Questa ricerca è stata finanziata e condotto sotto la sezione di valutazione sistemi di Everglades del South Florida Water Management District.

1. preparazione e trasporto a piantare posizione
<ol><li>Ottenere 2 o 3 piantine di gal (7 o 11 L) degli alberi autoctoni coltivati localmente (in vasi di plastica), commerciali borse di torba (misura 0,3 x 0,46 x 0,6 m3), arboree ed arbustive fertilizzante spikes, nastro adesivo, tubo di cloruro di polivinile (PVC) (2-3 m di lunghezza, ø 0,8 in (2,1 cm) programma 40), taglierina, sacchi della spazzatura e un asta di metallo della scatola o rebar (1 a 2 m di lunghezza, 1,3 cm di diametro) per perforare i sacchi di torba. Potenziali specie arboree applicabile alle Everglades sono Annona glabra, Ficus aurea, e Acer rubrum. Si consiglia vivamente di indossare guanti da lavoro.</li>
	<li>Determinare la posizione migliore per distribuire il pop-up, in genere in una zona alta dell'isola albero fantasma con almeno 0,3 m di torba restando di sopra il substrato roccioso dove inondazione sarebbe essere minimizzato durante la stagione umida.</li>
	<li>Mezzi di trasporto alberelli, sacchi di torba commerciale (uno per ogni Alberello), picchi di fertilizzante arboree ed arbustive (uno per ogni Alberello), nastro adesivo (numero di rotoli a seconda dei casi), tubo in PVC (due per ogni Alberello) e altri strumenti e materiali per la piantatura posizione (in genere mezzi airboat).</li>
</ol>2. pop-up Assemblea
Nota: Montare l'alberello in vaso e pop-up (passi 2.1-2.6) sulla barca prima di metterla in acqua sopra l'isola di albero (passaggio 3)
<ol><li>Far scorrere il pot di plastica fuori l'alberello radici e terreno pot e tagliare un grande buco sul fondo della pentola o rimuovere intero fondo di ogni piatto alberello usando un taglierino o forbici (Figura 1).</li>
	<li>Far scivolare la pentola con il fondo aperto sull'alberello radici e terreno di pot per l'inserimento del sacchetto di torba.</li>
	<li>Fare un 20-30 cm a forma di X taglio (leggermente più grande rispetto al diametro della pentola) nel sacchetto di torba al centro di quella che sarà la superficie superiore, utilizzando un taglierino.</li>
	<li>Rimuovere circa 2.000 a 5.000 cm3 (circa metà del volume del piatto) del contenuto del sacchetto di torba dall'apertura a forma di X e posto in un sacchetto di spazzatura per la rimozione.</li>
	<li>Impostare la pentola sconfinata con l'alberello all'interno della apertura/depressione a forma di X creata rimuovendo la torba dal sacchetto di torba. La pentola sconfinata dovrebbe essere circa a metà strada nell'apertura a forma di X, con i punti (triangoli) puntando contro i lati del piatto (Figura 2). Gli alberelli sono lasciati nei vasi per fornire ulteriore elevazione e supporto fisico.</li>
	<li>Fissare il piatto in luogo con parecchie bobine di nastro adesivo, nei dintorni della pentola e coprendo i triangoli di borsa. Questo vi appone i triangoli di borsa alla pentola (Figura 3) e tenere il piatto in posizione durante i prossimi 2-3 anni di crescita. Questo crea il pop-up.</li>
</ol>3. comparsa distribuzione
<ol><li>Impostare il pop-up nell'acqua. Entrare in acqua e spostare il galleggiante pop-up nel sito d'impianto.</li>
	<li>Legare il pop-up in luogo con due circa 2 a 3 m, lunghezze di tubo in PVC inserite attraverso il sacchetto su entrambi i lati di alberello, circa un terzo-a metà m del substrato (terreno sotto il sacchetto) (Figura 3).</li>
	<li>Forare le borse sulla parte superiore, inferiore e i lati da guida l'asta metallica (cemento armato) completamente attraverso la borsa, creazione di aperture (almeno quattro in alto/basso) e quattro in ogni lato per permettere all'acqua di entrare e di permettere alle radici di emergere (Figura 3). Il pop-up galleggerà per circa 6 mesi.</li>
	<li>Inserire uno spike di fertilizzante albero interamente nella parte superiore della borsa in uno dei punti indicati nella Figura 3.</li>
</ol>4. follow-up per la manutenzione, le misure e rimozione di materie plastiche
<ol><li>Tornare al sito come frequentemente in quanto ritenuto gli eventi necessari, particolarmente seguente grave tempesta e notare la condizione e la sopravvivenza e misurare l'altezza dell'albero e diametro basale di ogni albero rimanente su base annua.</li>
