This research was supported by the Brigham &#38; Women&#8217;s Hospital and the March of Dimes. The authors would like to thank all of the members of the Whited Lab for their support and advice.

All axolotl experimentation was performed in accordance with Brigham and Women&#39;s Hospital&#39;s (BWH) Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Set up Perfusion Experiment
<ol>
	<li>Place an adult axolotl in a plastic container filled with 0.1% tricaine solution (MS222) for 15-20 min or until completely anesthetized. Ensure that the container is filled with enough tricaine solution such that the axolotl is completely submerged. 
	Note: All procedures must be performed in accor...

<ol>
	<li>Giuvarasteanu, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scanning+electron+microscopy+of+vascular+corrosion+casts+-+standard+method+for+studying+microvessels.">Scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts - standard method for studying microvessels.</a> Rom J Morphol Embryo. 48 (3), 257-261 (2007).</li><li>Hasan, M. R., Herz, J., Hermann, D. M., Doeppner, T. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravascular+perfusion+of+carbon+black+ink+allows+reliable+visualization+of+cerebral+vessels.">Intravascular perfusion of carbon black ink allows reliable visualization of cerebral vessels.</a> J Vis Exp. (71), e4374 (2013).</li><li> Minnich, B., Lametschwandtner, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=+Scanning+electron+microscopy+and+vascular+corrosion+casting+for+the+characterization+of+microvascular+networks+in+human+and+animal+tissues."> Scanning electron microscopy and vascular corrosion casting for the characterization of microvascular networks in human and animal tissues.</a> Microscopy: Science, Technology, Applications, and Education. 1, 29-39 (2010).</li><li> Honig, M., Hume, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=+DiI+and+DiO:+versatile+fluorescent+dyes+for+neuronal+labelling+and+pathway+tracing."> DiI and DiO: versatile fluorescent dyes for neuronal labelling and pathway tracing.</a> Trends Neurosci. 13, 333-335 (1989).</li><li>Honig, M. G., Hume, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+carbocyanine+dyes+allow+living+neurons+of+identified+origin+to+be+studied+in+long-term+cultures.">Fluorescent carbocyanine dyes allow living neurons of identified origin to be studied in long-term cultures.</a> J Cell Biol. 103 (1), 171-187 (1986).</li><li>Schwartz, M., Agranoff, B. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Outgrowth+and+maintenance+of+neurites+from+cultured+goldfish+retinal+ganglion+cells.">Outgrowth and maintenance of neurites from cultured goldfish retinal ganglion cells.</a> Brain Res. 206 (2), 331-343 (1981).</li><li>Li, Y., Song, Y., Zhao, L., Gaidosh, G., Laties, A. M., Wen, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+labeling+and+visualization+of+blood+vessels+with+lipophilic+carbocyanine+dye+DiI.">Direct labeling and visualization of blood vessels with lipophilic carbocyanine dye DiI.</a> Nat Protoc. 3 (11), 1703-1708 (2008).</li><li>Kuo, T. H., Kowalko, J. E., DiTommaso, T., Nyambi, M., Montoro, D. T., Essner, J. J., Whited, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+of+TALEN-mediated+gene+editing+of+an+endogenous+locus+in+axolotl.">Evidence of TALEN-mediated gene editing of an endogenous locus in axolotl.</a> Regeneration. 2 (1), 37-43 (2015).</li><li>Brockes, J. P., Kumar, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Appendage+Regeneration+in+Adult+Vertebrates+and+Implications+for+Regenerative+Medicine.">Appendage Regeneration in Adult Vertebrates and Implications for Regenerative Medicine.</a> Science. 310 (5756), 1919-1923 (2005).</li><li>Smith, A. R., Wolpert, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nerves+and+angiogenesis+in+amphibian+limb+regeneration.">Nerves and angiogenesis in amphibian limb regeneration.</a> Nature. 257 (5523), 224-225 (1975).</li></ol>

Visualization of the vasculature of the axolotl can be successfully accomplished via perfusion with the lipophilic carbocyanine dye, DiI. In this study, we describe a novel protocol for the perfusion of the axolotl with DiI using a peristaltic pump. We also show the subsequent visualization of the axolotl vasculature using a fluorescent confocal microscope. This protocol was an adaptation of the rodent DiI perfusion protocol seen in Li et al.7, however major differences between the rodent...

