この研究は資金を供給され、南フロリダ水管理地区のエバーグレーズ システム評価セクションの下で実施します。

1. 準備、植栽場所へ
<ol><li>2 または 3 gal (7 または 11 L) の苗木地元産ネイティブ (プラスチック鍋) で商業泥炭袋 (0.6 m3x 0.46 × 0.3 の測定)、木および低木肥料スパイクを取得、ダクトテープ、ポリ塩化ビニル (PVC) 管 (2 ~ 3 m 長さ、直径 0.8 で 2.1 cm、スケジュール 40)、カッター、ゴミ袋、金属の棒をボックスまたは泥炭袋に穴を開ける (1 ~ 2 m の長さは、直径 1.3 cm) を鉄筋。エバーグレーズに適用される潜在的な樹種はバンレイシ glabraフィカス ・ アウレアとアメリカハナノキ。作業手袋を着用することをお勧めします。</li>
	<li>ぬれた季節の間に浸水を最小限で泥炭の残りの基盤上の少なくとも 0.3 m とゴースト ツリー島の高いエリアで通常、ポップアップを配置する最適な場所を決定します。</li>
	<li>(通常はエアボート) 苗木、(苗木 1) 商業泥炭袋、木および低木肥料スパイク (苗木ごとに 1 つ)、ダクトテープ (必要に応じて、ロールの数) (苗木各 2 本) 塩ビ管とその他のツールや植栽場所に材料を転送します。</li>
</ol>2. ポップアップのアセンブリ
注: 組み立てる鉢植え苗木と木島 (ステップ 3) の水にそれを配置する前にボートのポップアップ (手順 2.1 2.6)
<ol><li>プラスチック ポット苗木の根と鉢土をオフにスライドや鍋の底に大きな穴を切ったカッターやはさみ (図 1) を使用して各苗木ポットの全体の底面を取り外します。</li>
	<li>泥炭バッグ ポット苗木の根や挿入のポット土壌に戻ってオープンの下にスライドさせます。</li>
	<li>カットをする 20 〜 30 センチ X 字 (鍋の直径よりもわずかに大きい) ボックス カッターを使用して上面になるかのセンターで泥炭のバッグ。</li>
	<li>について 2,000 へ 5,000 cm3 (約鍋の半分の量) X 字形の開口部とゴミ袋の除去のための場所から泥炭袋の内容を削除します。</li>
	<li>ボトムレス X 形開口部/うつ病泥炭袋からの泥炭の削除によって作成された内苗木ポットを設定します。底なし鍋鍋 (図 2) の側面に対して指摘ポイント (三角形) と X 字のオープニングで半押し必要があります。苗木は、その他の標高や物理的なサポートを提供するためにポットに残っています。</li>
	<li>ダクトテープ、ポットとカバー袋三角形の周りのいくつかの巻上げを用いる場所でポットを固定します。(図 3) の鍋に袋三角形を貼付、成長の次の 2 〜 3 年の間に場所でポットを保持します。これは、ポップアップを作成します。</li>
</ol>3. ポップアップの配置
<ol><li>水の中には、ポップアップを設定します。水を入力し、植林サイトにフローティング ポップアップを移動します。</li>
	<li>約 2 ~ 3 m 塩ビ管の長い長さは、基板 (袋の下の土) の半分のメートルに約 3 分の 1 に苗木のどちら側にバッグを挿入 2 つの場所でポップアップをテザー (図 3)。</li>
	<li>袋、水を入力して出現する根を許可するように (少なくとも 4 つの上/下で) とそれぞれの側に 4 つの開口部を作成する (図 3) を完全に金属の棒 (鉄筋) を駆動することによって上、底および側面の袋を穴をあけます。ポップアップは、約 6 ヶ月間フロートされます。</li>
	<li>全体を図 3に示す場所に袋の上部に 1 つのツリー肥料スパイクを挿入します。</li>
</ol>4. メンテナンス、測定、およびプラスチックの除去のためのフォロー アップ
<ol><li>頻繁にサイトに戻り、必要に応じて、特に次の猛烈な嵐のイベントと考え、条件と生存率に注意してくださいし、樹高と年間ベースでそれぞれの残存木の根元直径を測定します。</li>
	<li>3 年後、泥炭袋から鍋とプラスチックを削除し、それらをリサイクル ボックス カッター/はさみとゴミ袋でサイトに戻ります。ポットとプラスチック袋 (上部と側面) から容易に苗木; を乱すことがなく削除されます。泥炭袋の下にプラスチックにアクセスできます (図 4) ができない場合があります。</li>
	<li>生存と成長を評価する年間ベースでサイトに戻ります。</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , (2002).</li><li>Wetzel, P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintaining+tree+islands+in+the+Florida+Everglades:+nutrient+redistribution+is+the+key.">Maintaining tree islands in the Florida Everglades: nutrient redistribution is the key.</a> Front Ecol Environ. 3 (7), 370-376 (2005).</li><li>Aich, S., Ewe, S. M. L., Gu, B., Dreschel, T. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+evaluation+of+peat+loss+from+an+Everglades+tree+island,+Florida,+USA.">An evaluation of peat loss from an Everglades tree island, Florida, USA.</a> Mires and Peat. 14 (2014), 1-15 (2014).</li><li>Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E. A., Hill, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everglades+tree+island+restoration:+testing+a+simple+tree+planting+technique+patterned+after+a+natural+process.">Everglades tree island restoration: testing a simple tree planting technique patterned after a natural process.