Esta investigación fue financiada y realizada bajo la sección de evaluación de sistemas de Everglades del South Florida Water Management District.

1. preparación y transporte al lugar de plantación
<ol><li>Obtener 2 o 3 gal (7 u 11 L) plantones de las especies cultivadas localmente árboles nativos (en macetas de plástico), bolsas de turba (que mide 0.3 x 0.46 x 0,6 m3), picos de árboles y arbustos fertilizantes comerciales, cinta, tubería de cloruro de polivinilo (PVC) (2 a 3 m de largo, 0,8 pulgadas (2,1 cm) diámetro de conducto programar 40), la caja de corte, bolsas de basura y una barra de metal o barras de refuerzo (1 a 2 m de largo, 1,3 cm de diámetro) para pinchar las bolsas de turba. Especies de árbol potencial aplicables a los Everglades son Annona glabra, Ficus aurea, y Acer rubrum. Se recomienda usar guantes de trabajo.</li>
	<li>Determinar la mejor ubicación para desplegar los pop-ups, normalmente en una zona alta de la isla del árbol fantasma con por lo menos 0,3 m de la turba queda sobre el lecho de roca donde se minimizaría la inundación durante la estación lluviosa.</li>
	<li>Transporte de plantones, bolsas de turba comercial (uno por árbol joven), árboles y arbustos de pinchos de fertilizante (1 por joven), cinta adhesiva para conductos (número de rodillos según sea el caso), tubo de PVC (dos por pimpollo) y otras herramientas y materiales a la ubicación de la plantación (normalmente por airboat).</li>
</ol>2. Ensamble
Nota: Montar el arbolito en maceta y pop-up (pasos 2.1-2.6) en el barco antes de poner en el agua sobre la isla del árbol (paso 3)
<ol><li>Deslice el pote plástico las raíces de plantones y sustrato y cortar un agujero grande en la parte inferior de la olla o quitar el fondo entero de cada olla de pimpollo con un cúter o tijeras (figura 1).</li>
	<li>Deslice el bote con el fondo abierto en las raíces de plantones y sustrato para la inserción en la bolsa de turba.</li>
	<li>Hacer un 20-30 cm en forma de X corte (un poco más grande que el diámetro de la olla) en la bolsa de turba en el centro de lo que será la superficie superior, usando un cortador de la caja.</li>
	<li>Quite de 2.000 a 5.000 cm3 (aproximadamente la mitad del volumen de la olla) el contenido de la bolsa de turba de la abertura en forma de X y el lugar en una bolsa de basura para el retiro.</li>
	<li>Coloque la olla sin fondo con la joven dentro de la abertura, depresión en forma de X creada mediante la eliminación de la turba de la bolsa de turba. El bote sin fondo debe ser sobre a medio camino abajo de la abertura en forma de X, con los puntos (triángulos) apuntando contra los lados de la maceta (figura 2). Los arbolitos se dejan en las macetas para proporcionar elevación adicional y soporte físico.</li>
	<li>Fijar el bote en su lugar con varias bobinas de cinta alrededor de la olla y cubrir los triángulos de la bolsa. Esto colocar los triángulos de la bolsa a la olla (figura 3) y mantener el bote en su lugar durante los próximos 2-3 años de crecimiento. Esto crea la ventana emergente.</li>
</ol>3. emergente despliegue
<ol><li>Sistema pop-up en el agua. Entrar en el agua y mover la ventana emergente flotante al sitio de plantación.</li>
	<li>Atar el pop-up en su lugar con dos aproximadamente de 2 a 3 m largos de tubería de PVC se insertan a través de la bolsa a cada lado de la joven, en aproximadamente un tercio a media m del sustrato (suelo debajo de la bolsa) (figura 3).</li>
	<li>Pinchar las bolsas en la parte superior, inferior y lados por conducir la varilla (varilla) completamente a través de la bolsa, creando aberturas (por lo menos cuatro en la parte superior/parte inferior) y cuatro en cada lado para permitir que el agua para entrar y para permitir que las raíces que emergen (figura 3). Los pop-ups flotará alrededor de 6 meses.</li>
	<li>Inserte una espiga de fertilizantes árbol enteramente en la parte superior de la bolsa en uno de los lugares indicados en la figura 3.</li>
</ol>4. seguimiento de mantenimiento, mediciones y la eliminación de plásticos
<ol><li>Volver al sitio con tanta frecuencia que considere necesaria, particularmente siguientes tormentas severas y tenga en cuenta la condición y la supervivencia y medir la altura del árbol y diámetro basal de cada árbol restante sobre una base anual.</li>