Visualization of vasculature plays a vital role in understanding the structure and function of organisms across many species. Starting in the 16th century with Leonardo da Vinci, models and graphic representations of the circulation have been studied1. Using waxes and rubber molds, tissues were perfused to create three-dimensional models of the vasculature, which allowed for the study of organogenesis and pathogenesis1,2. Resins and waxes were colored with dyes such as India Ink or carmine red to allow for their easy visualization1,2. However, these techniques caused many issues because their high viscosities prevented full perfusion of the tissue of interest1. As the field became more sophisticated, the use of confocal and electron microscopes came into play, moving the perfusion techniques away from cast-molds and toward liquid perfusions of the vasculature, some of which allowed for the perfusion and imaging of blood vessels without destroying the initial tissue3. DiI, a fluorescent carbocyanine dye, is one such stain that allows for the perfusion of animals without damage to the vascular tissue.
Carbocyanine dyes are lipophilic dyes that incorporate into cell membranes upon contact. These dyes allow for easy and instantaneous staining of vascular endothelial cells, which can then be viewed under a fluorescent confocal microscope. DiI moves via lateral diffusion in the lipid membrane of cells, as shown in the labeling and tracing of neurons4. Chemically, the two alkyl chains of DiI give the dye its high affinity for cell membranes, while two conjugated rings from a fluorochrome which is responsible for emitting a red wavelength when excited by green fluorescent light filters4. DiI has been utilized in many capacities, including successful labeling of the plasma membrane and both anterograde and retrograde labeling in neurons5,6. DiI has previously been used in perfusion protocols while visualizing the vasculature of mice7.
Axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum) are salamanders that live exclusively in brackish lakes near Mexico City, Mexico. These animals have become an important model for understanding regenerative processes as they can regenerate full limbs, tail (including nerve cord), portions of the heart and other internal organs, and portions of the eye as adults8,9. Additionally, with the recent application of genetic tools in axolotls, unprecedented insight into the molecules and cells driving these processes is now possible8. The successful regeneration of an entire limb requires an extensive revascularization process, which may play a significant role in regeneration beyond simply the traditional functions of blood vessels in providing oxygen and nutrients. Understanding revascularization in the context of tissue regeneration is imperative. Axolotl blood vessels have previously been visualized using India Ink, and while the results were intriguing, this process has not been revisited in subsequent decades10. We sought to adapt a DiI perfusion protocol developed for use in mammals to allow for a complete perfusion and visualization of the axolotl vasculature7. This protocol describes the steps taken to successfully perfuse and subsequently visualize the axolotl circulation with a DiI staining technique. This procedure will allow for precise visualization of patent blood vessels in homeostatic tissues, as well as in regenerating tissues, and provides a novel method for visualization and analysis of the revascularization process in the axolotl.

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		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:405px;">Peristaltic Pump&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Marshall Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">RD-RP1</td>
			<td style="width:831px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:405px;">Perfusion tubing</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Excelon Lab &#38; Vacuum Tubing</td>
			<td>436901705</td>
			<td>size S1A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">27g butterfly needle</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">EXELint Medical Products</td>
			<td>26709</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">AmericanBio</td>
			<td>7647-14-5</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">AmericanBio</td>
			<td>7747-40-7</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Na2HPO4&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">AmericanBio</td>
			<td>7558-79-4</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NaH2PO4</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">AmericanBio</td>
			<td>10049-21-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Distilled water</td>
			<td style="width:195px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HCl</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">AmericanBio</td>
			<td>7647-01-0</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Glucose</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">ThermoFischer</td>
			<td>A2494001</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">1,1&#8242;-Dioctadecyl-3,3,3&#8242;,3&#8242;-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>468495</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">Ethanol (100% vol/vol)</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>64-17-5</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Surgical foreceps&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Medline</td>
			<td>MDG0748741</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Polystyrene foam frame</td>
			<td style="width:195px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td>any polystyrene foam square with an axolotl-shaped&#160; cut out</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Surgical scissors</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Medline</td>
			<td>DYND04025</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Scalpel&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Medline</td>
			<td>MDS15210</td>
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			<td style="width:195px;">Avacare Medical</td>
			<td>PKUFSx</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Paper towels</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Standard disposable transfer pipette</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>50216954</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Clamp stand</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Adafruit</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">291</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ethyl 3-aminobenzoate methanesulfonate</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>E10521</td>
			<td>Tricaine powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Adult axolotl</td>
			<td style="width:195px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>AmericanBio</td>
			<td>10034-99-8</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1016-100G</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">NaHCO3</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5761-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Plastic tanks</td>
			<td style="width:195px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td>Varying size appropriate for the axolotl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>30525-89-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Axolotl</td>
			<td style="width:195px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Leica Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">M165 FC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">ET-CY3 Fluorescent Filter</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Leica</td>
			<td>M205FA/M165FC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