</a> Restor Ecol. , (2017).</li><li>Stanturf, J. A., Conner, W. H., Gardiner, E. S., Schweitzer, C. J., Ezell, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recognizing+and+Overcoming+Difficult+Site+Conditions+for+Afforestation+of+Bottomland+Hardwoods.">Recognizing and Overcoming Difficult Site Conditions for Afforestation of Bottomland Hardwoods.</a> Ecol Restor. 22 (3), 183-193 (2004).</li><li>Sharitz, R., Barton, C. D., DeSteven, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tree+Plantings+in+Depression+Wetland+Restorations+Show+Mixed+Success+(South+Carolina).">Tree Plantings in Depression Wetland Restorations Show Mixed Success (South Carolina).</a> Ecol Restor. 24 (2), 114-115 (2006).</li><li>Brandt, L. A., Portier, K. M., Kitchens, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patterns+of+Change+in+Tree+Islands+in+Arthur+R.+Marshall+Loxahatchee+National+Wildlife+Refuge+from+1950-1991.">Patterns of Change in Tree Islands in Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge from 1950-1991.</a> Wetlands. 20 (1), 1-14 (2000).</li><li>Armentano, T. V., Jones, D. T., Ross, M. S., Gamble, B. W., Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vegetation+pattern+and+process+in+tree+islands+of+the+southern+Everglades+and+adjacent+areas.">Vegetation pattern and process in tree islands of the southern Everglades and adjacent areas.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , 225-281 (2002).</li><li>Jones, D. T., Sah, J. P., Ross, M. S., Oberbauer, S. F., Hwang, B., Jayachandran, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+and+physiological+responses+of+twelve+tree+species+common+in+Everglades+tree+islands+to+simulated+hydrologic+regimes.">Growth and physiological responses of twelve tree species common in Everglades tree islands to simulated hydrologic regimes.</a> Wetlands. 26 (3), 830-844 (2006).</li><li>Stoffella, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+growth+responses+of+eight+Everglades+tree+species+along+an+experimental+hydrological+gradient+on+two+tree+island+types.">Survival and growth responses of eight Everglades tree species along an experimental hydrological gradient on two tree island types.</a> Appl Veg Sci. 13 (4), 439-449 (2010).</li><li>Aich, S., Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E., Sklar, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+of+a+geographic+information+system+(GIS)+to+document+research+in+an+Everglades+physical+Model.">The development of a geographic information system (GIS) to document research in an Everglades physical Model.</a> J Environ Sci Eng. 5 (2011), 289-302 (2011).</li><li>Weinbaum, S. A., Johnson, R. S., DeJong, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Causes+and+Consequences+of+Overfertilization+in+Orchards.">Causes and Consequences of Overfertilization in Orchards.</a> HortTechnology. 2 (1), 112-121 (1992).</li></ol>