	<li>Después de 3 años, volver al sitio con caja cuchillas/tijeras y bolsas de basura para quitar los botes y el plástico de la turba del bolso y reciclan. El pote y el plástico de la bolsa (parte superior y lados) se quitan fácilmente sin molestar a la joven; el plástico debajo de la bolsa de turba puede no ser accesible (figura 4).</li>
	<li>Volver al sitio sobre una base anual para evaluar el crecimiento y la supervivencia.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , (2002).</li><li>Wetzel, P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintaining+tree+islands+in+the+Florida+Everglades:+nutrient+redistribution+is+the+key.">Maintaining tree islands in the Florida Everglades: nutrient redistribution is the key.</a> Front Ecol Environ. 3 (7), 370-376 (2005).</li><li>Aich, S., Ewe, S. M. L., Gu, B., Dreschel, T. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+evaluation+of+peat+loss+from+an+Everglades+tree+island,+Florida,+USA.">An evaluation of peat loss from an Everglades tree island, Florida, USA.</a> Mires and Peat. 14 (2014), 1-15 (2014).</li><li>Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E. A., Hill, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everglades+tree+island+restoration:+testing+a+simple+tree+planting+technique+patterned+after+a+natural+process.">Everglades tree island restoration: testing a simple tree planting technique patterned after a natural process.</a> Restor Ecol. , (2017).</li><li>Stanturf, J. A., Conner, W. H., Gardiner, E. S., Schweitzer, C. J., Ezell, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recognizing+and+Overcoming+Difficult+Site+Conditions+for+Afforestation+of+Bottomland+Hardwoods.">Recognizing and Overcoming Difficult Site Conditions for Afforestation of Bottomland Hardwoods.</a> Ecol Restor. 22 (3), 183-193 (2004).</li><li>Sharitz, R., Barton, C. D., DeSteven, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tree+Plantings+in+Depression+Wetland+Restorations+Show+Mixed+Success+(South+Carolina).">Tree Plantings in Depression Wetland Restorations Show Mixed Success (South Carolina).</a> Ecol Restor. 24 (2), 114-115 (2006).</li><li>Brandt, L. A., Portier, K. M., Kitchens, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patterns+of+Change+in+Tree+Islands+in+Arthur+R.+Marshall+Loxahatchee+National+Wildlife+Refuge+from+1950-1991.">Patterns of Change in Tree Islands in Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge from 1950-1991.</a> Wetlands. 20 (1), 1-14 (2000).</li><li>Armentano, T. V., Jones, D. T., Ross, M. S., Gamble, B. W., Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vegetation+pattern+and+process+in+tree+islands+of+the+southern+Everglades+and+adjacent+areas.">Vegetation pattern and process in tree islands of the southern Everglades and adjacent areas.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , 225-281 (2002).</li><li>Jones, D. T., Sah, J. P., Ross, M. S., Oberbauer, S. F., Hwang, B., Jayachandran, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+and+physiological+responses+of+twelve+tree+species+common+in+Everglades+tree+islands+to+simulated+hydrologic+regimes.">Growth and physiological responses of twelve tree species common in Everglades tree islands to simulated hydrologic regimes.</a> Wetlands. 26 (3), 830-844 (2006).</li><li>Stoffella, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+growth+responses+of+eight+Everglades+tree+species+along+an+experimental+hydrological+gradient+on+two+tree+island+types.">Survival and growth responses of eight Everglades tree species along an experimental hydrological gradient on two tree island types.</a> Appl Veg Sci. 13 (4), 439-449 (2010).</li><li>Aich, S., Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E., Sklar, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+of+a+geographic+information+system+(GIS)+to+document+research+in+an+Everglades+physical+Model.">The development of a geographic information system (GIS) to document research in an Everglades physical Model.</a> J Environ Sci Eng. 5 (2011), 289-302 (2011).</li><li>Weinbaum, S. A., Johnson, R. S., DeJong, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Causes+and+Consequences+of+Overfertilization+in+Orchards.">Causes and Consequences of Overfertilization in Orchards.</a> HortTechnology. 2 (1), 112-121 (1992).</li></ol>

Este trabajo fue realizado bajo financiamiento y supervisión de la South Florida Water Management District, una agencia del estado de la Florida. La Florida goza de una ley de registros públicos amplios. Este documento está sujeto a esa ley y considerado como parte del registro público.