	<li>Dopo 3 anni, tornare al sito con scatola frese/forbici e sacchi della spazzatura per rimuovere i vasi e la plastica dalla torba borsa e riciclano. La pentola e la plastica dal sacchetto (top e fianchi) vengono prontamente rimossi senza disturbare l'alberello; la plastica sotto il sacchetto di torba potrebbe non essere accessibile (Figura 4).</li>
	<li>Tornare al sito su base annuale per valutare la sopravvivenza e la crescita.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , (2002).</li><li>Wetzel, P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintaining+tree+islands+in+the+Florida+Everglades:+nutrient+redistribution+is+the+key.">Maintaining tree islands in the Florida Everglades: nutrient redistribution is the key.</a> Front Ecol Environ. 3 (7), 370-376 (2005).</li><li>Aich, S., Ewe, S. M. L., Gu, B., Dreschel, T. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+evaluation+of+peat+loss+from+an+Everglades+tree+island,+Florida,+USA.">An evaluation of peat loss from an Everglades tree island, Florida, USA.</a> Mires and Peat. 14 (2014), 1-15 (2014).</li><li>Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E. A., Hill, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everglades+tree+island+restoration:+testing+a+simple+tree+planting+technique+patterned+after+a+natural+process.">Everglades tree island restoration: testing a simple tree planting technique patterned after a natural process.</a> Restor Ecol. , (2017).</li><li>Stanturf, J. A., Conner, W. H., Gardiner, E. S., Schweitzer, C. J., Ezell, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recognizing+and+Overcoming+Difficult+Site+Conditions+for+Afforestation+of+Bottomland+Hardwoods.">Recognizing and Overcoming Difficult Site Conditions for Afforestation of Bottomland Hardwoods.</a> Ecol Restor. 22 (3), 183-193 (2004).</li><li>Sharitz, R., Barton, C. D., DeSteven, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tree+Plantings+in+Depression+Wetland+Restorations+Show+Mixed+Success+(South+Carolina).">Tree Plantings in Depression Wetland Restorations Show Mixed Success (South Carolina).</a> Ecol Restor. 24 (2), 114-115 (2006).</li><li>Brandt, L. A., Portier, K. M., Kitchens, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patterns+of+Change+in+Tree+Islands+in+Arthur+R.+Marshall+Loxahatchee+National+Wildlife+Refuge+from+1950-1991.">Patterns of Change in Tree Islands in Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge from 1950-1991.</a> Wetlands. 20 (1), 1-14 (2000).</li><li>Armentano, T. V., Jones, D. T., Ross, M. S., Gamble, B. W., Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vegetation+pattern+and+process+in+tree+islands+of+the+southern+Everglades+and+adjacent+areas.">Vegetation pattern and process in tree islands of the southern Everglades and adjacent areas.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , 225-281 (2002).</li><li>Jones, D. T., Sah, J. P., Ross, M. S., Oberbauer, S. F., Hwang, B., Jayachandran, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+and+physiological+responses+of+twelve+tree+species+common+in+Everglades+tree+islands+to+simulated+hydrologic+regimes.">Growth and physiological responses of twelve tree species common in Everglades tree islands to simulated hydrologic regimes.</a> Wetlands. 26 (3), 830-844 (2006).</li><li>Stoffella, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+growth+responses+of+eight+Everglades+tree+species+along+an+experimental+hydrological+gradient+on+two+tree+island+types.">Survival and growth responses of eight Everglades tree species along an experimental hydrological gradient on two tree island types.</a> Appl Veg Sci. 13 (4), 439-449 (2010).</li><li>Aich, S., Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E., Sklar, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+of+a+geographic+information+system+(GIS)+to+document+research+in+an+Everglades+physical+Model.">The development of a geographic information system (GIS) to document research in an Everglades physical Model.</a> J Environ Sci Eng. 5 (2011), 289-302 (2011).</li><li>Weinbaum, S. A., Johnson, R. S., DeJong, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Causes+and+Consequences+of+Overfertilization+in+Orchards.">Causes and Consequences of Overfertilization in Orchards.</a> HortTechnology. 2 (1), 112-121 (1992).</li></ol>