dii perfusion as a method for vascular visualization in ambystoma mexicanum

Perfusion techniques have been used for centuries to visualize the circulation of tissues. Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) is a species of salamander that has emerged as an essential model for regeneration studies. Little is known about how revascularization occurs in the context of regeneration in these animals. Here we report a simple method for visualization of the vasculature in axolotl via perfusion of 1,1&#8217;-Dioctadecy-3,3,3&#8217;,3&#8217;-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI). DiI is a lipophilic carbocyanine dye that inserts into the plasma membrane of endothelial cells instantaneously. Perfusion is done using a peristaltic pump such that DiI enters the circulation through the aorta. During perfusion, dye flows through the axolotl&#8217;s blood vessels and incorporates into the lipid bilayer of vascular endothelial cells upon contact. The perfusion procedure takes approximately one hour for an eight-inch axolotl. Immediately after perfusion with DiI, the axolotl can be visualized with a confocal fluorescent microscope. The DiI emits light in the red-orange range when excited with a green fluorescent filter. This DiI perfusion procedure can be used to visualize the vascular structure of axolotls or to demonstrate patterns of revascularization in regenerating tissues.

With DiI staining, the vasculature of the axolotl can be easily visualized. Blood vessels of animals perfused with the lipophilic dye are immediately visible under a fluorescent confocal microscope. Figure 1.1-1.5 is a schematic representation of the perfusion protocol. After perfusion with the bright pink dye, a successfully perfused axolotl will appear pink. Using a green fluorescent filter on a confocal microscope a red emission of the vas...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about DiI Perfusion as a Method for Vascular Visualization in Ambystoma mexicanum at JoVE.com

DiI Perfusion as a Method for Vascular Visualization in Ambystoma mexicanum

Using a lipophilic 1,1&#39;-Dioctadecy-3,3,3&#39;,3&#39;-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI) staining technique, Ambystoma mexicanum can undergo vascular perfusion to allow for easy visualization of the vasculature.

DiI Perfusion as a Method for Vascular Visualization in Ambystoma mexicanum

Perfusion techniques have been used for centuries to visualize the circulation of tissues. Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) is a species of salamander that ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to visualize the vasculature of the axolotl. This method can help answer key questions in the regenerative medicine field about the intricacies of the revascularization of regenerating tissues in the axolotl. The main advantage of this vascular visualization technique is that, all of the blood vessels in the animal can be easily imaged on a standard fluorescent microscope.Though this method can provide insight into axolotl limb regeneration, it can also be applied to other tissues, such as the tail, heart, eyes, gills or other organs. Before opening axolotl chest, first confirm the appropriate level of sedation by toe pinch. Then, use surgical forceps to pinch the skin along the central axis of the chest, just below the line of the shoulders.Using a scalpel, make a incision where the skin is pulled up and remove a square patch of skin over the chest to reveal two cartilage plates. Next, open a window over the thoracic cavity and carefully tear the connective tissue without cutting any major blood vessels. Use forceps to lift each cartilage plate individually, excising each plate with surgical scissors.Carefully pinch the exposed pericardium with the forceps. Pulling the tissue up and puncturing it with the surgical scissors, just deeply enough to remove the pericardium without injuring the heart. Then, gently remove the pericardium to expose the heart and aorta, to clearly view the heart at approximately five millimeters of the aorta, branching off of the heart.To perfuse the axolotl, place a clamp stand with a loaded butterfly needle next to a polystyrene foam frame, such that the arm of the clamp is easily manipulated for needle insertion. Turn on a peristaltic pump to flush 0.7x PBS through the pump tubing and point the needle tip toward the rostral aspect. Slide the forceps under the aortic arch and pull up slightly.Then, maneuver the needle clamp combination, so that the needle runs along the length of the aorta toward the head of the animal, and insert the needle about five millimeters into the aorta, keeping the forceps behind the aorta for support. A successful insertion can be confirmed by a visible enlargement of the heart atria. Quickly lacerate one atrium and allow the blood to drain.Then, perfuse the axolotl with about 20 to 30 milliliters of PBS. After a successful perfusion, the animal should change from light pink to white in color. When all of the PBS has been perfused, pause the peristaltic pump and move the free end of the tubing, into a 15 milliliter tube of Dil solution.Restart the pump, taking care to avoid creating bubbles in the tubing and perfuse the animal with the entire working Dil stock. In a successful perfusion, the axolotl will change to a bright pink color that will be most noticeable in the gills. When all of the Dil has been perfused, pause the pump and place the free end of the tubing into 4%paraformaldehyde solution.Then, restart the pump and perfuse at least 10 milliliters of the fixative. When all of the paraformaldehyde has been administered, stop the pump and remove the needle. Transfer the axolotl onto a plastic dish, and place the dish onto a fluorescent microscope stage.Then, with the lights off, select a filter that permits excitation of Dil, which emits a red orange light. After a successful perfusion, the Dil stain is visible as a red admission signal in all of the axolotl tissues, including the tail, limbs, gills and eyes. Once mastered, this technique can be completed in one hour if it is performed properly.While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember to take care not to lacerate the major blood vessels or the heart while opening the chest cavity and to insert the needle in line with the aorta to prevent through and through punctures. Following this procedure, other methods like, skeletal preparations can be performed to answer additional questions. After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the biomedical field to explore the vasculature of different species.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to perform a cardiac perfusion of the axolotl with the carbocyanine dye, Dil. Don't forget, that working with needles and paraformaldehyde can be extremely hazardous and that precautions, such as wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment, should always be taken while performing the procedure.