Este enfoque propuesto a replantar islas de árbol permite el aumento en la elevación y distribución de los árboles de un hidrodeslizador sin la construcción de carreteras requerida traer llenado a cada sitio. Esto minimiza el costo y el disturbio de la implementación de plantaciones de la isla del árbol.
Un problema con esta técnica es los problemas estéticos y ambientales asociados con poner una gran cantidad de tubos de PVC, bolsas de plástico y envases de plástico en una caracter...

Recolonización natural de islas de árboles Everglade degradadas por árboles de especies nativas es posible a través de la dispersión de semillas si hay cerca de las islas con una diversidad de especies de árbol1,2. Según Sklar y van der Valk1 restauración de islas árbol desplomado severamente puede ser posible, "por"elevar la elevación de la cabeza, aunque esos esfuerzos sería costosos y trabajo. Actualmente, hay muy pocos árboles nativos (deseables) presentes cerca de las islas de árbol (también conocido como "fantasma") degradadas en área de conservación de agua de Everglades (WCA)-2A (uno de cinco WCAs creó para almacenar el agua para evitar inundaciones de entorno urbano y áreas agrícolas) para proporcionar las semillas para recolonizar el árbol degradado islas3.
Para elevar la altura de una isla del árbol desplomado para reforestación, llenado adecuado tendría que ser transportado a la isla. Esto requeriría la construcción de carreteras para los camiones o la creación de vías fluviales para barcazas, llevando a daño severo a los Everglades con un gran costo financiero. Una técnica simple y de bajo costo es necesario repoblar islas árbol degradadas con especies nativas de árboles que proporcionarán elevación (reducir el gradiente) y mejorar la supervivencia en la variable Hidrología endémica de los Everglades4.
El tamaño de estas ventanas emergentes permite la facilidad de transporte al sitio de plantación. Esto proporciona una ventaja en comparación con el relleno de las áreas convencionales y plantación de árboles que pueden requerir caminos ser construido para el transporte. Así, esta técnica reduce el impacto ecológico de la actividad de plantación de árboles. Además, estas ventanas emergentes tienen la capacidad de flotar de los seis meses después de la implementación, para permitir el establecimiento de la joven. Bajo escenarios de plantación de árboles convencionales, los árboles pueden experimentar estrés inundación mayor durante el establecimiento si el nivel del agua sube.
Un número de diseños fueron probado y se determinó que mayor altura emergente (orientación de la bolsa), una espiga de fertilizante de árbol para agregar nutrientes y plantar el pop-up con un solo pimpollo alcanzó la mejor configuración para la implementación sobre un Everglade degradado Isla de árbol4. Aunque otros investigadores describen la plantación de árboles para restaurar humedales forestales áreas5,6, a nuestro conocimiento, ninguna de las técnicas de siembra descritas añadido elevación para reducir el gradiente.
Este procedimiento simula la formación de Everglades árbol islas que surgen de la turba que rompe la roca y flota a la superficie flotantes. Las plantas pueden establecer a forma una isla flotante o "pop-up" el árbol que se mueve y se instala en la superficie de la turba y se convierte en lo que se denomina una "batería" árbol isla1,7.
Everglades isla árbol árboles tienen diferentes tolerancias a las inundaciones para el crecimiento y la supervivencia8,9,10. En un estudio controlado, Jones et al. demostró la importancia de la gradiente para la supervivencia de Everglades árbol isla especies9. Stoffella et al encontró que la elevación relativa (a la superficie del agua) tenía diversos y profundos efectos sobre la supervivencia de las especies nativas plantadas de árboles y el crecimiento, debido a la tolerancia específica de cada especie a inundaciones10. Especies de árboles pueden seleccionarse para las condiciones específicas presentes. El árbol de la siembra técnica descrita aquí puede proporcionar elevación adicional y por lo tanto, fuentes de semillas de árboles en regiones antiguamente boscosas que han perdido altura y están ahora sujetos a un entorno de inundación que es dañino a especies nativas de árboles.
Antes regiones boscosas que hidroperiodos extendido podrían beneficiarse de este método para reintroducir especies leñosas a estas áreas. Esta técnica proporciona una elevación, reduciendo el gradiente. Además, los árboles se construir suelo (biomasa de raíz y hoja) y proporcionar una fuente de semilla para la continua colonización de la zona.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>One or Two Gallon Native Tree Saplings in plastic pots.</td>
			<td>Local Native Plant Nurseries</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Obtain native tree saplings grown from locally obtained seed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Commercial Peat Bags. 5 cubic ft.</td>
			<td>Lambert</td>
			<td>Lambert Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss (6649801115)</td>
			<td>Product description: Lambert peat moss is an excellent soil amendment because of its capacity to retain water, aerate the soil and it is completely natural. All of Lambert&#39;s peat moss packages carry the OMRI (Organic Material Review Institute) logo, which indicates that they are approved for use in organic production. Size: 5.5 cu.ft.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vigoro Tree Spikes (Tree and Shrub Fertilizer Spikes, 15-Count)</td>
			<td>Vigoro, Swiss Farms Products Inc.</td>
			<td>Model # 154205</td>
			<td>GUARANTEED ANALYSIS (%) TOTAL IN PRODUCT (ppm): Total Nitrogen (N) 12.0000; Available Phosphoric Acid (P2O5) 5.0000; Soluble Potash (K2O) 7.0000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC Pipe: 1/2 in schedule 40</td>
			<td>JM Eagle</td>
			<td>Model # 67447</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Duct Tape, 1-7/8 in x 12 yds</td>
			<td>MSC Industrial Supply</td>
			<td>Gorilla Heavy-Duty Duct Tape, Model# 60012</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metal Rod (Rebar 1.3 cm diameter, 1.2 m long)</td>
			<td>Weyerhaeuser</td>
			<td>Model # 35616</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Box Cutter</td>
			<td>Stanley</td>
			<td>Model # STHT10273</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Work Gloves</td>
			<td>Firm Grip</td>
			<td>Model # 3101-96</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trash Bags (42 gallon)</td>
			<td>HUSKY</td>
			<td>Model # HK42WC050B</td>
			<td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a simple planting technique for re-establishing trees where frequent inundation occurs