Quest'opera è stata eseguita sotto finanziamento e la supervisione del South Florida Water Management District, un'agenzia dello stato della Florida. Florida gode di un diritto di vasto pubblico record. Questo documento è conforme a quello legge e considerati parte del pubblico record.

Questo approccio proposto al reimpianto isole albero consente l'aumento in elevazione e distribuzione degli alberi da un idroscivolante senza la costruzione di strade, necessari per portare il riempimento in ogni sito. Questo riduce al minimo i costi e la dispersione dell'attuazione albero isola impianti.
Un problema con questa tecnica è i problemi estetici e ambientali associati mettendo una grande quantità di tubo in PVC, sacchetti di plastica e vasi di plastica su una caratteristica di pa...

Ricolonizzazione naturale delle isole di albero Everglade degradati da alberi di specie autoctone è possibile attraverso la dispersione dei semi, se ci sono nelle vicinanze di isole con una diversità di specie di albero1,2. Secondo Sklar e van der Valk1 ripristino si è notevolmente abbassato albero isole può essere possibile, "per aumentare l'elevazione delle loro teste, anche se tali sforzi sarebbe costosi e laborioso." Attualmente, ci sono pochissimi alberi (auspicabili) nativi presenti vicino alle isole di albero (noto anche come "fantasma") degradate in Everglades Water Conservation Area (WCA)-2A (uno dei cinque WCAs creato per immagazzinare acqua per e prevenire le inondazioni del circostante urbano e zone agricole) per fornire i semi necessari per ricolonizzare l'albero degradato isole3.
Per aumentare l'elevazione di un isola albero abbassato per il rimboschimento, riempimento appropriato avrebbe dovuto essere trasportato all'isola. Ciò richiederebbe la costruzione di strade per i camion o la creazione di corsi d'acqua per le chiatte, portando a gravi danni alle Everglades a un grande costo finanziario. Una tecnica semplice, a basso costo è necessario per ripopolare le isole albero degradato con alberi di specie autoctone che forniranno elevazione (ridurre hydroperiod) e migliorare la sopravvivenza sotto l'idrologia variabile endemico del Everglades4.
Le dimensioni di questi pop-up permette la facilità di trasporto al luogo che pianta. Ciò fornisce un vantaggio rispetto al riempimento delle zone convenzionali e piantagione di alberi che possono richiedere strade essere costruito per il trasporto. Questa tecnica riduce l'impatto ecologico delle attività di piantagione di alberi. Inoltre, questi pop-up hanno la capacità di galleggiare per l'iniziali sei mesi dopo la distribuzione, per consentire l'istituzione di alberello. Sotto scenari di piantagione di alberi convenzionali, gli alberi potrebbero verificarsi inondazioni lo sforzo aumentato durante stabilimento se aumentano i livelli di acqua.
Una serie di disegni sono stata testata ed è stato determinato che una maggiore altezza di pop-up (orientamento di borsa), uno spike di fertilizzante di albero per aggiungere sostanze nutrienti e piantare il pop-up con un singolo alberello realizzato la migliore configurazione per la distribuzione su un Everglade degradato albero isola4. Anche se altri ricercatori descrivono la piantumazione di alberi per il ripristino delle zone boschive umide zone5,6, a nostra conoscenza, nessuna delle tecniche d'impianto descritte aggiunto elevazione per ridurre hydroperiod.
Questa procedura imita la formazione di isole di albero di Everglades che derivano dalla torba che si stacca dalla roccia e galleggia alla superficie di galleggiamento. Piante montane possono stabilire per formare un'isola flottante o "pop-up" albero che alla fine si muove e si deposita sulla superficie torba e diventa quello che viene definita un "batteria" albero isola1,7.
Specie di albero di Everglades albero isola hanno tolleranze diverse inondazioni per crescita e sopravvivenza8,9,10. In uno studio controllato, Jones et al hanno dimostrato l'importanza di hydroperiod per la sopravvivenza di Everglades albero isola specie9. Stoffella et al. trovato che relativa elevazione (alla superficie dell'acqua) ha avuto effetti varianti e profondi sulla sopravvivenza della specie di albero nativo piantato e crescita, a causa di tolleranza specifica di ogni specie alle inondazioni10. Specie di albero può essere selezionata per le condizioni specifiche presenti. L'albero piantare tecnica descritta qui può fornire rialzamento supplementare e, di conseguenza, fonti di semi di albero in regioni precedentemente boschive che hanno perso l'elevazione e ora sono soggetti a un ambiente di inondazione che è dannoso per alberi di specie autoctone.
Precedentemente regioni boscose che esperienza estesa hydroperiods possono beneficiare di questo metodo per reintrodurre la specie legnosa a queste aree. Questa tecnica fornisce elevazione, riducendo così il hydroperiod. Inoltre, gli alberi saranno costruire terreno (biomassa radice e foglie) e fornire una fonte di semi per costante colonizzazione dell'area.