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9.8K ビュー.  Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital. The overall goal of this procedure is to visualize the vasculature of the axolotl. This method can help answer key questions in the regenerative medicine field about the intricacies of the revascularization of regenerating tissues in the axolotl. The main advantage of this vascular visualization technique is that, all of the blood vessels in the animal can be easily imaged on a standard fluorescent microscope.Though this method can provide insight into axolotl limb regeneration, it can...

ビデオ: DiI Perfusion as a Method for Vascular Visualization in Ambystoma mexicanum

Pyrosequencing: A Simple Method for Accurate Genotyping

Pharmacogenetic research benefits first-hand from the abundance of information provided by the completion of the Human Genome Project. With such a tremendous amount of data available comes an explosion of genotyping methods. Pyrosequencing(R) is one of the most thorough yet simple methods to date used to analyze polymorphisms. It also has the ability to identify tri-allelic, indels, short-repeat polymorphisms, along with determining allele percentages for methylation or pooled sample assessment. In addition, there is a standardized control sequence that provides internal quality control. This method has led to rapid and efficient single-nucleotide polymorphism evaluation including many clinically relevant polymorphisms. The technique and methodology of Pyrosequencing is explained.


Pyrosequencing(R) is one of the most thorough yet simple methods to date used to analyze polymorphisms. This method has led to rapid and efficient single-nucleotide polymorphism evaluation including many clinically relevant polymorphisms. The technique and methodology of Pyrosequencing is explained.

Pharmacogenetic research benefits first-hand from the abundance of information provided by the completion of the Human Genome Project. With such a ...

Use of Rotorod as a Method for the Qualitative Analysis of Walking in Rat

High speed videoanalysis of the details of movement can provide a source of information about qualitative aspects of walking movements. When walking on a rotorod, animals remain in approximately the same place making repetitive movements of stepping. Thus the task provides a rich source of information on the details of foot stepping movements. Subjects were hemi-Parkinson analogue rats, produced by injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the right nigrostriatal bundle to deplete nigrostriatal dopamine (DA). The present report provides a video analysis illustration of animals previously were filmed from frontal, lateral, and posterior views as they walked (15). Rating scales and frame-by-frame replay of the video records of stepping behavior indicated that the hemi-Parkinson rats were chronically impaired in posture and limb use contralateral to the DA-depletion. The contralateral limbs participated less in initiating and sustaining propulsion than the ipsilateral limbs. These deficits secondary to unilateral DA-depletion show that the rotorod provides a use task for the analysis of stepping movements.

The rotorod test is used to assess motor status in the walking movement of hemi-Parkinson analogue rats.