Muchas de las islas de árboles de Everglades han perdido elevación durante el siglo pasado y ha muerto la mayoría de sus árboles que ahora están cubiertas con plantas herbáceas. Este protocolo describe una técnica para restaurar degradados Everglade árbol islas de plantación de árboles simple y rentable. El diseño está inspirado en un natural proceso de Everglades que crea islas flotantes de la turba, que permite el crecimiento y la supervivencia del árbol en condiciones de inundación y a menudo conduce al desarrollo de las islas de árboles. Bolsas de turba comercialmente disponibles fueron utilizados como el medio para el crecimiento y establecimiento de las plántulas de árboles nativos en maceta. La configuración emergente había flotada inicialmente y proporciona la elevación adicional para minimizar la inundación, con un retoño de la especie de árbol nativo y un alza de fertilizante del árbol. Durante un estudio de 3 años con 105 pop-ups, la mayoría plantas sobrevivieron (80%) y muchos prosperaron. Determinar si esta técnica puede establecer árboles en una isla de árboles degradados requerirá más estudios y pruebas de campo extenso.

Estudio utilizando la técnica4 se llevó a cabo dentro de un 0.32 km2 Everglades modelo físico11, en un canto para simular pruebas en una isla del árbol fantasma. Durante este estudio, dos bolsa de orientaciones para la altura (baja: 0,3 m, alto: 0,46 m), con una versus dos plantones por bolsa de crecimiento, fueron probados así como el uso de árbol fertilizantes spikes para promover el crecimiento y la supervivencia. Se util...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs at JoVE.com

A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

Este protocolo describe una técnica para restaurar degradadas islas árbol de Everglades que experimentan inundaciones de plantación de árboles simple y rentable. El diseño crea una isla (emergente) que inicialmente flota y agrega elevación para promover crecimiento bajo condiciones de inundación y la supervivencia del árbol.