<table><tbody><tr><td>One or Two Gallon Native Tree Saplings in plastic pots.</td><td>Local Native Plant Nurseries</td><td>N/A</td><td>Obtain native tree saplings grown from locally obtained seed</td></tr><tr><td>Commercial Peat Bags. 5 cubic ft.</td><td>Lambert</td><td>Lambert Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss (6649801115)</td><td>Product description: Lambert peat moss is an excellent soil amendment because of its capacity to retain water, aerate the soil and it is completely natural. All of Lambert&#039;s peat moss packages carry the OMRI (Organic Material Review Institute) logo, which indicates that they are approved for use in organic production. Size: 5.5 cu.ft.</td></tr><tr><td>Vigoro Tree Spikes (Tree and Shrub Fertilizer Spikes, 15-Count)</td><td>Vigoro, Swiss Farms Products Inc.</td><td>Model # 154205</td><td>GUARANTEED ANALYSIS (%) TOTAL IN PRODUCT (ppm): Total Nitrogen (N) 12.0000; Available Phosphoric Acid (P2O5) 5.0000; Soluble Potash (K2O) 7.0000</td></tr><tr><td>PVC Pipe: 1/2 in schedule 40</td><td>JM Eagle</td><td>Model # 67447</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Duct Tape, 1-7/8 in x 12 yds</td><td>MSC Industrial Supply</td><td>Gorilla Heavy-Duty Duct Tape, Model # 60012</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Metal Rod (Rebar 1.3 cm diameter, 1.2 m long)</td><td>Weyerhaeuser</td><td>Model # 35616</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Box Cutter</td><td>Stanley</td><td>Model # STHT10273</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Work Gloves</td><td>Firm Grip</td><td>Model # 3101-96</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Trash Bags (42 gallon)</td><td>HUSKY</td><td>Model # HK42WC050B</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr></tbody></table>

a simple planting technique for re-establishing trees where frequent inundation occurs

Molte delle isole di albero di Everglades hanno perso elevazione nel secolo scorso e la maggior parte di loro alberi sono morti tale che ora sono ricoperti di piante erbacee. Questo protocollo descrive un albero semplice, economico, tecnica necessaria per il ripristino degradati Everglade albero isole di impianto. Il design è modellato dopo un processo di Everglades naturale che crea isole di torba galleggianti, che permette di albero sopravvivenza e la crescita in condizioni allagate e spesso conduce allo sviluppo di isole di albero. Borse di torba commercialmente disponibili sono stati utilizzati come mezzo per la crescita e la creazione di piantine in vaso nativo. La configurazione a comparsa galleggiato inizialmente e fornito rialzamento supplementare per ridurre al minimo il inundation, con un alberello di specie nativa singolo albero e un picco di fertilizzante di singolo albero. Durante uno studio di 3 anni che coinvolge 105 pop-up, la maggior parte delle piante è sopravvissuto (80%) e molti hanno prosperato. Determinare se questa tecnica può stabilire alberi su un'isola di albero degradato richiederà studi più lunghi e prove sul campo.

