이 연구는 캐나다의 자연 과학 및 공학위원회에서 발견 그랜트 (NSERC)에 의해 지원되었다.

<ol>
	<li>Dobrindt, U., Hochhut, B., Hentschel, U., Hacker, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+islands+in+pathogenic+and+environmental+microorganisms.">Genomic islands in pathogenic and environmental microorganisms.</a> Nat Rev Microbiol. 2 (5), 414-424 (2004).</li><li>Furuya, E. Y., Lowy, F. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antimicrobial-resistant+bacteria+in+the+community+setting.">Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in the community setting.</a> Nat Rev Microbiol. 4 (1), 36-45 (2006).</li><li>Griffiths, A., Miller, J., Suzuki, D., Lewontin, R., Gelbart, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> An Introduction to Genetic Analysis, 7th Edition. , (2000).</li><li>Cooper, T. F., Barton, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recombination+Speeds+Adaptation+by+Reducing+Competition+between+Beneficial+Mutations+in+Populations+of+Escherichia+coli.">Recombination Speeds Adaptation by Reducing Competition between Beneficial Mutations in Populations of Escherichia coli.</a> PLoS Biol. 5 (9), 225 (2007).</li><li>Lujan, S. A., Guogas, L. M., Ragonese, H., Matson, S. W., Redinbo, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disrupting+antibiotic+resistance+propagation+by+inhibiting+the+conjugative+DNA+relaxase.">Disrupting antibiotic resistance propagation by inhibiting the conjugative DNA relaxase.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci. 104 (30), 12282-12287 (2007).</li><li>Carattoli, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasmids+and+the+spread+of+resistance.">Plasmids and the spread of resistance.</a> Int J Med Microbiol. 303 (6-7), 298-304 (2013).</li><li>Shala, A., Ferraro, M., Audette, G. F., Bawa, R., Audette, G. F., Rubenstein, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+Secretion+Systems:+Nanomachines+for+Infection+and+Genetic+Diversity.">Bacterial Secretion Systems: Nanomachines for Infection and Genetic Diversity.</a> Handbook of Clinical Nanomedicine: Nanoparticles, Imaging, Therapy and Clinical Applications. , 657-686 (2016).</li><li>Tseng, T. T., Tyler, B. M., Setubal, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+secretion+systems+in+bacterial-host+associations,+and+their+description+in+the+Gene+Ontology.">Protein secretion systems in bacterial-host associations, and their description in the Gene Ontology.</a> BMC Microbiol. 9 (1), 2 (2009).</li><li>Alvarez-Martinez, C. E., Christie, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biological+diversity+of+prokaryotic+type+IV+secretion+systems.">Biological diversity of prokaryotic type IV secretion systems.</a> Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 73 (4), 775-808 (2009).</li><li>Lawley, T. D., Klimke, W. A., Gubbins, M. J., Frost, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=F+factor+conjugation+is+a+true+type+IV+secretion+system.">F factor conjugation is a true type IV secretion system.</a> FEMS Microbiol Lett. 224 (1), 1-15 (2003).</li><li>Lederberg, J., Tatum, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+Recombination+in+Escherichia+Coli.">Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli.</a> Nature. 158 (4016), 558-558 (1946).</li><li>Smillie, C., Garcillan-Barcia, M. P., Francia, M. V., Rocha, E. P. C., de la Cruz, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mobility+of+Plasmids.">Mobility of Plasmids.</a> Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 74 (3), 434-452 (2010).</li><li>Willetts, N., Skurray, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Conjugation+System+of+F-Like+Plasmids.">The Conjugation System of F-Like Plasmids.</a> Annu Rev Genet. 14 (1), 41-76 (1980).</li><li>Frost, L. S., Ippen-Ihler, K., Skurray, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+the+sequence+and+gene+products+of+the+transfer+region+of+the+F+sex+factor.">Analysis of the sequence and gene products of the transfer region of the F sex factor.</a> Microbiol Rev. 58 (2), 162-210 (1994).</li><li>Audette, G. F., Manchak, J., Beatty, P., Klimke, W. A., Frost, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Entry+exclusion+in+F-like+plasmids+requires+intact+TraG+in+the+donor+that+recognizes+its+cognate+TraS+in+the+recipient.">Entry exclusion in F-like plasmids requires intact TraG in the donor that recognizes its cognate TraS in the recipient.</a> Microbiology. 153, 442-451 (2007).</li><li>Christie, P. J., Atmakuri, K., Krishnamoorthy, V., Jakubowski, S., Cascales, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biogenesis,+Architecture,+and+Function+of+Bacterial+Type+Iv+Secretion+Systems.">Biogenesis, Architecture, and Function of Bacterial Type Iv Secretion Systems.</a> Annu Rev Microbiol. 59 (1), 451-485 (2005).</li><li>Christie, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Type+IV+secretion:+the+Agrobacterium+VirB/D4+and+related+conjugation+systems.">Type IV secretion: the Agrobacterium VirB/D4 and related conjugation systems.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta - Mol Cell Res. 1694 (1-3), 219-234 (2004).</li><li>Bhatty, M., Laverde Gomez, J. a., Christie, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+expanding+bacterial+type+IV+secretion+lexicon.">The expanding bacterial type IV secretion lexicon.</a> Res Microbiol. 164 (6), 620-639 (2013).</li><li>Christie, P. J., Cascales, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+dynamic+properties+of+bacterial+Type+IV+secretion+systems+(Review).">Structural and dynamic properties of bacterial Type IV secretion systems (Review).</a> Mol Membr Biol. 22 (1-2), 51-61 (2005).</li><li>Christie, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Type+IV+secretion:+Intercellular+transfer+of+macromolecules+by+systems+ancestrally+related+to+conjugation+machines.">Type IV secretion: Intercellular transfer of macromolecules by systems ancestrally related to conjugation machines.</a> Mol Microbiol. 40 (2), 294-305 (2001).</li><li>Christie, P. J., Whitaker, N., Gonz&#225;lez-Rivera, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+and+structure+of+the+bacterial+type+IV+secretion+systems.">Mechanism and structure of the bacterial type IV secretion systems.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta. 1843 (8), 1578-1591 (2014).</li><li>Cascales, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+type+VI+secretion+toolkit.">The type VI secretion toolkit.</a> EMBO Rep. 9, 735 (2008).</li><li>Silverman, J. M., Brunet, Y. R., Cascales, E., Mougous, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+and+Regulation+of+the+Type+VI+Secretion+System.">Structure and Regulation of the Type VI Secretion System.</a> Annu Rev Microbiol. 66 (1), 453-472 (2012).