High speed videoanalysis of the details of movement can provide a source of information about qualitative aspects of walking movements. When walking on a ...

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may also be used to study the structure-function relationship for other ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors1. BK channels are widely expressed in different tissues and have been implicated in many physiological functions, including regulation of smooth muscle contraction, frequency tuning of inner hair cells and regulation of neurotransmitter release2-6. BK channels are activated by membrane depolarization and by intracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+ 6-9. Therefore, the protocol is designed to control both the membrane voltage and the intracellular solution. In this protocol, messenger RNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes (stage V-VI) followed by 2-5 days of incubation at 18&deg;C10-13. Membrane patches that contain single or multiple BK channels are excised with the inside-out configuration using patch clamp techniques10-13. The intracellular side of the patch is perfused with desired solutions during recording so that the channel activation under different conditions can be examined. To summarize, the mRNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes to express channel proteins on the oocyte membrane; patch clamp techniques are used to record currents flowing through the channels under controlled voltage and intracellular solutions.

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

Ionic current of BK channels is recorded using patch clamp techniques. BK channels are expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injecting messenger RNA. The intracellular solution during patch clamp recordings is controlled by a perfusion system.

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may ...

Visualization of Caenorhabditis elegans Cuticular Structures Using the Lipophilic Vital Dye DiI

The cuticle of C. elegans is a highly resistant structure that surrounds the exterior of the animal1-4. The cuticle not only protects the animal from the environment, but also determines body shape and plays a role in motility4-6. Several layers secreted by epidermal cells comprise the cuticle, including an outermost lipid layer7.
Circumferential ridges in the cuticle called annuli pattern the length of the animal and are present during all stages of development8. Alae are longitudinal ridges that are present during specific stages of development, including L1, dauer, and adult stages2,9. Mutations in genes that affect cuticular collagen organization can alter cuticular structure and animal body morphology5,6,10,11. While cuticular imaging using compound microscopy with DIC optics is possible, current methods that highlight cuticular structures include fluorescent transgene expression12, antibody staining13, and electron microscopy1. Labeled wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) has also been used to visualize cuticular glycoproteins, but is limited in resolving finer cuticular structures14. Staining of cuticular surface using fluorescent dye has been observed, but never characterized in detail15. We present a method to visualize cuticle in live C. elegans using the red fluorescent lipophilic dye DiI (1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate), which is commonly used in C. elegans to visualize environmentally exposed neurons. This optimized protocol for DiI staining is a simple, robust method for high resolution fluorescent visualization of annuli, alae, vulva, male tail, and hermaphrodite tail spike in C. elegans.

Visualization of Caenorhabditis elegans Cuticular Structures Using the Lipophilic Vital Dye DiI

We present a method to visualize cuticle in live C. elegans using the red fluorescent lipophilic dye DiI (1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate), which is commonly used in C. elegans to visualize environmentally exposed neurons. With this optimized protocol, alae and annular cuticular structures are stained by DiI and observed using compound microscopy.

The cuticle of C. elegans is a highly resistant structure that surrounds the exterior of the animal1-4. The cuticle not only protects the animal from the ...

Visualization of Vascular Ca2+ Signaling Triggered by Paracrine Derived ROS

Oxidative stress has been implicated in a number of pathologic conditions including ischemia/reperfusion damage and sepsis. The concept of oxidative stress refers to the aberrant formation of ROS (reactive oxygen species), which include O2&bull;-, H2O2, and hydroxyl radicals. Reactive oxygen species influences a multitude of cellular processes including signal transduction, cell proliferation and cell death1-6. ROS have the potential to damage vascular and organ cells directly, and can initiate secondary chemical reactions and genetic alterations that ultimately result in an amplification of the initial ROS-mediated tissue damage. A key component of the amplification cascade that exacerbates irreversible tissue damage is the recruitment and activation of circulating inflammatory cells. During inflammation, inflammatory cells produce cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-&alpha; (TNF&alpha;) and IL-1 that activate endothelial cells (EC) and epithelial cells and further augment the inflammatory response7. Vascular endothelial dysfunction is an established feature of acute inflammation. Macrophages contribute to endothelial dysfunction during inflammation by mechanisms that remain unclear. Activation of macrophages results in the extracellular release of O2&bull;- and various pro-inflammatory cytokines, which triggers pathologic signaling in adjacent cells8. NADPH oxidases are the major and primary source of ROS in most of the cell types. Recently, it is shown by us and others9,10 that ROS produced by NADPH oxidases induce the mitochondrial ROS production during many pathophysiological conditions. Hence measuring the mitochondrial ROS production is equally important in addition to measuring cytosolic ROS. Macrophages produce ROS by the flavoprotein enzyme NADPH oxidase which plays a primary role in inflammation. Once activated, phagocytic NADPH oxidase produces copious amounts of O2&bull;- that are important in the host defense mechanism11,12. Although paracrine-derived O2&bull;- plays an important role in the pathogenesis of vascular diseases, visualization of paracrine ROS-induced intracellular signaling including Ca2+ mobilization is still hypothesis. We have developed a model in which activated macrophages are used as a source of O2&bull;- to transduce a signal to adjacent endothelial cells. Using this model we demonstrate that macrophage-derived O2&bull;- lead to calcium signaling in adjacent endothelial cells.

