Name: in vitro differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells into functional cardiomyocyte-like cells
Uploaded: 2017-08-09T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vitro Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells into Functional Cardiomyocyte-like Cells at JoVE.com

The authors thank the following staff members and research personnel for their contributions: Matthew Librach, Leila Maghen, Tanya A. Baretto, Shlomit Kenigsberg, and Andr&#233;e Gauthier-Fisher. This work was supported by the The Ontario Research Fund - Research Excellence (ORF-RE, Round #7) and CReATe Program Inc.

All studies involving animals were conducted and reported according to ARRIVE guidelines48. All studies were performed with institutional research ethics board approval (REB number 454-2011, Sunnybrook Research Institute; REB 29889, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada). All animal procedures were approved by the Animal Care Committee of the University Health Network (Toronto, Canada), and all animals received humane care in compliance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, 8...

The cardiac differentiation of stem cells has been under development for over 2 decades, with several different strategies being used to generate cardiomyocyte-like cells from MSC sources. Many of these strategies, however, are inefficient, and the conditions used are often not representative of the environment transplanted cells encounter in vivo.
In contrast to existing methods, the protocol presented here utilizes a combination of primary cardiac feeder layers and MSC aggregate for...

Congestive heart failure (CHF) persists as a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. CHF often occurs following the massive loss of cardiomyocytes and the development of cell-free scar tissue as the pathological result of a myocardial infarction (MI)1. While the heart is a partially self-renewing organ, the resident stem and progenitor cell pool responsible for executing tissue regeneration significantly diminishes in abundance and function in aged patients, often becoming insufficient for optimal recovery after injury. Thus, there is great interest in developing experimental treatments that involve the transplantation of healthy donor cells into the damaged myocardium. It is imperative that the donor cells not only restore the structure of the tissue, but also achieve the functional recovery of the affected myocardium.
The native heart employs heart tissue-resident and endogenous bone marrow-originated stem cells for post-injury repair2,3,4. Regenerative cells- host- and donor-derived alike- must have the capacity to obtain the appropriate phenotype and function in the microenvironment of the remodeling myocardium, along with the ability to efficiently and safely replace the lost cells. In vitro differentiation methods have been used extensively to achieve high-efficiency, stem cell-based cardiomyocyte production5,6. The expression profile of cardiac lineage markers is used to define the process of stem cell differentiation towards the cardiac lineage7. Early differentiation markers, such as NKX2.5, myocyte enhancer factor 2C (Mef2c), and GATA48,9, can be an indication of the initiation of the cardiomyogenic process. Mature cardiomyocyte markers commonly used to assess differentiation efficacy are signal regulatory protein &#945; (SIRPA)10, cardiac troponin T (cTnT)11, heavy chain cardiac myosin (MYH6)8,12,13, and connexin 43 (Cx43)14,15,16. The methods using embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have been thoroughly optimized and discussed regarding the details of inductive factors, oxygen and nutrient gradients, and the exact timing of action5,6,7,17,18. Nonetheless, ESC- and PSC-based technologies still present multiple ethical and safety concerns, along with suboptimal electrophysiological and immunological features19,20. Hosts transplanted with these cells often experience immunorejection and require permanent immunosuppression. This is mainly due to mismatching major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules in the host and donor and to the resulting T-cell response21. While individual MHC class I matching is a possible solution, a more accessible clinical practice would require a cell source that is universally immunoprivileged to overcome the concern of rejection.
As an alternative cell source for use in clinical applications, MSCs and in particular, BMSCs, have been investigated for use in tissue regeneration since their initial description in 199522. MSCs are believed to be resident regenerative cells that can be found in nearly any vascularized tissue23. Upon isolation from the desired source, MSCs can easily be expanded in culture, have extensive paracrine capacity, and often possess immunoprivileged or immunomodulatory properties24,25. Their safety and efficacy have already been shown in several pre-clinical studies, in particular for cardiac regeneration3,26.
Many MSC differentiation strategies utilize pharmacological agents, such as 5-azacytidine22 and DMSO27, and growth or morphogenic factors, like BMPs5,7,28,29 or angiotensin-II30, with variable efficiency. These strategies, however, are not based on the obstacles that a na&#239;ve regenerative cell is likely to encounter after homing or being delivered to the site of injury in vivo. More physiologically relevant strategies, while more difficult to define and manipulate, are based on the premise that MSC differentiation can be induced through signals from the tissue microenvironment itself. Previous studies have shown that exposure to the cardiac cell lysates31 or ventricular myocardium32,33, or direct contact with primary cardiomyocytes in vitro15,34, can increase the expression of cardiac markers in MSCs. Others have demonstrated spontaneous cardiomyogenesis after treating cardiac injuries with MSCs35,36,37,38, although in part, the fusion of BMSCs and cardiomyocytes39,40 generated the nascent myocardium. To our knowledge, functional, spontaneously contracting cardiomyocytes from human MSCs (hMSCs) of any tissue source have not yet been reported.
The current consensus is that all MSCs arise from perivascular cells23. Young MSCs with pericyte properties can be isolated from the perivascular region of human umbilical cord tissue41,42,43. In comparison to BMSCs, HUCPVCs possess increased differentiation potential and several other regenerative advantages, both in vitro41,44 and in vivo45,46,47. Notably, the source being the maternal-fetal interface, HUCPVCs have significantly lower immunogenicity compared to adult sources of MSCs. Our research focuses on the characterization and pre-clinical applications of FTM HUCPVCs, the youngest source of MSCs investigated, which we have previously shown to have increased proliferative and higher multilineage differentiation capacities, including in the cardiomyogenic lineage41.
Here, we present a protocol that combines aggregate formation and primary cardiac cell feeder layers as inductive forces to attain the complete cardiomyogenic differentiation of MSCs. Aggregates provide a 3D environment, which better models conditions in vivo compared to 2D adherent cultures. Utilizing cardiac feeder layers provides an environment that is representative of the ultimate transplantation site for the MSCs. We demonstrate that younger sources of MSCs isolated from pre- or post-natal umbilical cords have a higher capacity to form aggregates and to reach the cardiac phenotype compared to adult BMSCs, while still maintaining their immune-privilege. Besides the steep elevation of cardiac lineage marker genes and the induced expression of intracellular (i.e., cTnT and MYH6) and cell-surface proteins (i.e., SIRPA and Cx43) specific for cardiomyocytes, we show that the differentiation potential of FTM HUCPVCs can be harnessed with this method and that they can give rise to spontaneously contracting cardiomyocyte-like cells.