</li><li>Chandran, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+of+the+outer+membrane+complex+of+a+type+IV+secretion+system.">Structure of the outer membrane complex of a type IV secretion system.</a> Nature. 462 (7276), 1011-1015 (2009).</li><li>Rivera-Calzada, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+of+a+bacterial+type+IV+secretion+core+complex+at+subnanometre+resolution.">Structure of a bacterial type IV secretion core complex at subnanometre resolution.</a> EMBO J. 32 (8), 1195-1204 (2013).</li><li>Waksman, G., Fronzes, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+architecture+of+bacterial+type+IV+secretion+systems.">Molecular architecture of bacterial type IV secretion systems.</a> Trends Biochem Sci. 35, 691 (2010).</li><li>Fronzes, R., Christie, P. J., Waksman, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+structural+biology+of+type+IV+secretion+systems.">The structural biology of type IV secretion systems.</a> Nat Rev Microbiol. 7 (10), 703-714 (2009).</li><li>Kaplan, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+a+cell-embedded+megadalton+protein+complex+by+DNP-supported+solid-state+NMR.">Probing a cell-embedded megadalton protein complex by DNP-supported solid-state NMR.</a> Nat Methods. 12 (7), 5-9 (2015).</li><li>Guyer, M. S., Reed, R. R., Steitz, J. A., Low, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+a+sex-factor-affinity+site+in+E.+coli+as+gamma+delta.">Identification of a sex-factor-affinity site in E. coli as gamma delta.</a> Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 45, 135-140 (1981).</li><li>Anthony, K. G., Sherburne, C., Sherburne, R., Frost, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+the+pilus+in+recipient+cell+recognition+during+bacterial+conjugation+mediated+by+F-like+plasmids.">The role of the pilus in recipient cell recognition during bacterial conjugation mediated by F-like plasmids.</a> Mol Microbiol. 13 (6), 939-953 (1994).</li><li>Jobling, M. G., Holmes, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Construction+of+vectors+with+the+pl5a+replicon,+kanamycin+resistance,+inducible+lacZ&#945;+and+pUC18+or+pUC19+multiple+cloning+sites.">Construction of vectors with the pl5a replicon, kanamycin resistance, inducible lacZ&#945; and pUC18 or pUC19 multiple cloning sites.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 18 (17), 5315 (1990).</li><li>Guzman, L. M., Belin, D., Carson, M. J., Beckwith, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tight+regulation,+modulation,+and+high-level+expression+by+vectors+containing+the+arabinose+P(BAD)+promoter.">Tight regulation, modulation, and high-level expression by vectors containing the arabinose P(BAD) promoter.</a> J Bacteriol. 177 (14), 4121-4130 (1995).</li><li>Yu, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+efficient+recombination+system+for+chromosome+engineering+in+Escherichia+coli.">An efficient recombination system for chromosome engineering in Escherichia coli.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 97 (11), 5978-5983 (2009).</li><li>Lawley, T. D., Gilmour, M. W., Gunton, J. E., Standeven, L. J., Taylor, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+and+Mutational+Analysis+of+Conjugative+Transfer+Region+1+(Tra1)+from+the+IncHI1+Plasmid+R27.">Functional and Mutational Analysis of Conjugative Transfer Region 1 (Tra1) from the IncHI1 Plasmid R27.</a> J Bacteriol. 184 (8), 2173-2180 (2002).</li><li>Elton, T. C., Holland, S. J., Frost, L. S., Hazes, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=F-Like+Type+IV+Secretion+Systems+Encode+Proteins+with+Thioredoxin+Folds+That+Are+Putative+DsbC+Homologues.">F-Like Type IV Secretion Systems Encode Proteins with Thioredoxin Folds That Are Putative DsbC Homologues.</a> J Bacteriol. 187 (24), 8267-8277 (2005).</li><li>Hazes, B., Frost, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+a+systems+biology+approach+to+study+type+II/IV+secretion+systems.">Towards a systems biology approach to study type II/IV secretion systems.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta. 1778, 1839-1850 (2008).</li><li>Lento, C., Ferraro, M., Wilson, D., Audette, G. F., Tsolis, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HDX-MS+and+deletion+analysis+of+the+type+4+secretion+system+protein+TraF+from+the+Escherichia+coli+F+plasmid.">HDX-MS and deletion analysis of the type 4 secretion system protein TraF from the Escherichia coli F plasmid.</a> FEBS Lett. 590 (3), 376-386 (2016).</li><li>Audette, G. F., Van Schaik, E. J., Hazes, B., Irvin, R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA-binding+protein+nanotubes:+Learning+from+nature's+nanotech+examples.">DNA-binding protein nanotubes: Learning from nature's nanotech examples.</a> Nano Lett. 4, 1897-1902 (2004).</li><li>Harris, R. L., Silverman, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tra+proteins+characteristic+of+F-like+type+IV+secretion+systems+constitute+an+interaction+group+by+yeast+two-hybrid+analysis.">Tra proteins characteristic of F-like type IV secretion systems constitute an interaction group by yeast two-hybrid analysis.</a> J Bacteriol. 186 (16), 5480-5485 (2004).</li><li>Moore, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+the+F-Plasmid+Conjugative+Transfer+Gene+traU.">Characterization of the F-Plasmid Conjugative Transfer Gene traU.</a> J Bacteriol. 172 (8), 4263-4270 (1990).</li><li>Anthony, K. G., Sherburne, C., Sherburne, R., Frost, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+the+pilus+in+recipient+cell+recognition+during+bacterial+conjugation+mediated+by+F-like+plasmids.">The role of the pilus in recipient cell recognition during bacterial conjugation mediated by F-like plasmids.</a> Mol Microbiol. 13 (6), 939-953 (1994).</li><li>Klimke, W. A., Frost, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+analysis+of+the+role+of+the+transfer+gene,+traN,+of+the+F+and+R100-1+plasmids+in+mating+pair+stabilization+during+conjugation.">Genetic analysis of the role of the transfer gene, traN, of the F and R100-1 plasmids in mating pair stabilization during conjugation.</a> J Bacteriol. 180 (16), 4036-4043 (1998).</li><li>Jiang, W., Marraffini, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR-Cas:+New+Tools+for+Genetic+Manipulations+from+Bacterial+Immunity+Systems.">CRISPR-Cas: New Tools for Genetic Manipulations from Bacterial Immunity Systems.</a> Annu Rev Microbiol. 69 (1), 209-228 (2015).</li><li>Dahlberg, C., Bergstrom, M., Andreasen, M., Christensen, B. B., Molin, S., Hermansson, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interspecies+bacterial+conjugation+by+plasmids+from+marine+environments+visualized+by+gfp+expression.">Interspecies bacterial conjugation by plasmids from marine environments visualized by gfp expression.</a> Mol Biol Evol. 15 (4), 385-390 (1998).</li></ol>