Lo studio utilizza questa tecnica4 è stata condotta all'interno di un 0,32 km2 modello fisico Everglades11, su un crinale per simulare test su un'isola di albero fantasma. Durante questo studio, due orientamenti per altezza del sacchetto (basso: 0,3 m, alta: 0,46 m), con uno contro due alberelli a sacchetto in crescita, sono stati testati come pure l'uso di punte di fertilizzante di albero per promuovere la sopravvivenza e la cre...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs at JoVE.com

A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

Questo protocollo descrive un tecnica per ripristino degradati Everglades albero isole che esperienza inondazione di piantagione di alberi e di soluzione semplici e convenienti. Il design crea un'isola (a comparsa) che galleggia inizialmente e aggiunge elevazione per promuovere la crescita in condizioni allagate e sopravvivenza dell'albero.

Una semplice tecnica di impianto per ristabilire gli alberi dove si verifica frequente Inundation

Many of the Everglades tree islands have lost elevation over the past century and most of their trees have died such that they are now covered with ...

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6.1K Views.  South Florida Water Management District. Questo protocollo descrive un tecnica per ripristino degradati Everglades albero isole che esperienza inondazione di piantagione di alberi e di soluzione semplici e convenienti. Il design crea un'isola (a comparsa) che galleggia inizialmente e aggiunge elevazione per promuovere la crescita in condizioni allagate e sopravvivenza dell'albero.

Video: A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

A Venturi Effect Can Help Cure Our Trees

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. According to these factors and their dynamics, small amounts of sap-compatible liquids (i.e. pesticides) can be injected into the xylem system, reaching their target from inside. This endotherapic method, called &#34;trunk injection&#34; or &#34;trunk infusion&#34; (depending on whether the user supplies an external pressure or not), confines the applied chemicals only within the target tree, thereby making it particularly useful in urban situations. The main factors limiting wider use of the traditional drilling methods are related to negative side effects of the holes that must be drilled around the trunk circumference in order to gain access to the xylem vessels beneath the bark.
The University of Padova (Italy) recently developed a manual, drill-free instrument with a small, perforated blade that enters the trunk by separating the woody fibers with minimal friction. Furthermore, the lenticular shaped blade reduces the vessels&#39; cross section, increasing sap velocity and allowing the natural uptake of an external liquid up to the leaves, when transpiration rate is substantial. Ports partially close soon after the removal of the blade due to the natural elasticity and turgidity of the plant tissues, and the cambial activity completes the healing process in few weeks.

Compared to the more traditional hole-based methods, most of which require the tree to be drilled, tools with lenticular blades transform the basics of endotherapy easing the closure of the wound and allowing the natural uptake of the solutions.

Un effetto Venturi può aiutare a curare i nostri alberi

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. ...

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Design and Construction of an Urban Runoff Research Facility

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use due to increased demand for landscape irrigation. Improper irrigation practices and large rainfall events can result in runoff from urban landscapes which has potential to carry nutrients and sediments into local streams and lakes where they may contribute to eutrophication. A 1,000 m2 facility was constructed which consists of 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots, each equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated urban landscapes. Runoff volumes from the first and second trials had coefficient of variability (CV) values of 38.2 and 28.7%, respectively. CV values for runoff pH, EC, and Na concentration for both trials were all under 10%. Concentrations of DOC, TDN, DON, PO4-P, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ had CV values less than 50% in both trials. Overall, the results of testing performed after sod installation at the facility indicated good uniformity between plots for runoff volumes and chemical constituents. The large plot size is sufficient to include much of the natural variability and therefore provides better simulation of urban landscape ecosystems.