本研究は、資金調達と南フロリダ水管理地区、フロリダの州の機関の監督の下で行われました。フロリダでは、広範な公的記録法を楽しんでいます。このドキュメントでは、その法律に従うが、公的な記録の一部とみなされます。

植林木島へのアプローチこの提案では、標高や各サイトの fill をさせるために必要な道路の構築なしエアボートから木の配置の増加をことができます。これはコストと島の植樹を実装するための障害を最小化します。
この手法の問題は、ツリー島はかつて湿地機能で大量の塩ビ管、ビニール袋、プラスチックの鉢を置くことに関連付けられている審美的な環境の問題で?...

近くの木種1,2の多様性を持つ島がある場合、劣化した沼沢地ツリー列島原産の木種の自然な根面の滑沢は種子散布を介して可能です。スクラーとヴァン デル ヴァルク1深刻な沈静化ツリー島を復元可能かもしれない"によってそのような努力は高価になるが、彼らの頭の高さを上げると労働集約的。現在、非常に少数のネイティブ (望ましい) 木エバーグレーズ水保全地域 (WCA) 劣化 (として知られている「ゴースト」) 木島近く存在があります-2 a (1 つ 5 WCAs の作成のための水を格納および周囲都市の洪水を防ぐために、木島3の recolonizing に必要な種子を提供する農業地域)。
植林のため沈静化ツリー島の標高を高めるためには、適切な fill は島に運ばれるでしょう。これはトラックのための道路を造るか、またははしけ、すばらしい金融費用でエバーグレーズに深刻な被害につながる水路を作成する必要があります。木島高度を提供する原産の木種を再作成する必要がある簡単な低コストの技術 (水分を減らす) とエバーグレーズ4に固有変数の水文学の下で生存率を改善します。
これらのポップアップのサイズにより、植栽現場へ輸送の容易さです。これは、輸送に従来の個所の充填と道路を必要とするかもしれない木の植栽と比較して優位性を構築する提供します。この技法は、こうして植林活動の生態系への影響を削減します。また、これらのポップアップは、次の展開、苗木の確立を許可するように最初の 6 ヶ月間フロートに能力を持っています。シナリオを植える従来のツリーの下で木が、水位が上昇した場合の確立中に湛水ストレスの増加を発生ことがあります。
デザイン数がテストされたおよび栄養素、および単一の苗木をもつポップアップを植栽を追加する 1 つのツリー肥料スパイクは劣化、沼沢地に展開に最適な構成を達成大きいポップアップの高さ (バッグ向き) が確認されましたツリー島4。他の研究者は、我々 の知識に森林に覆われた湿地エリア5,6を復元するための植林を記述、説明する植栽手法のどれも水分を減らすために標高が追加されません。
この手順では、浮動小数点、岩盤から分割し、表面に浮かぶ泥炭から生じるエバーグレーズ木島の形成を模倣します。畑の植物は、最終的に移動と泥炭の表面に定着し何になる「ポップアップ」またはフローティング ツリー島は「バッテリー」のツリー島1,7と呼ばれるフォームを確立できます。
エバーグレーズ木島木種には、成長と生存の8,9,10の洪水に許容変動があります。制御の研究では、ジョーンズらはエバーグレーズ ツリー島種9の生存に水分の重要性を示した。Stoffellaらは、相対標高 (水面) に植えられた原産の木種の生存と成長、10を洪水にそれぞれの種の特定の許容のためさまざまな深遠な効果を持っていたことを発見しました。樹種は、現在特定の条件で選択できます。ここで説明する手法を植栽木は、その他の標高とその結果、高度を失っている、今は樹木の種に有害な浸水環境は予告以前森林に覆われた地域の木種子源を提供できます。
以前経験を拡張 hydroperiods 森林に覆われた地域は、これらの領域に木本種を再導入するこのメソッドを受けることが。この手法は、水分を減らす高度を提供します。さらに、木は土 (根と葉バイオマス) を構築、地域の継続的な植民地化のシードのソースを提供します。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>One or Two Gallon Native Tree Saplings in plastic pots.</td>
			<td>Local Native Plant Nurseries</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Obtain native tree saplings grown from locally obtained seed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Commercial Peat Bags. 5 cubic ft.</td>
			<td>Lambert</td>
			<td>Lambert Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss (6649801115)</td>
			<td>Product description: Lambert peat moss is an excellent soil amendment because of its capacity to retain water, aerate the soil and it is completely natural. All of Lambert&#39;s peat moss packages carry the OMRI (Organic Material Review Institute) logo, which indicates that they are approved for use in organic production. Size: 5.5 cu.ft.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vigoro Tree Spikes (Tree and Shrub Fertilizer Spikes, 15-Count)</td>
			<td>Vigoro, Swiss Farms Products Inc.</td>
			<td>Model # 154205</td>
			<td>GUARANTEED ANALYSIS (%) TOTAL IN PRODUCT (ppm): Total Nitrogen (N) 12.0000; Available Phosphoric Acid (P2O5) 5.0000; Soluble Potash (K2O) 7.0000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC Pipe: 1/2 in schedule 40</td>
			<td>JM Eagle</td>
			<td>Model # 67447</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Duct Tape, 1-7/8 in x 12 yds</td>
			<td>MSC Industrial Supply</td>
			<td>Gorilla Heavy-Duty Duct Tape, Model# 60012</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metal Rod (Rebar 1.3 cm diameter, 1.2 m long)</td>
			<td>Weyerhaeuser</td>
			<td>Model # 35616</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Box Cutter</td>
			<td>Stanley</td>
			<td>Model # STHT10273</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Work Gloves</td>
			<td>Firm Grip</td>
			<td>Model # 3101-96</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trash Bags (42 gallon)</td>
			<td>HUSKY</td>
			<td>Model # HK42WC050B</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a simple planting technique for re-establishing trees where frequent inundation occurs