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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">0.25% Trypsin/EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">25200056</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For cell dissociation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Alpha-MEM</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Gibco</td>
			<td>12571071</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For HUCPVC and BMSC culture media.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">PE-conjugated anti-human/mouse CD49f antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">313612</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Integrin marker for FC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">APC-conjugated human Cx43/GJA1 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FAB7737A</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Connexin 43 marker for FC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">FITC-conjugated HLA-A2 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Genway Biotech Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GWB-66FBD2</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Immunogenicity marker for FC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">FITC-conjugated anti-HLA-G [MEM-G/9] antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Abcam</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ab7904</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Immunogenicity marker for FC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">FITC-conjugated mouse anti-human SIRPA/CD172a antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">AbD Serotec/Bio-Rad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MCA2518F</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Cardiac marker for FC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">APC-conjugated human TRA-1-85/CD147 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FAB3195A</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Human cell marker for FC and FACS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">FITC-conjugated human TRA-1-85/CD147 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FAB3195F</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Human cell marker for FC and FACS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Anti-connexin 43/GJA1 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Abcam</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ab11370</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Cx43. For ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L) cross-absorbed secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor 555</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A-21428</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Anti-sarcomeric alpha actinin [EA-53] antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Abcam</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ab9465</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">aSARC. For ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:297px;">Goat anti-mouse IgM heavy chain cross-absorbed secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor 555</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A-21426</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Mef2C (D80C1) XP rabbit antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">New England BioLabs Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">5030S</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Donkey anti-rabbit IgG (H+L) secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A-21206</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Anti-nuclei (HuNu) (clone 235-1) antibody</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">EMD Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MAB1281</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">MZ9.5 Stereomicroscope</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For imaging aggregates.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">1.5 ml centrifuge microtubes</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Axygen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MCT-150-C</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For staining MSCs with fluorescent dye.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">ImageJ</td>
			<td style="width:203px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Open source image processing software.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Aria II&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">UHN SickKids FC Facility. For cell sorting.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Bone marrow mesechymal stromal cells</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PT-2501</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">BMSCs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A7030-100G</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">BSA. To prepare solutions for ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:297px;">BrdU</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">EMD Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MAB3424</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Caution: BrdU is a strong teratogen and suspected mutagen. Please ensure proper training and refer to the SDS before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Canto II</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">UHN SickKids FC Facility. For flow cytometry.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">cDNA EcoDry Premix</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Clontech/Takara</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">639570</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For preparation of cDNA for qPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">CellTracker Green CMFDA Dye</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C7025</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Fluorescent imaging of cell cytoplasm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Countess automated cell counter</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Invitrogen Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C10227</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For cell counting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">DMEM-F12</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D6421</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For rat primary cardiomyocyte culture medium.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:297px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Gibco</td>
			<td>10010023</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">D-PBS, without Ca2+, Mg2+</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">EVOS</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">In-house fluorescent microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">FACSCalibur</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">In-house. For flow cytometry.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Fetal bovine serum (Hyclone)</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SH3039603</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">FBS. Component of cell culture medium.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:297px;">IDT Prime Time qPCR probes</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Integrated Data Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FAM fluorophore</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">http://www.idtdna.com/pages/products/gene-expression/primetime-qpcr-assays-and-primers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Lab Vision PermaFluor Aqueous Mounting Medium</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">ThermoScientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TA-030-FM</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For storage of cells to undergo ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">LSR II&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">UHN SickKids FC Facility. For flow cytometry.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">MoFlo Astrios</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">UHN SickKids FC Facility. For cell sorting.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Normal goat serum</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Cell Signaling Technology</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">5425S</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">NGS. Used in blocking solution for ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Nunc Lab-Tek II Chamber Coverglass, 8-wells</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Thermo Scientific Nunc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">155409</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">To prepare samples for ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="47">
			<td height="47" style="height:47px;width:297px;">OmniPur Triton X-100 Surfactant</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">EMD Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">9410-OP</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">As a component of permeabilizing solution when preparing cells for ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Paraformaldehyde, 16% Solution, EM Grade</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15710</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For fixing cells for ICC.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15140122</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Component of cell culture medium.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="110">
			<td height="110" style="height:110px;width:297px;">Primers</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Custom Standard DNA Oligos, Desalted, 0.2 &#956;mol</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">CTnT_F: GGC AGC GGA AGA GGA TGC TGA A; CTnT_R: GAG GCA CCA AGT TGG GCA TGA ACG A; MYH6 F: GCA AAG TAC TGG ATG ACA CGC T; MYH6 R: GTC ATT GCT GAA ACC GAG AAT G</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Quorum Spinning Disk Confocal</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">SickKids Imaging Facility</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">ReproCardio hiPS cell derived cardiomyocytes</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">ReproCell</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">RCD001N</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Positive control for qPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">RNeasy mini kit</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">74106</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">To isolate RNA for qPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Rotor-Gene SYBR Green PCR Kit</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">204074</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For qPCR with master mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">RPMI 1640</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Gibco</td>
			<td>A1049101</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For MSC, monocyte coculture medium.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">TaqMan qPCR primer assays</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">4444556</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For qPCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Trypan Blue</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T10282</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Staining of cells for viability and counting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Trypsin</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Gibco</td>
			<td>272500108</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For cell dissociation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Volocity</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Perkin-Elmer</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Volocity 6.3</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Imaging software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">0.2 &#956;m pore filter</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">566-0020</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For sterilizing tissue culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:297px;">HERAcell 150i CO2 Incubator</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">51026410</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For incubating cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Dulbecco&#39;s phosphate buffered saline</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D8537</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">PBS. 1X, Without calcium chloride and magnesium chloride</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Forceps</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Almedic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">7727-A10-704</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For handing rat heart. Can use any similar forceps.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Scissors</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">14059-11</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For mincing rat heart. Curved scissors recommended.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:297px;">50 mL tube</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">352070</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For collection during cardiomyocyte collection and general tissue culture procedures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">15 mL tube</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">352096</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For general tissue culture procedures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">6-well plates</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Thermo Scientific Nunc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CA73520-906</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For tissue culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">10 cm tissue culture dishes</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">25382-428</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For aggregate formation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Axiovert 40C Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:299px;">For bright-field imaging through out tissue culture and the rest of the protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">70 &#956;m cell strainer</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Fisherbrand</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">22363548</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">To ensure a single cell suspension before flow cytometry or sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:297px;">Triton X-100</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">EMD Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">9410-1L</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Used in permeabilization solution for ICC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:297px;">Hoechst 33342</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H1399</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Stain used during visualization of Cx43 localization</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vitro differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells into functional cardiomyocyte-like cells