This paper describes the design, construction, and function of a 1,000 m2 facility containing 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated home lawns.

Progettazione e Costruzione di un Research Facility deflusso urbano

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use ...

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may be treated with simple systems designed to promote sorption of contaminants to vegetation and soils and promote infiltration. Two example systems are described: a bioswale treatment system for urban stormwater treatment, and a vegetated drainage ditch for treating agriculture irrigation runoff. Both have similar attributes that reduce contaminant loading in runoff: vegetation that results in sorption of the contaminants to the soil and plant surfaces, and water infiltration. These systems may also include the integration of granulated activated carbon as a polishing step to remove residual contaminants. Implementation of these systems in agriculture and urban watersheds requires system monitoring to verify treatment efficacy. This includes chemical monitoring for specific contaminants responsible for toxicity. The current paper emphasizes monitoring of current use pesticides since these are responsible for surface water toxicity to aquatic invertebrates.

This article summarizes the design attributes and the effectiveness of treatment systems that treat urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff to remove pesticides and other contaminants associated with aquatic toxicity.

Sistemi di trattamento vegetale per la rimozione dei contaminanti associati alla tossicità dell&#39;acqua superficiale nell&#39;agricoltura e nella rottura urbana

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may ...

A Method for Quantifying Foliage-Dwelling Arthropods

Terrestrial arthropods play an important role in our environment. Quantifying arthropods in a way that allows for a precise index or estimates of density requires a method with high detection probability and a known sampling area. While most described methods provide a qualitative or semi-quantitative estimate adequate for describing species presence, richness, and diversity, few provide an adequately consistent detection probability and known or consistent sampling areas to provide an index or estimate with adequate precision to detect differences in abundance across environmental, spatial, or temporal variables. We describe how to quantify leaf-dwelling arthropods by sealing the leaves and end of branches in a bag, clipping and freezing the bagged material, and rinsing the previously frozen material in water to separate arthropods from the substrate and quantify them. As we demonstrate, this method can be used at a landscape scale to quantify leaf-dwelling arthropods with adequate precision to test for and describe how spatial, temporal, environmental, and ecological variables influence arthropod richness and abundance. This method allowed us to detect differences in density, richness, and diversity of leaf-dwelling arthropods among 5 genera of trees commonly found in southeastern deciduous forests.

We describe how to quantify leaf dwelling arthropods by sealing the leaves and end of branches in a bag, clipping and freezing the bagged material, and rinsing the previously frozen material in water to separate arthropods from the substrate for quantification.

Un metodo per quantificare gli artropodi Foliage-Dwelling

Terrestrial arthropods play an important role in our environment. Quantifying arthropods in a way that allows for a precise index or estimates of density ...

Using Tree-Rings to Reconstruct Fire History Information from Forested Areas

Annual tree-ring patterns are a source of ecological and environmental information including the history of fires in forested areas. Tree-ring based fire histories include three fundamental phases: field collection, laboratory methods (preparation and dating), and data analysis. Here we provide step-by-step instructions and issues to consider, including the process for selecting the study area, sampling sites, plus how and which fire-scarred trees to sample. In addition, we describe fire-scar sample preparation and dating which are done in the laboratory. Finally, we describe basic analysis and relevant results, including examples from studies that have reconstructed fire history patterns. These studies allow us to understand the historical fire frequency, changes in those frequencies related to anthropogenic factors, and analyzes of how climate influences fire occurrence over time. The description of these methods and techniques should provide a greater understanding of fire history studies that will benefit researchers, educators, technicians, and students interested in this field. These detailed methods will allow new researchers to this field, a resource to start their own work and achieve greater success. This resource will provide a greater integration of tree-ring aspects within other studies and lead to a better understanding of natural processes with forested ecosystems.

This work explains the most appropriate techniques and methods for conducting a fire history study from beginning site selection to final analysis of fire-climate relationship.

Annual tree-ring patterns are a source of ecological and environmental information including the history of fires in forested areas. Tree-ring based fire ...