過去世紀にわたって標高を失いエバーグレーズ ツリー島々 の多く、彼らは今、草本植物で覆われているなど、木のほとんどが死亡しています。このプロトコルでは、シンプルでコスト効果の高い緑化劣化した沼沢地木島を復元するために必要な手法について説明します。デザインは、湛水条件で樹の生存と成長し多くのツリー島の開発につながる浮動の泥炭の島を作成する自然のエバーグレーズ過程に倣っています。市販泥炭袋は、成長と鉢植え樹木苗木の確立のための媒体として使用されました。ポップアップの構成は最初に浮かんだ、浸水、単一原産の木種の苗木と単一のツリー肥料スパイクを最小限に抑えるために追加の昇格を提供します。105 ポップアップを含む 3 年間の研究、中にほとんどの植物生き残った (80%) と多くは繁栄しました。この手法が劣化したツリーの島で木を確立できるかどうかを決定する長い研究と大規模なフィールド テストが必要になります。

0.32 km2エバーグレーズ物理モデル11、ゴースト ツリー島でテストをシミュレートする尾根上にこの方法4を使用して研究を行った。この調査の間に 2 つのバッグの高さ方向 (低: 高さ 0.3 m: 0.46 m)、生存と成長を促進するためにツリー肥料スパイクの使用だけでなく、テストされたバッグ成長あたり 2 つの苗木対 1 つと。苗木の ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs at JoVE.com

A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

このプロトコルでは、シンプルでコスト効果の高い緑化浸水が発生する劣化のエバーグレーズ木島を復元するための手法について説明します。デザインは、最初に浮かぶし、樹の生存および湛水条件下での成長を促進するために標高を追加します島 (ポップアップ) を作成します。

単純な頻繁に浸水が発生した再構築ツリー手法を植栽

Many of the Everglades tree islands have lost elevation over the past century and most of their trees have died such that they are now covered with ...