Myocardial infarction and the subsequent ischemic cascade result in the extensive loss of cardiomyocytes, leading to congestive heart failure, the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a promising option for cell-based therapies to replace current, invasive techniques. MSCs can differentiate into mesenchymal lineages, including cardiac cell types, but complete differentiation into functional cells has not yet been achieved. Previous methods of differentiation were based on pharmacological agents or growth factors. However, more physiologically relevant strategies can also enable MSCs to undergo cardiomyogenic transformation. Here, we present a differentiation method using MSC aggregates on cardiomyocyte feeder layers to produce cardiomyocyte-like contracting cells.
Human umbilical cord perivascular cells (HUCPVCs) have been shown to have a greater differentiation potential than commonly investigated MSC types, such as bone marrow MSCs (BMSCs). As an ontogenetically younger source, we investigated the cardiomyogenic potential of first-trimester (FTM) HUCPVCs compared to older sources. FTM HUCPVCs are a novel, rich source of MSCs that retain their in utero immunoprivileged properties when cultured in vitro. Using this differentiation protocol, FTM and term HUCPVCs achieved significantly increased cardiomyogenic differentiation compared to BMSCs, as indicated by the increased expression of cardiomyocyte markers (i.e., myocyte enhancer factor 2C, cardiac troponin T, heavy chain cardiac myosin, signal regulatory protein &#945;, and connexin 43). They also maintained significantly lower immunogenicity, as demonstrated by their lower HLA-A expression and higher HLA-G expression. Applying aggregate-based differentiation, FTM HUCPVCs showed increased aggregate formation potential and generated contracting cells clusters within 1 week of co-culture on cardiac feeder layers, becoming the first MSC type to do so. 
Our results demonstrate that this differentiation strategy can effectively harness the cardiomyogenic potential of young MSCs, such as FTM HUCPVCs, and suggests that in vitro pre-differentiation could be a potential strategy to increase their regenerative efficacy in vivo.