Una sencilla técnica de plantación para restablecer los árboles donde se produce la inundación frecuente

Many of the Everglades tree islands have lost elevation over the past century and most of their trees have died such that they are now covered with ...

a-simple-planting-technique-for-re-establishing-trees-where-frequent

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

6.1K vistas.  South Florida Water Management District. Este protocolo describe una técnica para restaurar degradadas islas árbol de Everglades que experimentan inundaciones de plantación de árboles simple y rentable. El diseño crea una isla (emergente) que inicialmente flota y agrega elevación para promover crecimiento bajo condiciones de inundación y la supervivencia del árbol.

Video: A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

Technique for Studying Arthropod and Microbial Communities within Tree Tissues

Phloem tissues of pine are habitats for many thousands of organisms. Arthropods and microbes use phloem and cambium tissues to seek mates, lay eggs, rear young, feed, or hide from natural enemies or harsh environmental conditions outside of the tree. Organisms that persist within the phloem habitat are difficult to observe given their location under bark. We provide a technique to preserve intact phloem and prepare it for experimentation with invertebrates and microorganisms. The apparatus is called a &#8216;phloem sandwich&#8217; and allows for the introduction and observation of arthropods, microbes, and other organisms. This technique has resulted in a better understanding of the feeding behaviors, life-history traits, reproduction, development, and interactions of organisms within tree phloem. The strengths of this technique include the use of inexpensive materials, variability in sandwich size, flexibility to re-open the sandwich or introduce multiple organisms through drilled holes, and the preservation and maintenance of phloem integrity. The phloem sandwich is an excellent educational tool for scientific discovery in both K-12 science courses and university research laboratories.

We provide a technique to preserve intact tree phloem and prepare it for observation. We create an apparatus called a phloem sandwich that allows for the introduction and observation of arthropods, microbes, and other organisms that inhabit phloem tissues.

Técnica para el estudio de los artrópodos y las comunidades microbianas dentro de los tejidos del árbol

Phloem tissues of pine are habitats for many thousands of organisms.  Arthropods and microbes use phloem and cambium tissues to seek mates, lay eggs, rear ...

Investigación

Medio ambiente

A Venturi Effect Can Help Cure Our Trees

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. According to these factors and their dynamics, small amounts of sap-compatible liquids (i.e. pesticides) can be injected into the xylem system, reaching their target from inside. This endotherapic method, called &#34;trunk injection&#34; or &#34;trunk infusion&#34; (depending on whether the user supplies an external pressure or not), confines the applied chemicals only within the target tree, thereby making it particularly useful in urban situations. The main factors limiting wider use of the traditional drilling methods are related to negative side effects of the holes that must be drilled around the trunk circumference in order to gain access to the xylem vessels beneath the bark.
The University of Padova (Italy) recently developed a manual, drill-free instrument with a small, perforated blade that enters the trunk by separating the woody fibers with minimal friction. Furthermore, the lenticular shaped blade reduces the vessels&#39; cross section, increasing sap velocity and allowing the natural uptake of an external liquid up to the leaves, when transpiration rate is substantial. Ports partially close soon after the removal of the blade due to the natural elasticity and turgidity of the plant tissues, and the cambial activity completes the healing process in few weeks.

Compared to the more traditional hole-based methods, most of which require the tree to be drilled, tools with lenticular blades transform the basics of endotherapy easing the closure of the wound and allowing the natural uptake of the solutions.

Un Efecto Venturi puede ayudar a curar nuestros árboles

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. ...

A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.)

Beech bark disease (BBD) results in high levels of initial mortality, leaving behind survivor trees that are greatly weakened and deformed.&#160;The disease is initiated by feeding activities of the invasive beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, which creates entry points for infection by one of the Neonectria species of fungus.&#160;Without scale infestation, there is little opportunity for fungal infection. Using scale eggs to artificially infest healthy trees in heavily BBD impacted stands demonstrated that these trees were resistant to the scale insect portion of the disease complex1.&#160;Here we present a protocol that we have developed, based on the artificial infestation technique by Houston2, which can be used to screen for scale-resistant trees in the field and in smaller potted seedlings and grafts.&#160;The identification of scale-resistant trees is an important component of management of BBD through tree improvement programs and silvicultural manipulation.