a-simple-planting-technique-for-re-establishing-trees-where-frequent

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

6.1K ビュー.  South Florida Water Management District. このプロトコルでは、シンプルでコスト効果の高い緑化浸水が発生する劣化のエバーグレーズ木島を復元するための手法について説明します。デザインは、最初に浮かぶし、樹の生存および湛水条件下での成長を促進するために標高を追加します島 (ポップアップ) を作成します。

ビデオ: A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

Technique for Studying Arthropod and Microbial Communities within Tree Tissues

Phloem tissues of pine are habitats for many thousands of organisms. Arthropods and microbes use phloem and cambium tissues to seek mates, lay eggs, rear young, feed, or hide from natural enemies or harsh environmental conditions outside of the tree. Organisms that persist within the phloem habitat are difficult to observe given their location under bark. We provide a technique to preserve intact phloem and prepare it for experimentation with invertebrates and microorganisms. The apparatus is called a &#8216;phloem sandwich&#8217; and allows for the introduction and observation of arthropods, microbes, and other organisms. This technique has resulted in a better understanding of the feeding behaviors, life-history traits, reproduction, development, and interactions of organisms within tree phloem. The strengths of this technique include the use of inexpensive materials, variability in sandwich size, flexibility to re-open the sandwich or introduce multiple organisms through drilled holes, and the preservation and maintenance of phloem integrity. The phloem sandwich is an excellent educational tool for scientific discovery in both K-12 science courses and university research laboratories.

We provide a technique to preserve intact tree phloem and prepare it for observation. We create an apparatus called a phloem sandwich that allows for the introduction and observation of arthropods, microbes, and other organisms that inhabit phloem tissues.

ツリー組織内節足動物と微生物群集を研究するための技術

Phloem tissues of pine are habitats for many thousands of organisms.  Arthropods and microbes use phloem and cambium tissues to seek mates, lay eggs, rear ...

環境学

A Venturi Effect Can Help Cure Our Trees

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. According to these factors and their dynamics, small amounts of sap-compatible liquids (i.e. pesticides) can be injected into the xylem system, reaching their target from inside. This endotherapic method, called &#34;trunk injection&#34; or &#34;trunk infusion&#34; (depending on whether the user supplies an external pressure or not), confines the applied chemicals only within the target tree, thereby making it particularly useful in urban situations. The main factors limiting wider use of the traditional drilling methods are related to negative side effects of the holes that must be drilled around the trunk circumference in order to gain access to the xylem vessels beneath the bark.
The University of Padova (Italy) recently developed a manual, drill-free instrument with a small, perforated blade that enters the trunk by separating the woody fibers with minimal friction. Furthermore, the lenticular shaped blade reduces the vessels&#39; cross section, increasing sap velocity and allowing the natural uptake of an external liquid up to the leaves, when transpiration rate is substantial. Ports partially close soon after the removal of the blade due to the natural elasticity and turgidity of the plant tissues, and the cambial activity completes the healing process in few weeks.

Compared to the more traditional hole-based methods, most of which require the tree to be drilled, tools with lenticular blades transform the basics of endotherapy easing the closure of the wound and allowing the natural uptake of the solutions.

ベンチュリ効果は、私たちの木を治す助けることができる

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. ...

A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.)

Beech bark disease (BBD) results in high levels of initial mortality, leaving behind survivor trees that are greatly weakened and deformed.&#160;The disease is initiated by feeding activities of the invasive beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, which creates entry points for infection by one of the Neonectria species of fungus.&#160;Without scale infestation, there is little opportunity for fungal infection. Using scale eggs to artificially infest healthy trees in heavily BBD impacted stands demonstrated that these trees were resistant to the scale insect portion of the disease complex1.&#160;Here we present a protocol that we have developed, based on the artificial infestation technique by Houston2, which can be used to screen for scale-resistant trees in the field and in smaller potted seedlings and grafts.&#160;The identification of scale-resistant trees is an important component of management of BBD through tree improvement programs and silvicultural manipulation.