A Method to Preserve Wetland Roots and Rhizospheres for Elemental Imaging

Roots extensively interact with their soil environment but visualizing such interactions between roots and the surrounding rhizosphere is challenging. The rhizosphere chemistry of wetland plants is particularly challenging to capture because of steep oxygen gradients from the roots to the bulk soil. Here a protocol is described that effectively preserves root structure and rhizosphere chemistry of wetland plants through slam-freezing and freeze drying. Slam-freezing, where the sample is frozen between copper blocks pre-cooled with liquid nitrogen, minimizes root damage and sample distortion that can occur with flash-freezing while still minimizing chemical speciation changes. While sample distortion is still possible, the ability to obtain multiple samples quickly and with minimal cost increases the potential to obtain satisfactory samples and optimizes imaging time. The data show that this method is successful in preserving reduced arsenic species in rice roots and rhizospheres associated with iron plaques. This method can be adopted for studies of plant-soil relationships in a wide variety of wetland environments that span concentration ranges from trace-element cycling to phytoremediation applications.

We describe a protocol to sample, preserve, and section intact roots and the surrounding rhizosphere soil from wetland environments using rice (Oryza sativa L.) as a model species. Once preserved, the sample can be analyzed using elemental imaging techniques, such as synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (XRF) chemical speciation imaging.

Un metodo per preservare le radici delle zone umide e le rizosfere per l'imaging elementare

Roots extensively interact with their soil environment but visualizing such interactions between roots and the surrounding rhizosphere is challenging. The ...

Inoculation Strategies to Infect Plant Roots with Soil-Borne Microorganisms

The rhizosphere harbors a highly complex microbial community in which plant roots are constantly challenged. Roots are in close contact with a wide variety of microorganisms, but studies on soil-borne interactions are still behind those performed on aboveground organs. Although some inoculation strategies for infecting model plants with model root pathogens are described in the literature, it remains difficult to get a comprehensive methodological overview. To address this problem, three different root inoculation systems are precisely described that can be applied to gain insights into the biology of root-microbe interactions. For illustration, Verticillium species (namely, V. longisporum and V. dahliae) were employed as root invading model pathogens. However, the methods can be easily adapted to other root colonizing microbes - both pathogenic and beneficial. By colonizing the plant xylem, vascular soil-borne fungi such as Verticillium spp. exhibit a unique lifestyle. After root invasion, they spread via the xylem vessels acropetally, reach the shoot, and elicit disease symptoms. Three representative plant species were chosen as model hosts: Arabidopsis thaliana, economically important oilseed rape (Brassica napus), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Step-by-step protocols are given. Representative results of pathogenicity assays, transcriptional analyses of marker genes, and independent confirmations by reporter constructs are shown. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of each inoculation system are thoroughly discussed. These proven protocols can assist in providing approaches for research questions on root-microbe interactions. Knowing how plants cope with microbes in the soil is crucial for developing new strategies to improve agriculture.

This protocol presents a detailed summary of strategies to inoculate plant roots with soil-borne microbes. Exemplified for the fungi Verticillium longisporum and Verticillium dahliae, three different root infection systems are described. Potential applications and possible downstream analyses are highlighted, and advantages or disadvantages are discussed for each system.

Strategie di inoculazione per infettare le radici delle piante con microrganismi trasmessi dal suolo

The rhizosphere harbors a highly complex microbial community in which plant roots are constantly challenged. Roots are in close contact with a wide ...

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture data has been slow due to inconsistent data collection, poor standardization, and typically short record duration. Soil moisture, or quantitatively volumetric soil water content (SWC), is measured using buried, in situ sensors that infer SWC from an electromagnetic response. This signal can vary considerably with local site conditions such as clay content and mineralogy, soil salinity or bulk electrical conductivity, and soil temperature; each of these can have varying impacts depending on the sensor technology.
Furthermore, poor soil contact and sensor degradation can affect the quality of these readings over time. Unlike more traditional environmental sensors, there are no accepted standards, maintenance practices, or quality controls for SWC data. As such, SWC is a challenging measurement for many environmental monitoring networks to implement. Here, we attempt to establish a community-based standard of practice for in situ SWC sensors so that future research and applications have consistent guidance on site selection, sensor installation, data interpretation, and long-term maintenance of monitoring stations.
The videography focuses on a multi-agency consensus of best-practices and recommendations for the installation of in situ SWC sensors. This paper presents an overview of this protocol along with the various steps essential for high-quality and long-term SWC data collection. This protocol will be of use to scientists and engineers hoping to deploy a single station or an entire network.