A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.

Beech bark disease is initiated by feeding activities of the beech scale insect that create fungal entry points in the bark.&#160;Trees that are resistant to the scale insect are also disease resistant.&#160;Here we present the protocol we have developed to screen individual beech trees for beech scale resistance.

Una técnica a la pantalla haya americana para la resistencia al insecto Haya Scale (<em&gt; Fagisuga Cryptococcus</em&gt; Lind.)

Beech bark disease (BBD) results in high levels of initial mortality, leaving behind survivor trees that are greatly weakened and deformed.&#160;The ...

Experimental Protocol for Manipulating Plant-induced Soil Heterogeneity

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as plant-soil feedbacks (PSF) have large effects on plant performance, and create environmental heterogeneity that depends on the community composition. Understanding the importance of PSF for plant community assembly necessitates understanding of the role of heterogeneity in PSF, in addition to mean PSF effects. Here, we describe a protocol for manipulating plant-induced soil heterogeneity. Two example experiments are presented: (1) a field experiment with a 6-patch grid of soils to measure plant population responses and (2) a greenhouse experiment with 2-patch soils to measure individual plant responses. Soils can be collected from the zone of root influence (soils from the rhizosphere and directly adjacent to the rhizosphere) of plants in the field from conspecific and heterospecific plant species. Replicate collections are used to avoid pseudoreplicating soil samples. These soils are then placed into separate patches for heterogeneous treatments or mixed for a homogenized treatment. Care should be taken to ensure that heterogeneous and homogenized treatments experience the same degree of soil disturbance. Plants can then be placed in these soil treatments to determine the effect of plant-induced soil heterogeneity on plant performance. We demonstrate that plant-induced heterogeneity results in different outcomes than predicted by traditional coexistence models, perhaps because of the dynamic nature of these feedbacks. Theory that incorporates environmental heterogeneity influenced by the assembling community and additional empirical work is needed to determine when heterogeneity intrinsic to the assembling community will result in different assembly outcomes compared with heterogeneity extrinsic to the community composition.

Understanding the role of environmental heterogeneity in species coexistence has typically focused on types of heterogeneity that are extrinsic to the community&#8217;s species composition. We provide novel detailed methods for creating soil heterogeneity treatments using soils subject to plant-soil feedback conditioning, or heterogeneity intrinsic to the community composition.

Protocolo Experimental para la inducida por la planta Manipulación de la heterogeneidad del suelo

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as ...

A Simple Method for Automated Solid Phase Extraction of Water Samples for Immunological Analysis of Small Pollutants

A new method for solid phase extraction (SPE) of environmental water samples is proposed. The developed prototype is cost-efficient and user friendly, and enables to perform rapid, automated and simple SPE. The pre-concentrated solution is compatible with analysis by immunoassay, with a low organic solvent content. A method is described for the extraction and pre-concentration of natural hormone 17&#946;-estradiol in 100 ml water samples. Reverse phase SPE is performed with octadecyl-silica sorbent and elution is done with 200 &#181;l of methanol 50% v/v. Eluent is diluted by adding di-water to lower the amount of methanol. After preparing manually the SPE column, the overall procedure is performed automatically within 1 hr. At the end of the process, estradiol concentration is measured by using a commercial enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA). 100-fold pre-concentration is achieved and the methanol content in only 10% v/v. Full recoveries of the molecule are achieved with 1 ng/L spiked de-ionized and synthetic sea water samples.

A protocol for the extraction and pre-concentration of estradiol from water samples by using an automated and miniaturized system is presented.

Un método simple para la fase sólida automatizada Extracción de muestras de agua para análisis inmunológico de los pequeños contaminantes

A new method for solid phase extraction (SPE) of environmental water samples is proposed. The developed prototype is cost-efficient and user friendly, and ...