HUCPVCs Display Higher Aggregate-formation Potential and CD49f Expression Levels Compared to BMSCs:
To induce the differentiation of hMSCs (i.e., FTM HUCPVCs, term HUCPVCs, and BMSCs), single-cell suspensions of undifferentiated MSCs or MSC-containing hanging drops (Table 1) were transferred onto rat primary cardiomyocyte monolayers to establish direct co-cultures or aggregate co-cultur...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vitro Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells into Functional Cardiomyocyte-like Cells at JoVE.com

In Vitro Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells into Functional Cardiomyocyte-like Cells

Here, we present a method to efficiently harness the cardiac differentiation potential of young sources of human mesenchymal stem cells in order to generate functional, contracting, cardiomyocyte-like cells in vitro.

In Vitro Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells into Functional Cardiomyocyte-like Cells

Myocardial infarction and the subsequent ischemic cascade result in the extensive loss of cardiomyocytes, leading to congestive heart failure, the leading ...

The overall goal of this experimental procedure is to induce and observe the cardiomyogenic induction of mesenchymal stem cells. This method can help answer key questions in the mesenchymal stem cell field such as, what remedies can be induce by environmental signals to generate functional cardiomyocytes. The main advantage of this technique, is that it applies aggregate formation and cardiac fetal layers, instead of pharmacological agents or genetic material.The implications of this technique extend towards therapy of cardiovascular disease because it elaborates on the cardiomyogenic potential of mesenchymal stem cells. Demonstrating this procedure with me will be, Miss Farwah Iqbal, a PhD student of our laboratory, Max Librach and Nadav Gasner, both trainees of our laboratory. After isolating rat pup parts according to the text protocol, cut the ventriculi in half and transfer them to a 10 centimeter dish with 10 milliliters of PBS and pinstripe on ice, to let the blood wash out.Then using curved scissors, cut the ventricular walls into small pieces with a diameter of two to three millimeters. Using a serological pipette, transfer the heart pieces from 10 to 12 animals to a 50 milliliter tube and let them settle. Remove as much PBS P/S as possible, without removing any heart pieces.Then add 10 millimeters of fresh PBS P/S. To isolate the cardiomyocytes, after the heart pieces settle, use 0.15%trypsin in PBS, to replace the PBS P/S and incubate the tissue at 37 degree celsius with shaking, for 10 minutes. Discard the supernatant.Then, repeat the trypsin digestion three more times, except, decanter supernatants into 50 milliliter collection tubes containing 10 milliliters of 100%FBS. Next, centrifuge the tubes of cells and aspirate the supernatant. Then use DMEM-F12 with 10%FBS and 1%P/S to resuspend the cells and seed them onto a six well plate.Once the cells have attached, replace the medium with two milliliters of fresh medium. To prepare pre-stained MSCs, remove the medium from MSC cultures that have reached 70%to 80%confluency in 10 centimeter dishes and add three milliliters of cell dissociation solution. Incubate the dishes at 37 degree celsius and 5%carbon dioxide for five minutes.Transfer the dissociated cells to 15 milliliter tube and centrifuge at 400 x G for five minutes. Aspirate the supernatant without disrupting the cell pellet and re-suspend the cells. Then use an automated cell counter to count the cells.Dilute the cells to a concentration of 1 x 10 to the sixth MSCs per milliliter, in DMEM-F12 containing 10%FBS and 1%P/S. Then, to the cells in 1.5 milliliter centrifuge tubes, add viable, non-transferrable fluorescent dye and incubate the MSCs for half an hour. After centrifuging the tubes at 400 x G for five minutes, aspirate the supernatant and re-suspend the pellet at a concentration of 1 x 10 to the sixth MSCs per milliliter.Then transfer the MSCs onto cardiomyocytes