저자는 더 경쟁 재정적 이해 관계가 없음을 선언합니다.

접합 공정은 박테리아와 같은 항생제 내성 마커의 확산 등의 어려운 환경에서 성장을 위해 진화하는 장점을 제공하는 유전자를 확산 할 수있는 수단을 제공한다. 공역 플라스미드 많은 너무 크기 때문에, 공역 플라스미드 자체의 표적 유전자의 돌연변이를 통해 전송 장치의 조립에 관여하는 단백질의 기능 연구 12 다루기이다. 본원에 설명 된 프로토콜을 하나 더 쉽게 더 작고 관리 발현 ?...

미세 유기체의 수준에서의 유전자 및 단백질의 전사는 박테리아의 생존과 발전뿐만 아니라 감염 과정에서 중요한 역할을한다. 박테리아 사이 또는 박테리아 및 세포 간 DNA의 교환은 변형, 결합, 벡터 전달을 통해 달성 될 수있다. 1,2- 활용은 대장균 등의 그람 음성균 간의 접합시 점에서 변환 및 전달에 비해 독특 DNA의 전사는 복합 고분자 시스템 공여자와 전지를 연결함으로써 도너 - 제어 방식으로 발생한다. 활용은 박테리아 세포는 호스트 시스템에서 유전자, 단백질 또는 화학 물질을 주입하는 숙주 세포와 상호 작용하는 가장 직접적인 방법입니다. 3 종종, 이러한 에이전트의 전송은 진화와 적응을 호스팅하는 기전과 발암에 이르기까지 호스트에 놀라운 효과를 가지고있다. 그것은 그 공역 recombinatio을 보였다n은 환경 스트레스 조건에서 높은 돌연변이 속도와 박테리아에 적응 3 배의 속도를 증가시킨다. (4) 또한, 접합은 균주의 항생제 내성 유전자가 확산되는을 통해 지금까지 가장 일반적인 경로입니다. 5,6 미생물 세포막 전체 거대 분자의 전달을 지원하기 위해 특수 분비 시스템 진화; 설명 된 그람 음성 세균에서 분비 시스템 (TSSs)의 9 종류의 현재 위치 : T1SS, T2SS, T3SS, T4SS, T5SS, T6SS, T7SS뿐만 아니라 초 (분비)과 문신이 (두 아르기닌 전위) 경로. 분비 시스템의 7,8 각 유형은 또한 다른 균주에 의한 단백질의 다양성과 관련된 경로의 특수성에, 다른 하위 유형으로 필요성을 분할된다. 예를 들어, 타입 IV 분비 시스템 (T4SS)에있어서, Ti 및 CAG 시스템은 F-플라스미드 반면 이펙터 전송을 용이 R27 A를차 pKM101 T4SSs는 공역 플라스미드의 이동을 용이하게한다. 생물받는 사람이나 자신의 주변 환경과 휴대 내용을 자신의 구성 요소 단백질에서 각각 분비 시스템을 조립하고 공유하는 메커니즘의 7,9,10 자세한 이해는 병원성 미생물의 프로세스에 대처하기 위해 대상 전략의 개발에 중요한 요소이다 세포 감염. Lederberg 및 테이텀 (11)에 의한 대장균의 초기 식별 접합 다음 모바일 공역 플라스미드 다수 확인되고 특성화되었다. (12) 이러한 모바일 플라스미드 그러나 모든 모바일 플라스미드 전송 (기술 Orit)하여 플라스미드의 전송을 가능하게하는 근원을 인식하는 relaxase를 포함, 상당한 범위 (1에서 200 킬로베이스 (킬로바이트)로) 크기가 표시됩니다. 공역 기능 T4SS 조립 용 플라스미드를 더 인코딩 유전자뿐만 아니라, 형IV 결합 단백질. 도 12는 예를 들어 대장균 100킬로바이트 F 플라스미드 33.3 kB의 전송 (TRA) 영역 내의 모든 공역 유전자를 암호화한다. 13 쌍의 형성 (MPF), DNA 전송 및 제외 기능을 짝짓기 pilus 형성을 촉진 모든 단백질 공역 플라스미드 전송시 F 플라스미드 인코딩의 TRA 지역에서 유전자. 10,14,15 지식의 중요한 몸은 공역 T4SSs 사용할 수 있습니다, 그러나 단지 최근에 사용 가능한되고있다 공역 단백질 복합체의 구조 연구를 설명. 16-28 공역 처리의 광범위한 관점을 조립하기 위해, 전사 공역 단백질의 돌연변이를 분석하는 상세한 구조 연구의 결합이 필요하다. 이 공역 정합 분석을 통해 달성 될 수있다. 은 F 플라스미드를 들어, TRA 영역 내에 인코딩 각 단백질은 F-CO 매개하는 역할njugation; 따라서, 전달 유전자의 녹아웃 / 삭제 셀 (도 1)의 공역 용량을 폐지 할 것이다. 작은 이동 플라스미드는 F와 같은 큰 공역 플라스미드위한 표준 삭제 절차에 더 도움이되는 동안 표적 유전자는 하나의 별개의 항생제 내성 유전자를 전달로 치환되는 경우, 유전자 녹아웃보다 쉽게 ​​상동 재조합을 통해 달성된다. 현재의 프로토콜에서, 우리는 55킬로바이트 F 플라스미드 유도체 pOX38-TC의 클로람페니콜 아세틸 트랜스퍼 라제 (CAT)와 관심 전사 유전자를 대체하는 상동 재조합을 사용; 29,30 얻어진 녹아웃 플라스미드 pOX38-TC Δgene :: 형상은 성장 배지에 클로람페니콜의 존재 (CM)로 저항을 용이하게한다. pOX38-TC Δgene :: CM 은닉 공여 세포는 결합 분석을 사용하여 관찰 공역 DNA 전달 / 결합에 영향을 줄 수 없다; pOX38-TC Δgene :: 형상 도너 셀의 결합 효율과 정상 RECIPient 더 자주, 폐지, 감소 또는 것입니다. pOX38-TC Δgene : CM 플라스미드의 공역 전송이 대상 전송 유전자를 품고 작은 복구 플라스미드를 통해 복원 할 수 있습니다. 이 복구 플라스미드는 플라스미드 pK184 (pK184 유전자), 31 또는 너무 오래 그 플라스미드가 제대로 셀 (세포질이나 주변 세포질) 내에서 올바른 위치에 유전자를 표적으로 유도 식을 제공 하나, 구성 적 발현을 제공 하나가 될 수 있습니다. 따라서,이 새로운 기증자 사이의 결합 분석에서 (pOX38-TC Δgene : CM + pK184 유전자 플라스미드를 은닉) 과받는 사람의 세포가 결합 효율은 거의 그 정상 기증자받는 사람 짝짓기 분석의 복원 것으로 예상된다. 이 시스템은 pK184 유전자 작 제물 (결실 또는 점 돌연변이)의 일련의 생성을 통해 기절 유전자의 기능을 검사하고 pOX38-TC Δgene :: 형상 은닉의 결합 용량을 복원하는 각 구조체의 능력을 테스트 한있게 기증자 세포에스.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="762">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:255px;">GeneJet Plasmid Mini-Prep Kit</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">K0503</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">GeneJet Gel Extraction Kit</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">K0692</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">GeneJet PCR Purification Kit</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">K0702</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Q5 Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>E0554S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Broad Range DNA Ladder</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>N0303A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Petri Dishes</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">FB0875713</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Electroporator</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Eppendorf</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">4309000027</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Electroporation cuvettes</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">FB101</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Cuvettes have a 1 mm gap.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Enzymes</td>
			<td style="width:165px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">AvaI</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">R0152S</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">EcoRI</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">R0101S</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">HindIII</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">R0104L</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">NdeI</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">R0111S</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Phusion DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">M0530L</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">T4 DNA Ligase</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">M0202S</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">DpnI</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">R0176S</td>
			<td style="width:212px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Antibiotics</td>
			<td style="width:165px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Final Concentrations</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Chloramphenicol (Cm)</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">BP904-100</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">20 &#181;g/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Kanamycin (Km)</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">BioBasic Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">DB0286</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">50 &#181;g/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Nalidixic acid (Nal)</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">N8878-25G</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">10 &#181;g/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Rifampicin (Rif)</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Calbiochem</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">557303</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">20 &#181;g/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Tetracycline (Tc)</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">BP912-100</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">10 &#181;g/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:255px;">Streptomycin (Sm)</td>
			<td style="width:165px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">BP910-50</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">50 &#181;g/mL</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

