저자는 프로젝트 번호 P 25190 B16 (가뭄 저항의 뿌리)를 통해 오스트리아 과학 기금 FWF에서 자금을 인정 합니다. Hyperspectral 이미징 인프라의 설립은 연방 정부의 낮은 오스트리아 (토지 러시아) K3-F-282/001-2012 프로젝트를 통해에 의해 재정적으로 지원 되었다. AGRANA 연구에서 받은 사탕 실험에 대 한 추가 자금 &#38; 혁신 센터 GmbH (ARIC). 저자는 실험과 원고의 영어 교정 기술 지원에 대 한 크레이그 잭슨을 감사합니다. 우리 또한 인정 설립 RGB 영상 설치에 공헌한 Markus Freudhofmaier 조세 프 Schodl rhizobox 설치의 건설에 대 한 합니다.

<ol>
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저자는 공개 없다.

프로토콜 루트 시스템 이미징 성장 하는 토양에 대 한 두 개의 상호 보완적인 접근을 제공 합니다. 신뢰할 수 있는 실험 결과 대 한 중요 한 단계는 관측 창에 꽉 루트-토양 접촉을 제공 하 고 공기 간격을 방지 하는 전면 유리에도 동종 기판 레이어를 보장 하는 rhizoboxes의 작성 이다. 이것의 비교적 좋은 체질된 흙을 사용 하는 주요 이유는 &#60; 2: 골 재 사이의 공 극으로 관찰 창에서 더 높은 표면 형태에 더 큰 집계 결과. 루트 팁 탈수의 위험이 높은, 외이 물 매핑31에 대 한 더 복잡 한 이미지 처리 기법을 필요합니다.
프로토콜의 수정 따라서 rhizoboxes의 향상 및 빠른 작성에 초점을. 현재 시간을 작성 하는 것은 상자 당 약 30 분입니다. 또한 측 및 더 나은 RGB 이미지에 대 한 조명 동질성을 최적화 하기 위해 수정에서 영상에 대 한 두 개의 유리창와 rhizoboxes의 사용은 테스트. 추가 하드웨어 확장 또한 평면 optodes32 rhizobox 시스템으로33 이미징 커패시턴스의 통합을 좋습니다. 그러나 이것이 현재 업그레이드 활동 넘어입니다.
소프트웨어 수정 퓨즈 상단 및 하단 RBG 이미지34자동 이미지 등록에 초점. Hyperspectral에 대 한 이미징 고급 자동된 기능 추출 SVMs35 테스트와 같은 더 민감한 감독된 대상 탐지 방법으로28 접근 한다. 그로 인하여 hyperspectral 데이터는 잠재적으로 여러 토양, rhizosphere 및 루트 속성36의 평가 대 한 허용. 개발 (세미)는 것 또한 건축 특성 (분기 주파수, 각 분기) 뿐만 아니라 rhizobox 루트에 따라 이미지 루트 시스템 분석기37 형태학 계량의 수정된 된 버전 (길이, 직경, 표면)에 대 한 소프트웨어 automatized.
3D 이미징 접근에 비해 프로토콜의 주요 제한은 표면 표시 루트 및 rhizosphere 속성 제한입니다. 그러나 그것은 보이는 루트 특성 전체 루트 시스템21에 대 한 신뢰할 수 있는 프록시는 증명 되었습니다. Rhizobox 기술은 전통적인 파괴적인 샘플링 (세척) 동적 성장 전체 루트 시스템 특성 대 표시의 관계를 확인 하려면 이미징의 끝에와 쉽게 결합 된다. 이 관계는 종21중 다 수, 파괴적인 샘플링 다른 작물 종으로 어떤 새로운 형질 시리즈에 대 한 표시 특성에서 신뢰할 수 있는 유추 되도록 것이 좋습니다.