at a concentration of 10 x 10 to the fourth cells per well of the six well plate. To make aggregate co-cultures, prepare a single cell suspension of MSCs in alpha MEM, supplemented with a 10%FBS and 1%P/S. Initiate aggregate formation, by placing 25 microliter drops of cell suspension on the inner surface of the lids of 10 centimeter tissue culture dishes.Place the lids on their bottom counterparts containing PBS P/S. Incubate the dishes at 37 degree celsius and 5%carbon dioxide. Under a stereo microscope, observe aggregate formation in the drops after three days.If over 80%of the drops contained formed aggregates, use a one milliliter micropipette to collect the drops from the lids and transfer the aggregates directly onto primary rat cardiomyocyte monolayers. Incubate the aggregate co-cultures for up to two weeks. Changing the full volume of medium every 72 hours.On a daily basis, use bright field microscopy to observe aggregates attaching to fetal cell layers. Record contracting aggregates when observed. The active aggregates contract in a synchronized manner, we suggest a conductance between them throughout the fetal layer, which has no physical activity.Aspirate the medium and add two milliliters of PBS per well of the six well dish. Then remove the PBS and add two milliliters of dissociation solution per well. Incubate the dishes at 37 degree celsius and 5%carbon dioxide for three minutes.As shown here, HMSCs of three different types displayed similar abundance and appearance in direct co-cultures. Two to three days after transferring hanging drops onto cardiac cells in aggregate co-cultures, FTMs and term huck PBCs appeared in larger aggregates compared to those seen from BMSCs. In this experiment, flow cytometric analysis of CD49F expression in undifferentiated MSCs showed that 96%of FTM huck PBCs, termed 89%of huck PBCs and 53%of BMSCs, were positive for cell surface CD49F.Flow cytometry on TRA won 85 cells, showed the upregulation of the cardiomyocyte associated marker, SIRPA in FTM huck PBCs and term huck PBCs, but not in BMSCs from direct cardiomyocyte co-cultures. As seen here, cx43 upregulation was significantly higher in FTM huck PBCs compared to term huck PBCs or BMSCs in direct co-cultures. Fluorescent microscopy analysis revealed that differentiating FTM and term huck PBCs, both upregulated cx43.With term huck PBCs at a higher portion than FTMs. However, fluorescence microscopy revealed that cx43 positive puncta were observed in the cell membrane of FTM huck PBCs and they were predominantly cytoplasmic in term cells. Finally, as seen here, high magnification fluorescence microscopy was performed on sorted human cells, after co-culturing and the high abundance of cx43 in the plasma membrane was confirmed.Once mastered, the key steps of this procedure can be done in one hour each, if they are performed properly. When attempting this procedure, it is important to maintain aseptic precautions. Primary animal tissues involved which may introduce contamination, if not handled properly.Following this procedure, other methods like further culturing of contracting aggregates can be performed to answer additional questions such as, longevity of these structures. After its development, this technique enables researchers in the field of MSCs to explore the differentiation potential of younger sources of mesenchymal stem cells such as, extra embryonic tissues. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding on how to prepare MSC aggregates and combine them with direct primary tissue fetal layers, in a manner that provides a proper induction for cardiomyogenic differentiation.Don't forget, that working with BRDU can be extremely hazardous and precautions such as, proper handling of cytotoxic waste, should always be taken while performing this procedure.

in-vitro-differentiation-human-mesenchymal-stem-cells-into-functional

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Directed Differentiation of Primitive and Definitive Hematopoietic Progenitors from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