Administering and Detecting Protein Marks on Arthropods for Dispersal Research

Monitoring arthropod movement is often required to better understand associated population dynamics, dispersal patterns, host plant preferences, and other ecological interactions. Arthropods are usually tracked in nature by tagging them with a unique mark and then re-collecting them over time and space to determine their dispersal capabilities. In addition to actual physical tags, such as colored dust or paint, various types of proteins have proven very effective for marking arthropods for ecological research. Proteins can be administered internally and/or externally. The proteins can then be detected on recaptured arthropods with a protein-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Here we describe protocols for externally and internally tagging arthropods with protein. Two simple experimental examples are demonstrated: (1) an internal protein mark introduced to an insect by providing a protein-enriched diet and (2) an external protein mark topically applied to an insect using a medical nebulizer. We then relate a step-by-step guide of the sandwich and indirect ELISA methods used to detect protein marks on the insects. In this demonstration, various aspects of the acquisition and detection of protein markers on arthropods for mark-release-recapture, mark-capture, and self-mark-capture types of research are discussed, along with the various ways that the immunomarking procedure has been adapted to suit a wide variety of research objectives.

Proteins are often used to mark arthropods for dispersal research. Methods for administering internal and external protein marks on arthropods are demonstrated. Protein mark detection techniques, either through indirect or sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), are also illustrated.

Administrar y Detección de Marcas de proteínas de Artrópodos de Dispersión de Investigación

Monitoring arthropod movement is often required to better understand associated population dynamics, dispersal patterns, host plant preferences, and other ...

A Simple Approach to Manipulate Dissolved Oxygen for Animal Behavior Observations

The ability to manipulate dissolved oxygen (DO) in a laboratory setting has significant application to investigate a number of ecological and organismal behavior questions. The protocol described here provides a simple, reproducible, and controlled method to manipulate DO to study behavioral response in aquatic organisms resulting from hypoxic and anoxic conditions. While performing degasification of water with nitrogen is commonly used in laboratory settings, no explicit method for ecological (aquatic) application exists in the literature, and this protocol is the first to describe a protocol to degasify water to observe organismal response. This technique and protocol were developed for direct application for aquatic macroinvertebrates; however, small fish, amphibians, and other aquatic vertebrates could be easily substituted. It allows for easy manipulation of DO levels ranging from 2 mg/L to 11 mg/L with stability for up to a 5 min animal-observation period. Beyond a 5 min observation period water temperatures began to rise, and at 10 min DO levels became too unstable to maintain. The protocol is scalable to the study organism, reproducible, and reliable, allowing for rapid implementation into introductory teaching labs and high-level research applications. The expected results of this technique should relate dissolved oxygen changes to behavioral responses of organisms.

This article describes a simple and reproducible protocol to manipulate dissolved oxygen conditions in a laboratory setting for animal behavior studies. This protocol may be used in both teaching and research laboratory settings to evaluate organismal response of macroinvertebrates, fishes, or amphibians to changes in dissolved oxygen concentration.

Un enfoque simple para manipular el oxígeno disuelto para las observaciones de comportamiento animal

The ability to manipulate dissolved oxygen (DO) in a laboratory setting has significant application to investigate a number of ecological and organismal ...

Soil Lysimeter Excavation for Coupled Hydrological, Geochemical, and Microbiological Investigations

Studying co-evolution of hydrological and biogeochemical processes in the subsurface of natural landscapes can enhance the understanding of coupled Earth-system processes. Such knowledge is imperative in improving predictions of hydro-biogeochemical cycles, especially under climate change scenarios. We present an experimental method, designed to capture sub-surface heterogeneity of an initially homogeneous soil system. This method is based on destructive sampling of a soil lysimeter designed to simulate a small-scale hillslope. A weighing lysimeter of one cubic meter capacity was divided into sections (voxels) and was excavated layer-by-layer, with sub samples being collected from each voxel. The excavation procedure was aimed at detecting the incipient heterogeneity of the system by focusing on the spatial assessment of hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological properties of the soil. Representative results of a few physicochemical variables tested show the development of heterogeneity. Additional work to test interactions between hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological signatures is planned to interpret the observed patterns. Our study also demonstrates the possibility of carrying out similar excavations in order to observe and quantify different aspects of soil-development under varying environmental conditions and scale.