Visualization of Vascular Ca2+ Signaling Triggered by Paracrine Derived ROS

An efficient method to gain insights into visualizing the paracrine-derived ROS induction of endothelial Ca2+ signaling is described. This method takes advantage of measuring paracrine derived ROS triggered Ca2+ mobilization in vascular endothelial cells in a co-culture model.

Oxidative stress has been implicated in a number of pathologic conditions including ischemia/reperfusion damage and sepsis. The concept of oxidative ...

Using SecM Arrest Sequence as a Tool to Isolate Ribosome Bound Polypeptides

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway that polypeptide chain follows during co-translational folding to achieve its functional form is still an enigma. In order to understand this process and to determine the exact conformation of the co-translational folding intermediates, it is essential to develop techniques that allow the isolation of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes to allow their further structural analysis.
SecM (secretion monitor) is a 170 amino acid E. coli protein that regulates expression of the downstream SecA (secretion driving) ATPase in the secM-secA operon6. Nakatogawa and Ito originally found that a 17 amino acid long sequence (150-FSTPVWISQAQGIRAGP-166) in the C-terminal region of the SecM protein is sufficient and necessary to cause stalling of SecM elongation at Gly165, thereby producing peptidyl-glycyl-tRNA stably bound to the ribosomal P-site7-9. More importantly, it was found that this 17 amino acid long sequence can be fused to the C-terminus of virtually any full-length and/or truncated protein thus allowing the production of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes7. Thus, when fused or inserted into the target protein, SecM stalling sequence produces arrest of the polypeptide chain elongation and generates stable RNCs both in vivo in E. coli cells and in vitro in a cell-free system. Sucrose gradient centrifugation is further utilized to isolate RNCs.
The isolated RNCs can be used to analyze structural and functional features of the co-translational folding intermediates. Recently, this technique has been successfully used to gain insights into the structure of several ribosome bound nascent chains10,11. Here we describe the isolation of bovine Gamma-B Crystallin RNCs fused to SecM and generated in an in vitro translation system.

We describe here a technique that is now routinely used to isolate stably bound ribosome nascent chain complexes (RNCs). This technique takes advantage of the discovery that a 17 amino acid long SecM "arrest sequence" can halt translation elongation in a prokaryotic (E. coli) system, when inserted into (or fused to the C-terminus) of virtually any protein.

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway ...

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the function and regulation of protein folding was studied in vitro, in isolated tissue culture cells and in unicellular organisms. Recent studies have uncovered links between protein homeostasis (proteostasis), metabolism, development, aging, and temperature-sensing. These findings have led to the development of new tools for monitoring protein folding in the model metazoan organism Caenorhabditis elegans. In our laboratory, we combine behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical approaches using temperature-sensitive or naturally occurring metastable proteins as sensors of the folding environment to monitor protein misfolding. Behavioral assays that are associated with the misfolding of a specific protein provide a simple and powerful readout for protein folding, allowing for the fast screening of genes and conditions that modulate folding. Likewise, such misfolding can be associated with protein mislocalization in the cell. Monitoring protein localization can, therefore, highlight changes in cellular folding capacity occurring in different tissues, at various stages of development and in the face of changing conditions. Finally, using biochemical tools ex vivo, we can directly monitor protein stability and conformation. Thus, by combining behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical techniques, we are able to monitor protein misfolding at the resolution of the organism, the cell, and the protein, respectively.