One of the major goals for regenerative medicine is the generation and maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Until recently, efforts to differentiate hPSCs into HSCs have predominantly generated hematopoietic progenitors that lack HSC potential, and instead resemble yolk sac hematopoiesis.&#160;These resulting hematopoietic progenitors may have limited utility for in vitro disease modeling of various adult hematopoietic disorders, particularly those of the lymphoid lineages. However, we have recently described methods to generate erythro-myelo-lymphoid multilineage definitive hematopoietic progenitors from hPSCs using a stage-specific directed differentiation protocol, which we outline here. Through enzymatic dissociation of hPSCs on basement membrane matrix-coated plasticware, embryoid bodies (EBs) are formed. EBs are differentiated to mesoderm by recombinant BMP4, which is subsequently specified to the definitive hematopoietic program by the GSK3&#946; inhibitor, CHIR99021. Alternatively, primitive hematopoiesis is specified by the PORCN inhibitor, IWP2. Hematopoiesis is further driven through the addition of recombinant VEGF and supportive hematopoietic cytokines. The resulting hematopoietic progenitors generated using this method have the potential to be used for disease and developmental modeling, in vitro.

Here, we present human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) culture protocols, used to differentiate hPSCs into CD34+ hematopoietic progenitors. This method uses stage-specific manipulation of canonical WNT signaling to specify cells exclusively to either the definitive or primitive hematopoietic program.

One of the major goals for regenerative medicine is the generation and maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) derived from human pluripotent stem ...

In Vitro Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells into Trophoblastic Cells

The placenta is the first organ to develop during embryogenesis and is required for the survival of the developing embryo. The placenta is comprised of various trophoblastic cells that differentiate from the extra-embryonic trophectoderm cells of the preimplantation blastocyst. As such, our understanding of the early differentiation events of the human placenta is limited because of ethical and legal restrictions on the isolation and manipulation of human embryogenesis. Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are a robust model system for investigating human development and can also be differentiated in vitro into trophoblastic cells that express markers of the various trophoblast cell types. Here, we present a detailed protocol for differentiating hPSCs into trophoblastic cells using bone morphogenic protein 4 and inhibitors of the Activin/Nodal signaling pathways. This protocol generates various trophoblast cell types that can be transfected with siRNAs for investigating loss-of-function phenotypes or can be infected with pathogens. Additionally, hPSCs can be genetically modified and then differentiated into trophoblast progenitors for gain-of-function analyses. This in vitro differentiation method for generating human trophoblasts starting from hPSCs overcomes the ethical and legal restrictions of working with early human embryos, and this system can be used for a variety of applications, including drug discovery and stem cell research.

In Vitro Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells into Trophoblastic Cells

Here, we present a protocol to efficiently generate human trophoblastic cells from human pluripotent stem cells using bone morphogenic protein 4 and inhibitors of the Activin/Nodal pathways. This method is suitable for the efficient differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells and can generate large quantities of cells for genetic manipulation.

The placenta is the first organ to develop during embryogenesis and is required for the survival of the developing embryo. The placenta is comprised of ...

Horizontal Whole Mount: A Novel Processing and Imaging Protocol for Thick, Three-dimensional Tissue Cross-sections of Skin

Processing a tissue of interest to generate a microscopic image that supports a scientific argument can be challenging. The acquisition of high-quality microscopic images is not entirely dependent upon the quality of the microscope, but also upon the methods of tissue processing, which often involve multiple critical actions or steps. Furthermore, mesenchymal cell types in the skin and other tissues represent a new challenge for tissue preparation and imaging. Here, we present a complete process, from tissue harvest to microscopy. Our technique, called &#34;horizontal whole mount,&#34; is one that novices can quickly become proficient in and that allows for antigen preservation and detection in 60-300 &#181;m-thick sections cut with a cryostat. Sections of this thickness provide enhanced visualization of tissue microarchitecture in a three-dimensional environment. In addition, the protocol preserves mesenchymal cells in a manner that enhances image quality when compared to standard cryostat or paraffin sections, thereby increasing the efficacy and reliability of immunostaining. We believe that this protocol will benefit all laboratories that visualize skin, and possibly other tissues and organs.

This work presents a novel processing and imaging protocol for thick, three-dimensional tissue cross-section analysis that enables the full exploitation of confocal imaging modalities. This protocol preserves antigenicity and represents a robust system to analyze skin histology and potentially other tissue types.