conjugative mating assays for sequence-specific analysis of transfer proteins involved in bacterial conjugation

The transfer of genetic material by bacterial conjugation is a process that takes place via complexes formed by specific transfer proteins. In Escherichia coli, these transfer proteins make up a DNA transfer machinery known as the mating pair formation, or DNA transfer complex, which facilitates conjugative plasmid transfer. The objective of this paper is to provide a method that can be used to determine the role of a specific transfer protein that is involved in conjugation using a series of deletions and/or point mutations in combination with mating assays. The target gene is knocked out on the conjugative plasmid and is then provided in trans through the use of a small recovery plasmid harboring the target gene. Mutations affecting the target gene on the recovery plasmid can reveal information about functional aspects of the target protein that result in the alteration of mating efficiency of donor cells harboring the mutated gene. Alterations in mating efficiency provide insight into the role and importance of the particular transfer protein, or a region therein, in facilitating conjugative DNA transfer. Coupling this mating assay with detailed three-dimensional structural studies will provide a comprehensive understanding of the function of the conjugative transfer protein as well as provide a means for identifying and characterizing regions of protein-protein interaction.

F 플라스미드 구동 접합 과정은 pilus 합성과 공역 DNA 전달을 용이하게하기 T4SS을 어셈블 F-플라스미드 TRA 영역 내에 전달 단백질을 포함하는 조정 방법이다. 단백질 트래픽 (GenBank 액 # BAA97961, UniProt ID P14497)을 공역 F-pilus 형성을 위해 필요합니다. 10,14,35 -이 촉매 CXXC 모티브가 없습니다 불구하고 37 단백질은 C 말단 티 오레 독신과 같은 도메인?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Conjugative Mating Assays for Sequence-specific Analysis of Transfer Proteins Involved in Bacterial Conjugation at JoVE.com

Conjugative Mating Assays for Sequence-specific Analysis of Transfer Proteins Involved in Bacterial Conjugation

Here, we present a protocol to knockout a gene of interest involved in plasmid conjugation and subsequently analyze the impact of its absence using mating assays. The function of the gene is further explored to a specific region of its sequence using deletion or point mutations.

접합에 참여 전송 단백질의 서열 별 분석을위한 공역 결합 분석 실험

The transfer of genetic material by bacterial conjugation is a process that takes place via complexes formed by specific transfer proteins. In Escherichia ...

conjugative-mating-assays-for-sequence-specific-analysis-transfer

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

13.7K 조회수.  York University. Here, we present a protocol to knockout a gene of interest involved in plasmid conjugation and subsequently analyze the impact of its absence using mating assays. The function of the gene is further explored to a specific region of its sequence using deletion or point mutations. 

비디오: Conjugative Mating Assays for Sequence-specific Analysis of Transfer Proteins Involved in Bacterial Conjugation

In Vitro Transcription Assays and Their Application in Drug Discovery

In vitro transcription assays have been developed and widely used for many years to study the molecular mechanisms involved in transcription. This process requires multi-subunit DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNAP) and a series of transcription factors that act to modulate the activity of RNAP during gene expression. Sequencing gel electrophoresis of radiolabeled transcripts is used to provide detailed mechanistic information on how transcription proceeds and what parameters can affect it. In this paper we describe the protocol to study how the essential elongation factor NusA regulates transcriptional pausing, as well as a method to identify an antibacterial agent targeting transcription initiation through inhibition of RNAP holoenzyme formation. These methods can be used a as platform for the development of additional approaches to explore the mechanism of action of the transcription factors which still remain unclear, as well as new antibacterial agents targeting transcription which is an underutilized drug target in antibiotic research and development.

In Vitro Transcription Assays and Their Application in Drug Discovery

In this manuscript, we describe a protocol to functionally examine transcription and the inhibitory activity of antibacterial agents targeting bacterial transcription.

시험 관내 전사 분석 실험 및 약물 발견에의 응용

In vitro transcription assays have been developed and widely used for many years to study the molecular mechanisms involved in transcription. This process ...