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

To study the relationship between protein homeostasis, stress and aging, we monitored changes in protein folding by following protein dysfunction, protein localization in the cell and protein stability at the organismal, cellular and protein levels, using the genetically tractable metazoan Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system.

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the ...

Retinal Cryo-sections, Whole-Mounts, and Hypotonic Isolated Vasculature Preparations for Immunohistochemical Visualization of Microvascular Pericytes

Retinal pericytes play an important role in many diseases of the eye. Immunohistochemical staining techniques of retinal vessels and microvascular pericytes are central to ophthalmological research. It is vital to choose an appropriate method of visualizing the microvascular pericytes. We describe retinal microvascular pericyte immunohistochemical staining in cryo-sections, whole-mounts, and hypotonic isolated vasculature using antibodies for platelet-derived growth factor receptor &#946; (PDGFR&#946;) and nerve/glial antigen 2 (NG2). This allows us to highlight advantages and shortcomings of each of the three tissue preparations for the visualization of the retinal microvascular pericytes. Cryo-sections provide transsectional visualization of all retinal layers but contain only a few occasional transverse cuts of the microvasculature. Whole-mount provides an overview of the entire retinal vasculature, but visualization of the microvasculature can be troublesome. Hypotonic isolation provides a method to visualize the entire retinal vasculature by the removal of neuronal cells, but this makes the tissue very fragile.

We demonstrate three different tissue preparation techniques for immunohistochemical visualization of rat retinal microvascular pericytes, i.e., cryo-sections, whole-mounts, and hypotonic isolation of the vascular network.

Retinal pericytes play an important role in many diseases of the eye. Immunohistochemical staining techniques of retinal vessels and microvascular ...

Forced Salivation As a Method to Analyze Vector Competence of Mosquitoes

Vector competence is defined as the potential of a mosquito species to transmit a mosquito-borne virus (mobovirus) to a vertebrate host. Viable virus particles are transmitted during a blood meal via the saliva of an infected mosquito. Forced salivation assays allow determining the vector potential on the basis of single mosquitoes, avoiding the use of animal experiments. The method is suitable to analyze a large number of mosquitoes in one experiment within a short period of time. Forced salivation assays were used to analyze 856 individual mosquitoes trapped in Germany, including two different Culex pipiens pipiens biotypes, Culex torrentium as well as Aedes albopictus, which were experimentally infected with Zika virus (ZIKV) and incubated at 18 &#176;C or 27 &#176;C for two and three weeks. The results indicated the lack of vector competence of the different Culex taxa for ZIKV. In contrast, Aedes albopictus was susceptible to ZIKV, but only at 27 &#176;C, with transmission rates similar to an Aedes aegypti laboratory colony tested in parallel.

For efficient control of mosquito borne virus transmission, the knowledge of the vector potential of respective mosquitoes is of particular interest. We describe forced salivation as a method to analyze vector competence of Aedes albopictus and three different Culex taxa for the transmission of Zika virus.

Vector competence is defined as the potential of a mosquito species to transmit a mosquito-borne virus (mobovirus) to a vertebrate host. Viable virus ...

An Antegrade Perfusion Method for Cardiomyocyte Isolation from Mice

In basic research using mouse heart, isolating viable individual cardiomyocytes is a crucial technical step to overcome. Traditionally, isolating cardiomyocytes from rabbits, guinea pigs or rats has been performed via retrograde perfusion of the heart with enzymes using a Langendorff apparatus. However, a high degree of skill is required when this method is used with a small mouse heart. An antegrade perfusion method that does not use a Langendorff apparatus was recently reported for the isolation of mouse cardiomyocytes. We herein report a complete protocol for the improved antegrade perfusion of the excised heart to isolate individual heart cells from adult mice (8 - 108 weeks old). Antegrade perfusion is performed by injecting perfusate near the apex of the left ventricle of the excised heart, the aorta of which was clamped, using an infusion pump. All procedures are carried out on a pre-warmed heater mat under a microscope, which allows for the injection and perfusion processes to be monitored. The results suggest that ventricular and atrial myocytes, and fibroblasts can be well isolated from a single adult mouse simultaneously.

We developed a simple method for isolating high quality individual mouse heart cells by the antegrade perfusion technique. This method is Langendorff-free and useful for isolating ventricular and atrial myocytes or interstitial cells, such as cardiac fibroblasts or progenitors.