Processing a tissue of interest to generate a microscopic image that supports a scientific argument can be challenging. The acquisition of high-quality ...

Rapid, Directed Differentiation of Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells from Human Embryonic or Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

We describe a robust method to direct the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE). The purpose of providing a detailed and thorough protocol is to clearly demonstrate each step and to make this readily available to researchers in the field. This protocol results in a homogenous layer of RPE with minimal or no manual dissection needed. The method presented here has been shown to be effective for induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and human embryonic stem cells. Additionally, we describe methods for cryopreservation of intermediate cell banks that allow long-term storage. RPE generated using this protocol might be useful for iPSC disease-in-a-dish modeling or clinical application.

This protocol describes how to produce retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE) from pluripotent stem cells. The method uses a combination of growth factors and small molecules to direct the differentiation of stem cells into immature RPE in fourteen days and mature, functional RPE after three months.

We describe a robust method to direct the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE). The purpose of providing ...

Single-cell Photoconversion in Living Intact Zebrafish

Animal and plant tissue is composed of distinct populations of cells. These cells interact over time to build and maintain the tissue and can cause disease when disrupted. Scientists have developed clever techniques to investigate characteristics and natural dynamics of these cells within intact tissue by expressing fluorescent proteins in subsets of cells. However, at times, experiments require more selected visualization of cells within the tissue, sometimes at the single-cell or population-of-cells manner. To achieve this and visualize single cells within a population of cells, scientists have utilized single-cell photoconversion of fluorescent proteins. To demonstrate this technique, we show here how to direct UV light to an Eos-expressing cell of interest in an intact, living zebrafish. We then image those photoconverted Eos+ cells 24 h later to determine how they changed in the tissue. We describe two techniques: single cell photoconversion and photoconversions of populations of cell. These techniques can be used to visualize cell-cell interactions, cell-fate and differentiation, and cell migrations, making it a technique that is applicable in numerous biological questions.

Here, we present a protocol to show how cell photoconversion is achieved through UV exposure to specific areas expressing the fluorescent protein, Eos, in living animals.

Animal and plant tissue is composed of distinct populations of cells. These cells interact over time to build and maintain the tissue and can cause ...

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and chromosome dynamics. While the germline is an excellent model, the analysis is often two dimensional due to the time and labor required for three-dimensional analysis. Major readouts in such studies are the number/position of nuclei and protein distribution within the germline. Here, we present a method to perform automated analysis of the germline using confocal microscopy and computational approaches to determine the number and position of nuclei in each region of the germline. Our method also analyzes germline protein distribution that enables the three-dimensional examination of protein expression in different genetic backgrounds. Further, our study shows variations in cytoskeletal architecture in distinct regions of the germline that may accommodate specific spatial developmental requirements. Finally, our method enables automated counting of the sperm in the spermatheca of each germline. Taken together, our method enables rapid and reproducible phenotypic analysis of the C. elegans germline.

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

We present an automated method for three-dimensional reconstruction of the Caenorhabditis elegans germline. Our method determines the number and position of each nucleus within the germline and analyses germline protein distribution and cytoskeletal structure.

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and ...

Derivation and Differentiation of Canine Ovarian Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Interest in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) has increased over the past decade due to their ease of isolation, expansion, and culture. Recently, studies have demonstrated the wide differentiation capacity that these cells possess. The ovary represents a promising candidate for cell-based therapies due to the fact that it is rich in MSCs and that it is frequently discarded after ovariectomy surgeries as biological waste. This article describes procedures for the isolation, expansion, and differentiation of MSCs derived from the canine ovary, without the necessity of cell-sorting techniques. This protocol represents an important tool for regenerative medicine because of the broad applicability of these highly differentiable cells in clinical trials and therapeutic uses.

Herein, we describe a method for the isolation, expansion, and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells from canine ovarian tissue.

Interest in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) has increased over the past decade due to their ease of isolation, expansion, and culture. Recently, studies ...