여기에 제시 된 프로토콜의 주요 장점은 현실적인 성장 조건 (토양), 일시적으로 해결 RGB 이미지와 루트 기능 (예: 물 통풍 관) hyperspectral 화상 진 찰에서 chemometric 및 rhizosphere 데이터를 통해 유추에 대 한 상대적으로 높은 잠재적인 처리량의 조합입니다. 그로 인하여 방법 유추 제한 높은 처리량 경종 및 비-토양 루트 방법14, 그것은 부분적으로 덜 실험적인 복잡성과 고급 3D 방법15에 비해 높은 처리량으로 업무 프로세스에 대 한 깊은 형질 통찰력을 허용 하는 동안 이미지를 극복 한다.
곧 실험 프로토콜 mycorrhiza 루트 시스템 개발 및 토양 구조, 질소 및 탄소 관련 된 덮개 작물 종의 형질 루트 특성에 관해서는 뿐만 아니라 콩의 기능에의 효과 연구 하는 데 사용 됩니다 사이클링.

뿌리의 저장 등의 식물에 대 한 몇 가지 필수 기능을 제공 동화 한다, 토양, 및 통풍 관 지구 식물의 앵커리지와 물과 영양소1의 전송. 진화 관점에서의 루트 축 형성 땅 식물2의 기원에 대 한 기본 전제 조건으로 간주 됩니다. 이 중요 한 역할에도 불구 하 고 역사적으로 뿌리 생물학 연구에만 한계 위치를 점령 했습니다. 그러나 더 최근에,, 거기는 증가 그림1에서 입증 공장 루트 시스템에 과학적인 관심사.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig1.jpg"> 
그림 1: 루트 식물 과학에 있는 연구의 관련성. 루트의 수는 지난 년간 SCI 저널에 모든 게시 된 식물 연구의 연구를 관련. Scopus 키워드 "공장" 및 "공장 및 루트"를 사용 하 여에서 결과 검색 합니다. <a href="//ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">이 그림의 더 큰 버전을 보려면 여기를 클릭 하십시오.</a>
두 가지 주요 이유는 루트 연구의 최근 발전 기초를 가설 수 있습니다. 첫째, 지상파 식물 글로벌 변경3결과로 더 자주 환경 스트레스에 노출 됩니다. 농업 작물 생산의 맥락에서 그것은 세계적으로 약 30%의 농업 지역 물과 인4,5에 의해 제한 됩니다 추정. 수확량의 스트레스 감소는 세계적으로 낮은 50 %rainfed 농업 생태계6에 대 한 잠재적인 생산성의 추정 되어 상당한 수익률 격차에 대 한 주요 이유. 낮은 리소스 가용성, 외이 가난한 리소스 사용 효율, 즉 부족 한 수 식물의 사용 가능한 리소스7악용 관련이 있습니다. 이 다른 생태계에 부정적인 영향을 미칠 수 있는 질산염 등 모바일 자원의 손실에 결과. 예를 들어 현재 글로벌 질소 이용 효율 478추정 됩니다. 더 나은 자원 사용 효율성 향상 된 관리 방법 및 재배 이므로 모두 높은 중요성의 성장 환경 지속 가능성 뿐만 아니라 농업 출력의 지속. 이 컨텍스트 식물에서 뿌리 향상 된 작물 및 자르기 시스템9,10에 대 한 주요 대상으로 간주 됩니다.
식물 뿌리에 최근 관심사에 대 한 두 번째 중요 한 배경 측정 방법에 기술적 진보 이다. 루트 방법을 두 가지 주요 과제에 의해 제한 오래 있다: 그들은 주로11, 세척 하 여 정량화에 대 한 격리 해야 했다 토양에서 성장 하는 식물에서 뿌리의 측정에 대 한 그로 인하여 방해 루트 축의 건축 배열. 발굴을 사용 하 여 제자리에 루트 관찰 함으로써 토양에서 뿌리의 자연 스러운 위치를 보존 하는 방법 식물 설명12사용 되 고 있다. 아직도 그들은 매우 시간이 걸리는 고 따라서 비교 구조 기능 루트 시스템 분석의 처리량 요구 사항을 충족 하지 않습니다. 다른 한편으로 높은 처리량 방법 루트 건축 측정 했다 주로 수행 인공 미디어에 묘 종 식물13 식물의 자연 성장과 환경 추정 의심14가.