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

The determination of soil water content is a critical mission requirement for many state and federal agencies. This protocol synthesizes multi-agency efforts to measure soil water content using buried in situ sensors.

Sul posto Sensori di umidità del suolo in terreni indisturbati

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture ...

Field Collection and Laboratory Maintenance of Canopy-Forming Giant Kelp to Facilitate Restoration

Canopy-forming kelps are essential foundation species, supporting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services valued at more than USD$500 billion annually. The global decline of giant kelp forests due to climate-driven ecological stressors underscores the need for innovative restoration strategies. An emerging restoration technique known as &#39;green gravel&#39; aims to seed young kelps over large areas without extensive underwater labor and represents a promising restoration tool due to cost-effectiveness and scalability. This video article illustrates a protocol and tools for culturing giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera. It also provides a resource for further studies to address the successes and limitations of this method in field settings. We outline field and laboratory-based methods for collecting reproductive tissue, sporulating, inoculating, rearing, maintaining, and monitoring substrates seeded with early life stages using the &#39;green gravel&#39;&#160;technique. The protocol simplifies and centralizes current restoration practices in this field to support researchers, managers, and stakeholders in meeting kelp conservation objectives.

This protocol describes the field collection and regular laboratory maintenance of substrates seeded with canopy-forming giant kelp for use in restoration trials to address the success and limitations of the 'green gravel' technique in field settings.

Raccolta sul campo e manutenzione in laboratorio delle alghe giganti che formano la chioma per facilitare il ripristino

Canopy-forming kelps are essential foundation species, supporting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services valued at more than USD$500 billion ...

Responses to Drought and Flooding

Water plays a significant role in the life cycle of plants. However, insufficient or excess of water can be detrimental and pose a serious threat to plants.

Under normal conditions, water taken up by the plant evaporates from leaves and other parts in a process called transpiration. In times of drought stress, water that evaporates by transpiration far exceeds the water absorbed from the soil, causing plants to wilt. The general plant response to drought stress is the synthesis of hormone abscisic acid that keeps stomata closed and reduces transpiration. Additionally, plants may respond to extreme water insufficiency by shedding leaves. This method, however, reduces photosynthesis and consequently hampers plant growth.

Mitigation of drought stress in plants by microbes

Drought stress limits the growth and productivity of plants in arid and semi-arid regions. However, certain microbes present in the vicinity of plants may release physical and chemical signals that induce changes related to plant defense under drought conditions. For example, the soil bacterium Paenibacillus polymyx is reported to induce drought tolerance in Arabidopsis. The most significant effect of this bacteria was observed in the growth of legumes under water stress. Leguminous plants depend on soil rhizobium for nitrogen fixation - but rhizobia are extremely sensitive to drought stress, resulting in very low nitrogen fixation. However, soil mixed with P. polymyx resulted in increased nitrogen fixation by rhizobium and increased growth of the bean plant.

Excess water is equally as disastrous to plants as a lack of water. Too much water can suffocate plants by reducing air spaces in the soil, thereby restricting oxygen needed for cellular respiration. Certain woody plant species respond to flood conditions by developing hypertrophic growth that appears as swelling of tissues at the stem base. This hypertrophic growth may aid in the downward diffusion of oxygen as well as potential venting of toxic compounds (carbon dioxide, methane, and ethanol) formed from anaerobic metabolism. Other adaptive responses to flood stress include the formation of adventitious roots, increases in root porosity via specialized cells called aerenchyma cells, and a suberized exodermis to prevent loss of oxygen.

Plant Responses to Drought and Floods

Risposte a siccità e inondazioni

Water plays a significant role in the life cycle of plants. However, insufficient or excess of water can be detrimental and pose a serious threat to ...