A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.

Beech bark disease is initiated by feeding activities of the beech scale insect that create fungal entry points in the bark.&#160;Trees that are resistant to the scale insect are also disease resistant.&#160;Here we present the protocol we have developed to screen individual beech trees for beech scale resistance.

ブナスケール昆虫への抵抗のためのアメリカのブナを（画面ための技術<em&gt;クリプトコッカスfagisuga</em&gt;リンド。）

Beech bark disease (BBD) results in high levels of initial mortality, leaving behind survivor trees that are greatly weakened and deformed.&#160;The ...

Experimental Protocol for Manipulating Plant-induced Soil Heterogeneity

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as plant-soil feedbacks (PSF) have large effects on plant performance, and create environmental heterogeneity that depends on the community composition. Understanding the importance of PSF for plant community assembly necessitates understanding of the role of heterogeneity in PSF, in addition to mean PSF effects. Here, we describe a protocol for manipulating plant-induced soil heterogeneity. Two example experiments are presented: (1) a field experiment with a 6-patch grid of soils to measure plant population responses and (2) a greenhouse experiment with 2-patch soils to measure individual plant responses. Soils can be collected from the zone of root influence (soils from the rhizosphere and directly adjacent to the rhizosphere) of plants in the field from conspecific and heterospecific plant species. Replicate collections are used to avoid pseudoreplicating soil samples. These soils are then placed into separate patches for heterogeneous treatments or mixed for a homogenized treatment. Care should be taken to ensure that heterogeneous and homogenized treatments experience the same degree of soil disturbance. Plants can then be placed in these soil treatments to determine the effect of plant-induced soil heterogeneity on plant performance. We demonstrate that plant-induced heterogeneity results in different outcomes than predicted by traditional coexistence models, perhaps because of the dynamic nature of these feedbacks. Theory that incorporates environmental heterogeneity influenced by the assembling community and additional empirical work is needed to determine when heterogeneity intrinsic to the assembling community will result in different assembly outcomes compared with heterogeneity extrinsic to the community composition.

Understanding the role of environmental heterogeneity in species coexistence has typically focused on types of heterogeneity that are extrinsic to the community&#8217;s species composition. We provide novel detailed methods for creating soil heterogeneity treatments using soils subject to plant-soil feedback conditioning, or heterogeneity intrinsic to the community composition.

の操作植物に誘導される土壌の不均一性のための実験プロトコール

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as ...

A Simple Method for Automated Solid Phase Extraction of Water Samples for Immunological Analysis of Small Pollutants

A new method for solid phase extraction (SPE) of environmental water samples is proposed. The developed prototype is cost-efficient and user friendly, and enables to perform rapid, automated and simple SPE. The pre-concentrated solution is compatible with analysis by immunoassay, with a low organic solvent content. A method is described for the extraction and pre-concentration of natural hormone 17&#946;-estradiol in 100 ml water samples. Reverse phase SPE is performed with octadecyl-silica sorbent and elution is done with 200 &#181;l of methanol 50% v/v. Eluent is diluted by adding di-water to lower the amount of methanol. After preparing manually the SPE column, the overall procedure is performed automatically within 1 hr. At the end of the process, estradiol concentration is measured by using a commercial enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA). 100-fold pre-concentration is achieved and the methanol content in only 10% v/v. Full recoveries of the molecule are achieved with 1 ng/L spiked de-ionized and synthetic sea water samples.

A protocol for the extraction and pre-concentration of estradiol from water samples by using an automated and miniaturized system is presented.

小さな汚染物質の免疫学的分析のための水試料の自動固相抽出ための簡単​​な方法

A new method for solid phase extraction (SPE) of environmental water samples is proposed. The developed prototype is cost-efficient and user friendly, and ...