연구

유전학

The Use of Induced Somatic Sector Analysis (ISSA) for Studying Genes and Promoters Involved in Wood Formation and Secondary Stem Development

Secondary stem growth in trees and associated wood formation are significant both from biological and commercial perspectives. However, relatively little is known about the molecular control that governs their development. This is in part due to physical, resource and time limitations often associated with the study of secondary growth processes. A number of in vitro techniques have been used involving either plant part or whole plant system in both woody and non-woody plant species. However, questions about their applicability for the study of secondary stem growth processes, the recalcitrance of certain species and labor intensity are often prohibitive for medium to high throughput applications. Also, when looking at secondary stem development and wood formation the specific traits under investigation might only become measurable late in a tree&#39;s lifecycle after several years of growth. In addressing these challenges alternative in vivo protocols have been developed, named Induced Somatic Sector Analysis, which involve the creation of transgenic somatic tissue sectors directly in the plant&#39;s secondary stem. The aim of this protocol is to provide an efficient, easy and relatively fast means to create transgenic secondary plant tissue for gene and promoter functional characterization that can be utilized in a range of tree species. Results presented here show that transgenic secondary stem sectors can be created in all live tissues and cell types in secondary stems of a variety of tree species and that wood morphological traits as well as promoter expression patterns in secondary stems can be readily assessed facilitating medium to high throughput functional characterization.

The Use of Induced Somatic Sector Analysis ISSA for Studying Genes and Promoters Involved in Wood Formation and Secondary Stem Development

Here we present a protocol that facilitates the medium to high throughput functional characterization of gene and promoter constructs in tree secondary stem tissue within comparatively short time frames. It is efficient, easy to use and widely applicable to a range of tree species.

나무 형성 및 보조 스템 개발에 관여하는 유전자 및 발기인 유학을위한 유도 체세포 업종 분석 (ISSA)의 사용

Secondary stem growth in trees and associated wood formation are significant both from biological and commercial perspectives. However, relatively little ...

Analysis of Cap-binding Proteins in Human Cells Exposed to Physiological Oxygen Conditions

Translational control is a focal point of gene regulation, especially during periods of cellular stress. Cap-dependent translation via the eIF4F complex is by far the most common pathway to initiate protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells, but stress-specific variations of this complex are now emerging. Purifying cap-binding proteins with an affinity resin composed of Agarose-linked m7GTP (a 5' mRNA cap analog) is a useful tool to identify factors involved in the regulation of translation initiation. Hypoxia (low oxygen) is a cellular stress encountered during fetal development and tumor progression, and is highly dependent on translation regulation. Furthermore, it was recently reported that human adult organs have a lower oxygen content (physioxia 1-9% oxygen) that is closer to hypoxia than the ambient air where cells are routinely cultured. With the ongoing characterization of a hypoxic eIF4F complex (eIF4FH), there is increasing interest in understanding oxygen-dependent translation initiation through the 5' mRNA cap. We have recently developed a human cell culture method to analyze cap-binding proteins that are regulated by oxygen availability. This protocol emphasizes that cell culture and lysis be performed in a hypoxia workstation to eliminate exposure to oxygen. Cells must be incubated for at least 24 hr for the liquid media to equilibrate with the atmosphere within the workstation. To avoid this limitation, pre-conditioned media (de-oxygenated) can be added to cells if shorter time points are required. Certain cap-binding proteins require interactions with a second base or can hydrolyze the m7GTP, therefore some cap interactors may be missed in the purification process. Agarose-linked to enzymatically resistant cap analogs may be substituted in this protocol. This method allows the user to identify novel oxygen-regulated translation factors involved in cap-dependent translation.

Here, we present human cell culture protocols to analyze translation initiation factors that bind the 5' cap of mRNA during physiological oxygen conditions. This method utilizes an Agarose-linked m7GTP cap analog and is suitable to investigate cap-binding factors and their interacting partners.

생리 산소 조건에 노출 된 인간 세포의 캡 결합 단백질의 분석

Translational control is a focal point of gene regulation, especially during periods of cellular stress. Cap-dependent translation via the eIF4F complex ...

Determination of the Optimal Chromosomal Location(s) for a DNA Element in Escherichia coli Using a Novel Transposon-mediated Approach

The optimal chromosomal position(s) of a given DNA element was/were determined by transposon-mediated random insertion followed by fitness selection. In bacteria, the impact of the genetic context on the function of a genetic element can be difficult to assess. Several mechanisms, including topological effects, transcriptional interference from neighboring genes, and/or replication-associated gene dosage, may affect the function of a given genetic element. Here, we describe a method that permits the random integration of a DNA element into the chromosome of Escherichia coli and select the most favorable locations using a simple growth competition experiment. The method takes advantage of a well-described transposon-based system of random insertion, coupled with a selection of the fittest clone(s) by growth advantage, a procedure that is easily adjustable to experimental needs. The nature of the fittest clone(s) can be determined by whole-genome sequencing on a complex multi-clonal population or by easy gene walking for the rapid identification of selected clones. Here, the non-coding DNA region DARS2, which controls the initiation of chromosome replication in E. coli, was used as an example. The function of DARS2 is known to be affected by replication-associated gene dosage; the closer DARS2 gets to the origin of DNA replication, the more active it becomes. DARS2 was randomly inserted into the chromosome of a DARS2-deleted strain. The resultant clones containing individual insertions were pooled and competed against one another for hundreds of generations. Finally, the fittest clones were characterized and found to contain DARS2 inserted in close proximity to the original DARS2 location.

Determination of the Optimal Chromosomal Locations for a DNA Element in Escherichia coli Using a Novel Transposon-mediated Approach

Here, the power of a transposon-mediated random insertion of a non-coding DNA element was used to resolve its optimal chromosomal position.

