with virtually no photobleaching or phototoxic effects over a time period of up to 6 hr, allowing tracking of specific leukocyte subsets; and stable imaging conditions due to extensive monitoring of mouse vital parameters and stabilization of circulation, temperature and gas exchange.
To investigate lymphocyte migration upon liver inflammation CXCR6.gfp knock-in mice were subjected to intravital liver imaging under baseline conditions and after acute and chronic liver damage induced by intraperitoneal injection(s) of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
CXCR6 is a chemokine receptor expressed on lymphocytes, mainly on Natural Killer T (NKT)-, Natural Killer (NK)- and subsets of T lymphocytes such as CD4 T cells but also mucosal associated invariant (MAIT) T cells1. Following the migratory pattern and positioning of CXCR6.gfp+ immune cells allowed a detailed insight into their altered behavior upon liver injury and therefore their potential involvement in disease progression.

Stable intravital high-resolution imaging of immune cells in the liver is challenging. Here we provide a highly sensitive and reliable method to study migration and cell-cell-interactions of immune cells in mouse liver over long periods (about 6 hours) by intravital multiphoton laser scanning microscopy in combination with intensive care monitoring.

Liver inflammation as a response to injury is a highly dynamic process involving the infiltration of distinct subtypes of leukocytes including monocytes, ...

Imaging Neutrophils and Monocytes in Mesenteric Veins by Intravital Microscopy on Anaesthetized Mice in Real Time

Efficient immune response is dependent on rapid mobilization of blood leukocytes to the site of infection or injury. Investigating leukocyte migration in vivo is crucial for understanding the molecular basis of leukocyte transendothelial migration and interaction with vascular endothelium. One powerful approach involves intravital microscopy on transgenic mice expressing fluorescent proteins in cells of interest.
Here we present a protocol for imaging monocytes and neutrophils in the CX3CR1gfp/wt mouse i.v. injected with orange dye-labeled neutrophils with an inverted confocal microscope. Time-lapse movies gathered from 30 min&#160;to several hours of imaging allow the analysis of leukocyte behavior in mesenteric veins under both steady state and inflammatory conditions. We also describe the steps to locally induce blood vessel inflammation with TLR2/TLR1 agonist Pam3SK4 and monitor the subsequent recruitment of neutrophils and monocytes.
The presented technique can also be used to monitor other populations of leukocytes and investigate molecules implicated in leukocyte recruitment or trafficking using other stimuli or transgenic mice.

We detail a protocol to monitor the behavior of neutrophils and monocytes in mesenteric veins under steady state and inflammatory conditions using intravital confocal microscopy on anaesthetized mice.

Efficient immune response is dependent on rapid mobilization of blood leukocytes to the site of infection or injury. Investigating leukocyte migration in ...

Visualization of IL-22-expressing Lymphocytes Using Reporter Mice

Reporter mice have been widely used to observe the localization of expression of targeted genes. This protocol focuses on a strategy to establish a new transgenic reporter mouse model. We chose to visualize interleukin (IL) 22 gene expression because this cytokine has important activities in the intestine, where it contributes to repair tissues damaged by inflammation. Reporter systems offer considerable advantages over other methods of identifying products in vivo. In the case of IL-22, other studies had first isolated cells from tissues and then re-stimulated the cells in vitro. IL-22, which is normally secreted, was trapped inside cells using a drug, and intracellular staining was used to visualize it. This method identifies cells capable of producing IL-22, but it does not determine whether they were doing so in vivo. The reporter design includes inserting a gene for a fluorescent protein (tdTomato) into the IL-22 gene in such a way that the fluorescent protein cannot be secreted and therefore remains trapped inside the producing cells in vivo. Fluorescent producers can then be visualized in tissue sections or by ex vivo analysis through flow cytometry. The actual construction process for the reporter included recombineering a bacterial artificial chromosome that contained the IL-22 gene. This engineered chromosome was then introduced into the mouse genome. Homeostatic IL-22 reporter expression was observed in different mouse tissues, including the spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, Peyer&#39;s patch, and intestine, by flow cytometry analysis. Colitis was induced by T-cell (CD4+CD45RBhigh) transfer, and reporter expression was visualized. Positive T cells were first present in the mesenteric lymph nodes, and then they accumulated inside the lamina propria of the distal small intestine and colon tissues. The strategy using BACs gave good-fidelity reporter expression compared to IL-22 expression, and it is simpler than knock-in procedures.

We describe here a transgenic reporter mouse model to visualize the IL-22-producing cells inside different mouse tissues. This method can be used to track the location of other cytokines or secretary proteins in the mouse.