Administering and Detecting Protein Marks on Arthropods for Dispersal Research

Monitoring arthropod movement is often required to better understand associated population dynamics, dispersal patterns, host plant preferences, and other ecological interactions. Arthropods are usually tracked in nature by tagging them with a unique mark and then re-collecting them over time and space to determine their dispersal capabilities. In addition to actual physical tags, such as colored dust or paint, various types of proteins have proven very effective for marking arthropods for ecological research. Proteins can be administered internally and/or externally. The proteins can then be detected on recaptured arthropods with a protein-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Here we describe protocols for externally and internally tagging arthropods with protein. Two simple experimental examples are demonstrated: (1) an internal protein mark introduced to an insect by providing a protein-enriched diet and (2) an external protein mark topically applied to an insect using a medical nebulizer. We then relate a step-by-step guide of the sandwich and indirect ELISA methods used to detect protein marks on the insects. In this demonstration, various aspects of the acquisition and detection of protein markers on arthropods for mark-release-recapture, mark-capture, and self-mark-capture types of research are discussed, along with the various ways that the immunomarking procedure has been adapted to suit a wide variety of research objectives.

Proteins are often used to mark arthropods for dispersal research. Methods for administering internal and external protein marks on arthropods are demonstrated. Protein mark detection techniques, either through indirect or sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), are also illustrated.

管理と分散研究のための節足動物にプロテインマークを検出

Monitoring arthropod movement is often required to better understand associated population dynamics, dispersal patterns, host plant preferences, and other ...

A Simple Approach to Manipulate Dissolved Oxygen for Animal Behavior Observations

The ability to manipulate dissolved oxygen (DO) in a laboratory setting has significant application to investigate a number of ecological and organismal behavior questions. The protocol described here provides a simple, reproducible, and controlled method to manipulate DO to study behavioral response in aquatic organisms resulting from hypoxic and anoxic conditions. While performing degasification of water with nitrogen is commonly used in laboratory settings, no explicit method for ecological (aquatic) application exists in the literature, and this protocol is the first to describe a protocol to degasify water to observe organismal response. This technique and protocol were developed for direct application for aquatic macroinvertebrates; however, small fish, amphibians, and other aquatic vertebrates could be easily substituted. It allows for easy manipulation of DO levels ranging from 2 mg/L to 11 mg/L with stability for up to a 5 min animal-observation period. Beyond a 5 min observation period water temperatures began to rise, and at 10 min DO levels became too unstable to maintain. The protocol is scalable to the study organism, reproducible, and reliable, allowing for rapid implementation into introductory teaching labs and high-level research applications. The expected results of this technique should relate dissolved oxygen changes to behavioral responses of organisms.

This article describes a simple and reproducible protocol to manipulate dissolved oxygen conditions in a laboratory setting for animal behavior studies. This protocol may be used in both teaching and research laboratory settings to evaluate organismal response of macroinvertebrates, fishes, or amphibians to changes in dissolved oxygen concentration.

動物の行動観察のための溶存酸素を操作するための単純なアプローチ

The ability to manipulate dissolved oxygen (DO) in a laboratory setting has significant application to investigate a number of ecological and organismal ...

Soil Lysimeter Excavation for Coupled Hydrological, Geochemical, and Microbiological Investigations

Studying co-evolution of hydrological and biogeochemical processes in the subsurface of natural landscapes can enhance the understanding of coupled Earth-system processes. Such knowledge is imperative in improving predictions of hydro-biogeochemical cycles, especially under climate change scenarios. We present an experimental method, designed to capture sub-surface heterogeneity of an initially homogeneous soil system. This method is based on destructive sampling of a soil lysimeter designed to simulate a small-scale hillslope. A weighing lysimeter of one cubic meter capacity was divided into sections (voxels) and was excavated layer-by-layer, with sub samples being collected from each voxel. The excavation procedure was aimed at detecting the incipient heterogeneity of the system by focusing on the spatial assessment of hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological properties of the soil. Representative results of a few physicochemical variables tested show the development of heterogeneity. Additional work to test interactions between hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological signatures is planned to interpret the observed patterns. Our study also demonstrates the possibility of carrying out similar excavations in order to observe and quantify different aspects of soil-development under varying environmental conditions and scale.