루트 연구의 최근 붐 이미징 방법15에 사전에 긴밀 하 게 연결 된다. 접근 루트 연구에서를 이미징 세 가지 유형으로 대략 그룹화 될 수 있습니다. 우선 CT 및 MRI16같은 고해상도 3D 방법이 있다. 이러한 메서드는 가뭄 유도 xylem 폐색전증17와 같은 흙과 식물 뿌리의 상호 작용 과정 연구에 가장 적합 한. 일반적으로 그들은 그들은 상세한 관측을 허용 하는 비교적 작은 샘플에 적용 됩니다. 다른 크기의 냄비와 잘 루트 이미징에 대 한 CT와 MRI의 비교는18에 제공 됩니다. 둘째, 높은 처리량 이미징 방법19,20있다. 이러한 메서드는 대부분에 따라 일반적인 2D RGB 영상 인공 미디어 (젤, 발 아 종이)에 성장 하는 뿌리의 고대비 뿌리와 배경 사이의 비교적 간단한 해 부를 허용 하는 곳. 그들은 다른 작물 genotypes 표준화 된 인공 성장 조건13에서 종묘 루트 특성 중 높은 처리량 비교를 위해 적합 하다. Rhizobox 메서드는이 두 가지 방법 사이: 그들은 더 긴 기간 동안 토양에 성장 하는 뿌리의 2D 이미지를 사용 하 고 중간 처리량21,22. (2D) 루트 이미징에 대 한 최근 도전 캡처 또한 구조23의 설명 외에도 루트 기능 지표입니다.
현재 신문에서 우리는 rhizobox 성장 (i)는 저렴 하 고 간단한 주문 품 RGB 이미징 설치 및 (ii)는 더 복잡 한 적외선 이미징 설치 프로그램을 사용 하 여 루트 시스템 이미징을 위한 실험 프로토콜 제시. 이러한 두 설정에서 예제 결과 표시 되며 식물 형질 및 식물 생리 연구의 맥락에서 논의.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Rhizobox</td>
			<td>Technisches B&#252;ro f&#252;r Bodenkultur</td>
			<td>Experimental builder</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED Lamps ATUM HORTI 600</td>
			<td>Klutronic</td>
			<td>AHI10600F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent light tube HiLite T5 Day</td>
			<td>Juwel Aquarium</td>
			<td>86324</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV light tube Eurolite 45cm slim 15 W</td>
			<td>Conrad</td>
			<td>593384 - 62</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Canon EOS 6D</td>
			<td>Canon Austria GmbH</td>
			<td>8035B024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adobe Photoshop CS5 Extended Version 12.0 x 32</td>
			<td>Adobe Systems Software Ireland Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>WinRhizo Pro v. 2013</td>
			<td>Regent Instruments Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xeva-1.7-320 SWIR camera</td>
			<td>Xenics</td>
			<td>XEN-000105</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrograph Imspector N25E</td>
			<td>Specim</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hyperspectral imaging scanner</td>
			<td>Carinthian Tech Research AG</td>
			<td>Experimental builder</td>
			<td>Design and assemblage of Hyperspectral Imaging Scanner and software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matlab R2106a</td>
			<td>Mathworks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Including Toolboxes for Image Processing, Signal Processing and Statistics and Machine Learning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AP4 Poromoeter</td>
			<td>Delta-T-Devices</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LI-3100C Area Meter</td>
			<td>LI-COR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BASF Styradur polystyrene sheets</td>
			<td>Obi Baumarkt</td>
			<td>9706318</td>
			<td>Different types of polystyrene sheets or other material separating differently moistured soil can be used</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

rgb and spectral root imaging for plant phenotyping and physiological research: experimental setup and imaging protocols

식물 루트 역학의 더 나은 이해 농업 시스템의 리소스 사용 효율을 개선 하 고 작물 재배 환경 스트레스에 대 한 저항 증가 필수적 이다. 실험 프로토콜은 RGB 및 루트 시스템의 hyperspectral 화상 진 찰에 대 한 제공 됩니다. 접근은 식물 자연 토양에서 완전 개발된 루트 시스템을 관찰 하는 더 긴 시간을 통해 성장 rhizoboxes를 사용 합니다. 실험 설정 됩니다 rhizobox 식물 물 스트레스를 평가 하 고 뿌리의 역할을 공부 하 고 궁 행. RGB 이미지 설치 시간이 지남에 루트 개발의 저렴 하 고 빠른 정량화에 대 한 설명 합니다. Hyperspectral 영상 RGB 색상 기반 임계 처리에 비해 토양 배경에서 루트 분할을 향상 시킵니다. Hyperspectral 화상의 특정 힘은 기능 이해에 대 한 루트 토양 시스템에 chemometric 정보 수집 이다. 이 고해상도 물 콘텐츠 매핑 보여 줍니다. 그러나 스펙트럼 이미징은 이미지 수집, 처리 및 분석 RGB 방식에 비해 더 복잡 합니다. 두 방법의 조합에는 루트 시스템의 포괄적인 평가 최적화할 수 있습니다. 루트 및 지상 특성을 통합 하는 응용 프로그램 예제는 식물 형질 및 식물 생리 연구의 맥락에 대 한 제공 됩니다. 루트 영상의 추가 개선 및 확장 스펙트럼 데이터에서 루트 영역 속성에 유추 이미지 분석 방법의 다른 광원을 사용 하 여 더 나은 조명 RGB 이미지 품질을 최적화 하 여 얻을 수 있습니다.