Reporter mice have been widely used to observe the localization of expression of targeted genes. This protocol focuses on a strategy to establish a new ...

Imaging the Neutrophil Phagosome and Cytoplasm Using a Ratiometric pH Indicator

Neutrophils are crucial to host innate defense and, consequently, constitute an important area of medical research. The phagosome, the intracellular compartment where the killing and digestion of engulfed particles take place, is the main arena for neutrophil pathogen killing that requires tight regulation. Phagosomal pH is one aspect that is carefully controlled, in turn regulating antimicrobial protease activity. Many fluorescent pH-sensitive dyes have been used to visualize the phagosomal environment. S-1 has several advantages over other pH-sensitive dyes, including its dual emission spectra, its resistance to photo-bleaching, and its high pKa. Using this method, we have demonstrated that the neutrophil phagosome is unusually alkaline in comparison to other phagocytes. By using different biochemical conjugations of the dye, the phagosome can be delineated from the cytoplasm so that changes in the size and shape of the phagosome can be assessed. This allows for further monitoring of ionic movement.

This manuscript describes a simple method to measure the phagosomal pH and area as well as the cytoplasmic pH of human and mouse neutrophils using the ratiometric indicator seminaphthorhodafluor (SNARF)-1, or S-1. This is achieved using live-cell confocal fluorescence microscopy and image analysis.

Neutrophils are crucial to host innate defense and, consequently, constitute an important area of medical research. The phagosome, the intracellular ...

Imaging Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Mice with Reporter Enzyme Fluorescence

Reporter enzyme fluorescence (REF) utilizes substrates that are specific for enzymes present in target organisms of interest for imaging or detection by fluorescence or bioluminescence. We utilize BlaC, an enzyme expressed constitutively by all M. tuberculosis strains. REF allows rapid quantification of bacteria in lungs of infected mice. The same group of mice can be imaged at many time points, greatly reducing costs, enumerating bacteria more quickly, allowing novel observations in host-pathogen interactions, and increasing statistical power, since more animals per group are readily maintained. REF is extremely sensitive due to the catalytic nature of the BlaC enzymatic reporter and specific due to the custom flourescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) or fluorogenic substrates used. REF does not require recombinant strains, ensuring normal host-pathogen interactions. We describe the imaging of M. tuberculosis infection using a FRET substrate with maximal emission at 800 nm. The wavelength of the substrate allows sensitive deep tissue imaging in mammals. We will outline aerosol infection of mice with M. tuberculosis, anesthesia of mice, administration of the REF substrate, and optical imaging. This method has been successfully applied to evaluating host-pathogen interactions and efficacy of antibiotics targeting M. tuberculosis.

Imaging Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Mice with Reporter Enzyme Fluorescence

We describe the optical imaging of mice infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) using reporter enzyme fluorescence (REF). This protocol facilitates the sensitive and specific detection of M. tuberculosis in pre-clinical animal models for pathogenesis, therapeutics and vaccine research.

Reporter enzyme fluorescence (REF) utilizes substrates that are specific for enzymes present in target organisms of interest for imaging or detection by ...

Imaging Cell Interaction in Tracheal Mucosa During Influenza Virus Infection Using Two-photon Intravital Microscopy

The analysis of cell-cell or cell-pathogen interaction in vivo is an important tool to understand the dynamics of the immune response to infection. Two-photon intravital microscopy (2P-IVM) allows the observation of cell interactions in deep tissue in living animals, while minimizing the photobleaching generated during image acquisition. To date, different models for 2P-IVM of lymphoid and non-lymphoid organs have been described. However, imaging of respiratory organs remains a challenge due to the movement associated with the breathing cycle of the animal.
Here, we describe a protocol to visualize in vivo immune cell interactions in the trachea of mice infected with influenza virus using 2P-IVM. To this purpose, we developed a custom imaging platform, which included the surgical exposure and intubation of the trachea, followed by the acquisition of dynamic images of neutrophils and dendritic cells (DC) in the mucosal epithelium. Additionally, we detailed the steps needed to perform influenza intranasal infection and flow cytometric analysis of immune cells in the trachea. Finally, we analyzed neutrophil and DC motility as well as their interactions during the course of a movie. This protocol allows for the generation of stable and bright 4D images necessary for the assessment of cell-cell interactions in the trachea.

In this study, we present a protocol to perform two-photon intravital imaging and cell interaction analysis in the murine tracheal mucosa after infection with influenza virus. This protocol will be relevant for researchers studying immune cell dynamics during respiratory infections.

The analysis of cell-cell or cell-pathogen interaction in vivo is an important tool to understand the dynamics of the immune response to infection. ...