This study presents an excavation method for investigating subsurface hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological heterogeneity of a soil lysimeter. The lysimeter simulates an artificial hillslope which was initially under homogeneous condition and had been subjected to approximately 5,000 mm of water over eight cycles of irrigation in an 18-month period.

Lisímetro suelo de excavación para acoplados hidrológicos, geoquímicos, e investigaciones microbiológicas

Studying co-evolution of hydrological and biogeochemical processes in the subsurface of natural landscapes can enhance the understanding of coupled ...

The Calibration and Use of Capacitance Sensors to Monitor Stem Water Content in Trees

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus area. Biomass capacitance plays an integral role in the avoidance of hydraulic impairment to transpiration. However, high temporal resolution measurements of dynamic changes in the hydraulic capacitance of large trees are rare. Here, we present procedures for the calibration and use of capacitance sensors, typically used to monitor soil water content, to measure the volumetric water content in trees in the field. Frequency domain reflectometry-style observations are sensitive to the density of the media being studied. Therefore, it is necessary to perform species-specific calibrations to convert from the sensor-reported values of dielectric permittivity to volumetric water content. Calibration is performed on a harvested branch or stem cut into segments that are dried or re-hydrated to produce a full range of water contents used to generate a best-fit regression with sensor observations. Sensors are inserted into calibration segments or installed in trees after pre-drilling holes to a tolerance fit using a fabricated template to ensure proper drill alignment. Special care is taken to ensure that sensor tines make good contact with the surrounding media, while allowing them to be inserted without excessive force. Volumetric water content dynamics observed via the presented methodology align with sap flow measurements recorded using thermal dissipation techniques and environmental forcing data. Biomass water content data can be used to observe the onset of water stress, drought response and recovery, and has the potential to be applied to the calibration and evaluation of new plant-level hydrodynamics models, as well as to the partitioning of remotely sensed moisture products into above- and belowground components.

The hydraulic capacitance of biomass is a key component of the vegetation water budget, which serves as a buffer against short and long-term drought stresses. Here, we present a protocol for the calibration and use of soil moisture capacitance sensors to monitor water content in the stems of large trees.

La calibración y uso de sensores de capacitancia para monitorear el contenido de agua del tallo en árboles

Water transport and storage through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is critical to the terrestrial water cycle, and has become a major research focus ...

Forced Flowering in Mandarin Trees under Phytotron Conditions

Phytotron has been widely used to assess the effect of numerous parameters on the development of many species. However, less information is available on how to achieve fast profuse flowering in young fruit trees with this plant growth chamber. This study aimed to outline the design and performance of a fast clear methodology to force flowering in young mandarin trees (cv. Nova and cv. Clemenules) and to analyze the influence of induction intensity on inflorescence type. The combination of a short water stress period with simulated spring conditions (day 13 h, 22 &#176;C, night 11 h, 12 &#176;C) in the phytotron allowed flowers to be obtained only after 68-72 days from the time the experiment began. Low-temperature requirements were adequately replaced with water stress. Floral response was proportional to water stress (measured as the number of fallen leaves): the greater the induction, the larger the quantity of flowers. Floral induction intensity also influenced inflorescence type and dates for flowering. Details on artificial lighting (lumens), photoperiod, temperatures, plant size and age, induction strategy and days for each stage are provided. Obtaining flowers from fruit trees at any time, and also several times a year, can have many advantages for researchers. With the methodology proposed herein, three, or even four, flowering periods can be forced each year, and researchers should be able to decide when, and they will know, the duration of the entire process. The methodology can be useful for: flower production and in vitro pollen germination assays; experiments with pests that affect early fruit development stages; studies on fruit physiological alterations. All this can help plant breeders to shorten times to obtain male and female gametes to perform forced-crosses.

Here, we present a protocol to force flowering in mandarin trees under phytotron conditions. Water stress, high illuminance and a simulated spring photoperiod allowed viable flowers to be obtained in a short period of time. This methodology allows researchers to have several flowering periods in 1 year.

Floración forzada en mandarinos Phytotron condiciones

Phytotron has been widely used to assess the effect of numerous parameters on the development of many species. However, less information is available on ...