Example results are presented for root segmentation based on RGB and HS imaging. For spectral imaging an example of high resolution water mapping is provided. Finally results are shown that demonstrate the scientific context where image based root data are applied.
RGB based root measurement
Figure 8 shows an RGB root image time series of sugar beet cultivar Ferrara. The images reveal some artefacts from inhomogeneous illumination of the rhizoboxes, with brighter areas along the left side and different brightness at the overlapping area between top and bottom images.
<img alt="Figure 8" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig8.jpg" /> 
Figure 8: Root growth time series from the RGB imaging. 
Pictures show the sugar beet cultivar Ferrara at different days after sowing (DAS). The images show some artefacts due to non-homogeneous illumination at the left side of the image and between top and bottom images. Scale bars, 2 cm. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Figure 9 provides details on root segmentation based on color thresholding for cultivar Ferrara at day after sowing (DAS) 35. As a reference (Figure 9A), a binary image is used where all roots were manually tracked with a Graphic Tablet. The time required for manual tracking of the entire, fully developed, dense sugar beet root system was around four hours. Figure 9B gives a detailed view on a selected area at the top of the image where old lateral roots are present. Here several root axes are not classified by the color threshold. At the bottom (Figure 9C) on the contrary, where white young roots are predominant, the color based segmentation properly classifies all root axes. The binarized root system (Figure 9D) shows a black area at the left side from the illumination artefact which was defined as exclusion region before running quantitative analysis. Figure 9E shows the corresponding pixel histograms of selected features (roots vs. soil) for the red channel of the RGB image from Ferrara at DAS 35. The root pixels (blue color) clearly show three peaks corresponding to bright young laterals, dark old laterals and tap root. The overlap between the old laterals and the soil background is very strong, leading to unclassified root axes (cf. Figure 9B).
<img alt="Figure 9" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig9.jpg" /> 
Figure 9: Root segmentation using a color threshold. 
(A) Manually segmented root system using a Graphic Tablet, (B) area with poorly segmented old root axes in the top and (C) properly segmented young axes in the bottom of the image, and (D) binary image obtained from color based thresholding. (E) Pixel histograms for selected features of the RGB image. Roots are represented by the blue bars with different root types indicated; soil is represented by the red bars. Scale bars in A and D, 2 cm; scale bars in B and C, 1 cm. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig9large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The resulting total visible root length quantified for the manually segmented reference image is 1534.1 cm, while the automatized, color based segmentation gives a total root length of 1427.6 cm.