소설 Transposon 중재 방식을 사용 하 여 대장균 의 DNA 요소에 대 한 최적의 염색체 위치 결정

The optimal chromosomal position(s) of a given DNA element was/were determined by transposon-mediated random insertion followed by fitness selection. In ...

Sequence-specific and Selective Recognition of Double-stranded RNAs over Single-stranded RNAs by Chemically Modified Peptide Nucleic Acids

RNAs are emerging as important biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Thus, there is great potential in developing chemical probes and therapeutic ligands for the recognition of RNA sequence and structure. Chemically modified Peptide Nucleic Acid (PNA) oligomers have been recently developed that can recognize RNA duplexes in a sequence-specific manner. PNAs are chemically stable with a neutral peptide-like backbone. PNAs can be synthesized relatively easily by the manual Boc-chemistry solid-phase peptide synthesis method. PNAs are purified by reverse-phase HPLC, followed by molecular weight characterization by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF). Non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) technique facilitates the imaging of the triplex formation, because carefully designed free RNA duplex constructs and PNA bound triplexes often show different migration rates. Non-denaturing PAGE with ethidium bromide post staining is often an easy and informative technique for characterizing the binding affinities and specificities of PNA oligomers. Typically, multiple RNA hairpins or duplexes with single base pair mutations can be used to characterize PNA binding properties, such as binding affinities and specificities. 2-Aminopurine is an isomer of adenine (6-aminopurine); the 2-aminopurine fluorescence intensity is sensitive to local structural environment changes, and is suitable for the monitoring of triplex formation with the 2-aminopurine residue incorporated near the PNA binding site. 2-Aminopurine fluorescence titration can also be used to confirm the binding selectivity of modified PNAs towards targeted double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) over single-stranded RNAs (ssRNAs). UV-absorbance-detected thermal melting experiments allow the measurement of the thermal stability of PNA-RNA duplexes and PNA&#183;RNA2 triplexes. Here, we describe the synthesis and purification of PNA oligomers incorporating modified residues, and describe biochemical and biophysical methods for characterization of the recognition of RNA duplexes by the modified PNAs.

We report the protocols for the synthesis and purification of Peptide Nucleic Acid (PNA) oligomers incorporating modified residues. The biochemical and biophysical methods for the characterization of the recognition of RNA duplexes by the modified PNAs are described.

시퀀스 및 선택적 인식 하 여 단일 가닥 RNAs에 더블-좌초 RNAs의 화학적 펩 티 드 핵 산 수정

RNAs are emerging as important biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Thus, there is great potential in developing chemical probes and therapeutic ligands ...

High-Resolution Comparison of Bacterial Conjugation Frequencies

Bacterial conjugation is an important step in the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes via a conjugative DNA element. In-depth comparisons of conjugation frequency under different conditions are required to understand how the conjugative element spreads in nature. However, conventional methods for comparing conjugation frequency are not appropriate for in-depth comparisons because of the high background caused by the occurrence of additional conjugation events on the selective plate. We successfully reduced the background by introducing a most probable number (MPN) method and a higher concentration of antibiotics to prevent further conjugation in selective liquid medium. In addition, we developed a protocol for estimating the probability of how often donor cells initiate conjugation by sorting single donor cells into recipient pools by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). Using two plasmids, pBP136 and pCAR1, the differences in conjugation frequency in Pseudomonas putida cells could be detected in liquid medium at different stirring rates. The frequencies of conjugation initiation were higher for pBP136 than for pCAR1. Using these results, we can better understand the conjugation features in these two plasmids.

With an aim to understand the behaviors of various bacterial conjugative DNA elements under different conditions, we describe a protocol for detecting differences in conjugation frequency, with high resolution, to estimate how efficiently the donor bacterium initiates conjugation.

세균성 활용 주파수의 고해상도 비교

Bacterial conjugation is an important step in the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes via a conjugative DNA element. In-depth comparisons ...

Mating-based Overexpression Library Screening in Yeast

Budding yeast has been widely used as a model in studying proteins associated with human diseases. Genome-wide genetic screening is a powerful tool commonly used in yeast studies. The expression of a number of neurodegenerative disease-associated proteins in yeast causes cytotoxicity and aggregate formation, recapitulating findings seen in patients with these disorders. Here, we describe a method for screening a yeast model of the Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis-associated protein FUS for modifiers of its toxicity. Instead of using transformation, this new screening platform relies on the mating of yeast to introduce an arrayed library of plasmids into the yeast model. The mating method has two clear advantages: first, it is highly efficient; second, the pre-transformed arrayed library of plasmids can be stored for long-term as a glycerol stock, and quickly applied to other screens without the labor-intensive step of transformation into the yeast model each time. We demonstrate how this method can successfully be used to screen for genes that modify the toxicity of FUS.

This article presents a mating-based method to facilitate overexpression screening in budding yeast using an arrayed plasmid library.

효 모에 짝짓기 기반 Overexpression 라이브러리 심사

Budding yeast has been widely used as a model in studying proteins associated with human diseases. Genome-wide genetic screening is a powerful tool ...