This study presents an excavation method for investigating subsurface hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological heterogeneity of a soil lysimeter. The lysimeter simulates an artificial hillslope which was initially under homogeneous condition and had been subjected to approximately 5,000 mm of water over eight cycles of irrigation in an 18-month period.

結合水文学、地球化学、および微生物学的調査のための土壌ライシメータ発掘

Studying co-evolution of hydrological and biogeochemical processes in the subsurface of natural landscapes can enhance the understanding of coupled ...

The Calibration and Use of Capacitance Sensors to Monitor Stem Water Content in Trees

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus area. Biomass capacitance plays an integral role in the avoidance of hydraulic impairment to transpiration. However, high temporal resolution measurements of dynamic changes in the hydraulic capacitance of large trees are rare. Here, we present procedures for the calibration and use of capacitance sensors, typically used to monitor soil water content, to measure the volumetric water content in trees in the field. Frequency domain reflectometry-style observations are sensitive to the density of the media being studied. Therefore, it is necessary to perform species-specific calibrations to convert from the sensor-reported values of dielectric permittivity to volumetric water content. Calibration is performed on a harvested branch or stem cut into segments that are dried or re-hydrated to produce a full range of water contents used to generate a best-fit regression with sensor observations. Sensors are inserted into calibration segments or installed in trees after pre-drilling holes to a tolerance fit using a fabricated template to ensure proper drill alignment. Special care is taken to ensure that sensor tines make good contact with the surrounding media, while allowing them to be inserted without excessive force. Volumetric water content dynamics observed via the presented methodology align with sap flow measurements recorded using thermal dissipation techniques and environmental forcing data. Biomass water content data can be used to observe the onset of water stress, drought response and recovery, and has the potential to be applied to the calibration and evaluation of new plant-level hydrodynamics models, as well as to the partitioning of remotely sensed moisture products into above- and belowground components.

The hydraulic capacitance of biomass is a key component of the vegetation water budget, which serves as a buffer against short and long-term drought stresses. Here, we present a protocol for the calibration and use of soil moisture capacitance sensors to monitor water content in the stems of large trees.

木の幹の水分量を監視するための校正と静電容量センサーの使用

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus ...

Forced Flowering in Mandarin Trees under Phytotron Conditions

Phytotron has been widely used to assess the effect of numerous parameters on the development of many species. However, less information is available on how to achieve fast profuse flowering in young fruit trees with this plant growth chamber. This study aimed to outline the design and performance of a fast clear methodology to force flowering in young mandarin trees (cv. Nova and cv. Clemenules) and to analyze the influence of induction intensity on inflorescence type. The combination of a short water stress period with simulated spring conditions (day 13 h, 22 &#176;C, night 11 h, 12 &#176;C) in the phytotron allowed flowers to be obtained only after 68-72 days from the time the experiment began. Low-temperature requirements were adequately replaced with water stress. Floral response was proportional to water stress (measured as the number of fallen leaves): the greater the induction, the larger the quantity of flowers. Floral induction intensity also influenced inflorescence type and dates for flowering. Details on artificial lighting (lumens), photoperiod, temperatures, plant size and age, induction strategy and days for each stage are provided. Obtaining flowers from fruit trees at any time, and also several times a year, can have many advantages for researchers. With the methodology proposed herein, three, or even four, flowering periods can be forced each year, and researchers should be able to decide when, and they will know, the duration of the entire process. The methodology can be useful for: flower production and in vitro pollen germination assays; experiments with pests that affect early fruit development stages; studies on fruit physiological alterations. All this can help plant breeders to shorten times to obtain male and female gametes to perform forced-crosses.

Here, we present a protocol to force flowering in mandarin trees under phytotron conditions. Water stress, high illuminance and a simulated spring photoperiod allowed viable flowers to be obtained in a short period of time. This methodology allows researchers to have several flowering periods in 1 year.

ファイトトロン条件下でミカンの強制開花

Phytotron has been widely used to assess the effect of numerous parameters on the development of many species. However, less information is available on ...