Greyscale images from UV-illumination do not provide an advantage in the case shown here and performed worse compared to color thresholding (root length: 1679.7 cm). Old roots could not be segmented, and there was more noise in the image, probably due to lower light intensity of the UV lamps. However, in case of young roots with high auto-fluorescence and a bright background substrate, UV-illumination can still be an option as shown by an image obtained from another experiment where sand was used as background substrate (Figure 10).
<img alt="Figure 10" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig10.jpg" /> 
Figure 10: UV illumination to visualize roots on bright background. 
Example from a durum wheat root system growing in a rhizobox filled with quartz sand. The rhizobox is imaged with illumination for (A) UV light and (B) fluorescent (day) light. Scale bars, 2 cm. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig10large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
HSI based root measurements
Figure 11 provides the mean spectra for three root ROIs (old and young lateral, tap root) and two soil ROIs (top and bottom of rhizobox).
<img alt="Figure 11" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig11.jpg" /> 
Figure 11: Mean spectra of root and soil. 
Spectra from regions of interest (ROIs) on the root (three root types) and in the soil (top and bottom of the rhizobox). The ROIs are selected to determine an optimum segmentation criterion between root and soil. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig11large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
It is evident that the tap and young lateral roots differ substantially from the background in intensity of most spectral bands. For the old laterals the intensity differences are much lower. A feature that can be inferred visually is the different slope of the spectrum around water absorption region (1450 nm). Here the slope of root spectra is higher compared to soil spectra. Furthermore a change of tap and young lateral spectra in the region around 1100 nm can be identified that does not occur in the old laterals.
Figure 12A shows the result from the search algorithm identifying a spectral ratio with strongest foreground-background contrast. The ratio of spectra at 1476 nm to 1076 nm provides the best separation between roots and soil. The resulting histogram of root foreground and soil background pixels is shown in Figure 12B. Although there is some overlap, most pixels are clearly separated from the soil background. Fitting a bimodal Gaussian curve through the histogram and using Bhattacharyya distance for quantification, a value of 7.80 is obtained. A value higher 3.0 indicates strong image contrast allowing reliable separation28.
<img alt="Figure 12" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig12.jpg" /> 
Figure 12: Difference in reflectance between root foreground and soil background for different spectral band ratios and pixel histogram at spectral ratio used for segmentation. 
(A) Bright colors (yellow) show high contrast between foreground and background, dark colors (blue) show low contrast. The first 15 bands have been removed because of noise. The red lines indicate the band ratio with highest contrast. (B) Pixel histogram of roots (blue) and soil (red) at segmentation spectral ratio. Blue bars represent the root and red bars the soil. The intensity value corresponds to the ratio of spectral band 160 to spectral band 49. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig12large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The binary image (Figure 13) is created by applying a global intensity threshold of the identified spectral ratio at a value of 1.008 calculated from the histogram distance27. Analysis of root length of this image gives a total length of 1557.3 cm which represents an error of only 1.5% compared to the manually tracked reference image.
<img alt="Figure 13" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig13.jpg" /> 
Figure 13: Binary image of the root system of sugar beet cultivar Ferrara. 
The image is obtained by applying a global spectral threshold. Scale bar (bottom left corner), 2 cm. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig13large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Although root segmentation has improved using spectral information compared to color based information, the main intention of HS imaging is analysis of chemometric image properties. This is exemplified via mapping the water content of a rhizobox image.
Figure 14A shows the mean spectra of the compartments in the calibration rhizobox (cf. Figure 7) filled with soil of different water content. The shape of spectra is similar between the compartments, i.e. here a spectral ratio does not necessarily provide a more stable classification criterion. Thus intensity at a single spectral band (1680 nm), where the average difference between adjacent water contents is maximized, is identified as best separating criterion. The resulting pixel histograms for this spectral wavelength are shown in Figure 14B.
<img alt="Figure 14" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig14.jpg" /> 
Figure 14: Spectral features for water content calibration. 
(A) Mean spectra of nine water compartments from the calibration rhizobox with different water contents; (B) Pixel histograms for the water compartments at band 216 where average distance between neighboring compartment is maximum. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig14large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The relation of the average pixel intensity at 1680 nm and the measured water content is shown in Figure 15.