Cell Based Assays of SINEUP Non-coding RNAs That Can Specifically Enhance mRNA Translation

Targeted-protein enhancement is of importance not only for the study of biological processes but also for therapeutic and biotechnological applications. Here, we present a method to selectively up-regulate protein expression of desired genes in cultured cells by means of synthetic antisense non-coding RNAs known as SINEUPs. This positive control of gene expression is at the post-transcriptional level and exerted by an inverted short interspersed nuclear element (SINE) repeat at the 3&#697; end of SINEUPs that comprises its effector domain (ED). SINEUPs can specifically bind to any protein-coding mRNA of choice through its binding domain (BD), a region designed to complement the sequence within the 5&#697; untranslated region (5&#697; UTR) and around the start codon of the mRNA. Target-specific SINEUPs designed in this manner are transfected to cultured cells, and protein and RNA are extracted for downstream analyses, generally 24-48 h post-transfection. SINEUP-induced protein up-regulation is detected by Western-blot analysis and RNA expression is measured using real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR. We have observed that BD design is critical for achieving optimum SINEUP activity and that testing different BD sizes and positions with respect to the start codon of the target mRNA is recommended. Therefore, we describe here a semi-automated high-throughput imaging method based on fluorescence detection that can be implemented to target mRNA fused with green fluorescent protein (GFP). SINEUPs specifically enhance translation within normal physiological range of the cell, without altering the target transcript level. This method has been successfully employed against a range of endogenous and exogenous targets, in a wide variety of human, mouse, and insect cell lines along with in vivo systems. Moreover, SINEUPs have been reported to increase antibody production and work as an RNA therapeutic against haploinsufficient genes. The versatile and modular nature of SINEUPs makes them a suitable tool for gene-specific translational control.

SINEUPs are synthetic antisense non-coding RNAs, which contain a binding domain (BD) and an effector domain (ED) and up-regulate translation of target mRNA. Here, we describe detection methods for SINEUPs in cultured cell lines, analysis of their translation-promoting activity by Western-blot and a semi-automated high throughput imaging system.

셀 기반 비 코딩 RNAs 특히 mRNA 번역을 향상 시킬 수 있는 SINEUP의 분석 실험

Targeted-protein enhancement is of importance not only for the study of biological processes but also for therapeutic and biotechnological applications. ...

Using Ustilago maydis as a Trojan Horse for In Situ Delivery of Maize Proteins

Inspired by Homer&#180;s Trojan horse myth, we engineered the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis to deliver secreted proteins into the maize apoplast permitting in vivo phenotypic analysis. This method does not rely on maize transformation but exploits microbial genetics and secretory capabilities of pathogens. Herein, it allows inspection of in vivo delivered secreted proteins with high spatiotemporal resolution at different kinds of infection sites and tissues. The Trojan horse strategy can be utilized to transiently complement maize loss-of-function phenotypes, to functionally characterize protein domains, to analyze off-target protein effects, or to study onside protein overdosage, making it a powerful tool for protein studies in the maize crop system. This work contains a precise protocol on how to generate a Trojan horse strain followed by standardized infection protocols to apply this method to three different maize tissue types.

Using Ustilago maydis as a Trojan Horse for In Situ Delivery of Maize Proteins

This work describes the cloning of an Ustilago maydis Trojan horse strain for the in situ delivery of secreted maize proteins into three different types of maize tissues.

원래의 배달 옥수수 단백질에 대 한 Ustilago maydis 트로이 목마 사용 하

Inspired by Homer&#180;s Trojan horse myth, we engineered the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis to deliver secreted proteins into the maize apoplast ...

Tomato Root Transformation Followed by Inoculation with Ralstonia Solanacearum for Straightforward Genetic Analysis of Bacterial Wilt Disease

Ralstonia solanacearum is a devastating soil borne vascular pathogen that can infect a large range of plant species, causing an important threat to agriculture. However, the Ralstonia model is considerably underexplored in comparison to other models involving bacterial plant pathogens, such as Pseudomonas syringae in Arabidopsis. Research targeted to understanding the interaction between Ralstonia and crop plants is essential to develop sustainable solutions to fight against bacterial wilt disease but is currently hindered by the lack of straightforward experimental assays to characterize the different components of the interaction in native host plants. In this scenario, we have developed a method to perform genetic analysis of Ralstonia infection of tomato, a natural host of Ralstonia. This method is based on Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation of tomato roots, followed by Ralstonia soil-drenching inoculation of the resulting plants, containing transformed roots expressing the construct of interest. The versatility of the root transformation assay allows performing either gene overexpression or gene silencing mediated by RNAi. As a proof of concept, we used this method to show that RNAi-mediated silencing of SlCESA6 in tomato roots conferred resistance to Ralstonia. Here, we describe this method in detail, enabling genetic approaches to understand bacterial wilt disease in a relatively short time and with small requirements of equipment and plant growth space.

Tomato Root Transformation Followed by Inoculation with Ralstonia Solanacearum for Straightforward Genetic Analysis of Bacterial Wilt Disease

Here, we present a versatile method for tomato root transformation followed by inoculation with Ralstonia solanacearum to perform straightforward genetic analysis for the study of bacterial wilt disease.

세균성 윌트 질병의 간단한 유전 분석을 위한 랄스토니아 솔라나세아룸에 의한 접종에 이어 토마토 뿌리 변환

Ralstonia solanacearum is a devastating soil borne vascular pathogen that can infect a large range of plant species, causing an important threat to ...