Efficient Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells into Liver Cells

The liver detoxifies harmful substances, secretes vital proteins, and executes key metabolic activities, thus sustaining life. Consequently, liver failure&#8212;which can be caused by chronic alcohol intake, hepatitis, acute poisoning, or other insults&#8212;is a severe condition that can culminate in bleeding, jaundice, coma, and eventually death. However, approaches to treat liver failure, as well as studies of liver function and disease, have been stymied in part by the lack of a plentiful supply of human liver cells. To this end, this protocol details the efficient differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into hepatocyte-like cells, guided by a developmental roadmap that describes how liver fate is specified across six consecutive differentiation steps. By manipulating developmental signaling pathways to promote liver differentiation and to explicitly suppress the formation of unwanted cell fates, this method efficiently generates populations of human liver bud progenitors and hepatocyte-like cells by days 6 and 18 of PSC differentiation, respectively. This is achieved through the temporally-precise control of developmental signaling pathways, exerted by small molecules and growth factors in a serum-free culture medium. Differentiation in this system occurs in monolayers and yields hepatocyte-like cells that express characteristic hepatocyte enzymes and have the ability to engraft a mouse model of chronic liver failure. The ability to efficiently generate large numbers of human liver cells in vitro has ramifications for treatment of liver failure, for drug screening, and for mechanistic studies of liver disease.

This protocol details a monolayer, serum-free method to efficiently generate hepatocyte-like cells from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) in 18 days. This entails six steps as hPSCs sequentially differentiate into intermediate cell-types such as the primitive streak, definitive endoderm, posterior foregut and liver bud progenitors before forming hepatocyte-like cells.

The liver detoxifies harmful substances, secretes vital proteins, and executes key metabolic activities, thus sustaining life. Consequently, liver ...

In Vitro Generation of Somite Derivatives from Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

In response to signals such as WNTs, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and sonic hedgehog (SHH) secreted from surrounding tissues, somites (SMs) give rise to multiple cell types, including the myotome (MYO), sclerotome (SCL), dermatome (D), and syndetome (SYN), which in turn develop into skeletal muscle, axial skeleton, dorsal dermis, and axial tendon/ligament, respectively. Therefore, the generation of SMs and their derivatives from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) is critical to obtain pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) for application in regenerative medicine and for disease research in the field of orthopedic surgery. Although the induction protocols for MYO and SCL from PSCs have been previously reported by several researchers, no study has yet demonstrated the induction of SYN and D from iPSCs. Therefore, efficient induction of fully competent SMs remains a major challenge. Here, we recapitulate human SM patterning with human iPSCs in vitro by mimicking the signaling environment during chick/mouse SM development, and report on methods of systematic induction of SM derivatives (MYO, SCL, D, and SYN) from human iPSCs under chemically defined conditions through the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) and SM states. Knowledge regarding chick/mouse&#160;SM development was successfully applied to the induction of SMs with human iPSCs. This method could be a novel tool for studying human somitogenesis and patterning without the use of embryos and for cell-based therapy and disease modeling.

We present here a protocol for the differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells into each somite derivative (myotome, sclerotome, dermatome, and syndetome) in chemically defined conditions, which has applications in future disease modeling and cell-based therapies in orthopedic surgery.

In response to signals such as WNTs, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and sonic hedgehog (SHH) secreted from surrounding tissues, somites (SMs) give ...

Directed Differentiation of Hemogenic Endothelial Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Blood vessels are ubiquitously distributed within all tissues of the body and perform diverse functions. Thus, derivation of mature vascular endothelial cells, which line blood vessel lumens, from human pluripotent stem cells is crucial for a multitude of tissue engineering and regeneration applications. In vivo, primordial endothelial cells are derived from the mesodermal lineage and are specified toward specific subtypes, including arterial, venous, capillary, hemogenic, and lymphatic. Hemogenic endothelial cells are of particular interest because, during development, they give rise to hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, which then generate all blood lineages throughout life. Thus, creating a system to generate hemogenic endothelial cells in vitro would provide an opportunity to study endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition, and may lead to ex vivo production of human blood products and reduced reliance on human donors. While several protocols exist for the derivation of progenitor and primordial endothelial cells, generation of well-characterized hemogenic endothelial cells from human stem cells has not been described. Here, a method for the derivation of hemogenic endothelial cells from human embryonic stem cells in approximately 1 week is presented: a differentiation protocol with primitive streak cells formed in response to GSK3&#946; inhibitor (CHIR99021), then mesoderm lineage induction mediated by bFGF, followed by primordial endothelial cell development promoted by BMP4 and VEGF-A, and finally hemogenic endothelial cell specification induced by retinoic acid. This protocol yields a well-defined population of hemogenic endothelial cells that can be used to further understand their molecular regulation and endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition, which has the potential to be applied to downstream therapeutic applications.

Presented here is a simple protocol for the directed differentiation of hemogenic endothelial cells from human pluripotent stem cells in approximately 1 week.

Blood vessels are ubiquitously distributed within all tissues of the body and perform diverse functions. Thus, derivation of mature vascular endothelial ...