<img alt="Figure 15" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig15.jpg" /> 
Figure 15: Relation of spectral reflectance and volumetric water content. 
The figure shows data pairs of measured water content and spectral reflectance with empirical curves (linear and exponential) fit to the data excluding the highest water contents (red triangles). <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig15large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Differentiation of higher water contents from spectral intensity becomes difficult. A significant regression (either linear or exponential) with high R2 can be fit to water contents up to around 0.30 cm3 cm-3. Wetter soil conditions cannot be reliably predicted by the intensity value. Similar behavior of an exponential relation between reflectivity and water content with a decreasing response to water contents higher 0.30 cm3 cm-3 was also found in other studies30.
A rhizobox image with fine mapping of water content is shown in Figure 16. Four aspects have to be remarked. First, a region of lower water content can be seen in the rooted parts of the rhizobox. Second, strongest depletion is concentrated in the vicinity to single root axes. Third, depletion zones also occur where no root axes are visible on the surface, indicating regions where roots are hidden in soil. Fourth, water mapping without further image-processing results in a patchy appearance due to the aggregated soil. This can indicate inhomogeneous water content distribution at the aggregate scale, but also surface morphology effect on image quality. Chemometric image-processing techniques are an option to overcome such morphological effects in spectral images31, but are not implemented so far in the Matlab scripts used here.
<img alt="Figure 16" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig16.jpg" /> 
Figure 16: Water content mapping on a rhizobox. 
The dark blue colours represent regions of high water content, green to red areas show regions with low water content. The plant root is overlaid on the image in black. Scale bar (bottom left corner), 2 cm. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig16large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Application examples
Figure 17 relates quantitative root traits from image analysis with aboveground measurements.
<img alt="Figure 17" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig17.jpg" /> 
Figure 17: Typical application examples for root data. 
(A) and (B) show root information used for aboveground-belowground plant characterization in a phenotyping context. (A) represents root growth from the sugar beet cultivar Ferrara, (B) compares six rhizobox grown sugar beet cultivars using leaf-to-root area ratio (data from one replicate). (C) and (D) are functional relations between traits as found in plant physiological research. (C) shows the influence of leaf-to-root area ratio on dry matter production and (D) the relation of root surface area to stomata conductance. <a href="https://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/56251/56251fig17large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Figure 17A and 17B are relevant for phenotyping focusing on comprehensive aboveground and belowground plant characterization. Figure 17A shows root growth of sugar beet cultivar Ferrara (cf. Figure 8 for images). Expansion of the root system indicates the capacity of a cultivar to explore the soil volume in a given time span of the vegetation period. Figure 17B shows leaf-to-root surface area ratio of six sugar beet cultivars, providing a descriptor for the balance between plant supply (root) and demand (leaf).
Figures 17C and 17D give examples for functional relations of interest in physiological research. In Figure 17C leaf-to-root surface area ratio is related to dry matter formed during the experiment, indicating the predominant role of the assimilating surface as a limiting factor for dry matter accumulation. The lack of significance in spite of a comparatively high R2 is related to the low number of paired data (n=6) used here. Figure 17D reveals that cultivars with higher root surface area (improved uptake) have an average higher stomata conductance over the course of the experiment. The higher root area apparently sustains water extraction, thereby prolonging stomata opening.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about RGB and Spectral Root Imaging for Plant Phenotyping and Physiological Research: Experimental Setup and Imaging Protocols at JoVE.com

RGB and Spectral Root Imaging for Plant Phenotyping and Physiological Research: Experimental Setup and Imaging Protocols

RGB 및 식물 형질 및 생리 적 연구에 대 한 스펙트럼 루트 이미징: 실험적인 체제 및 프로토콜을 이미징

실험 프로토콜은 RGB와 hyperspectral 화상 식물 루트 시스템을 성장 하는 토양의 평가 대 한 제공 됩니다. RGB 이미지 시간 시리즈 hyperspectral에서 chemometric 정보 검색의 조합 공장 루트 역학에 대 한 통찰력을 최적화 합니다.

Better understanding of plant root dynamics is essential to improve resource use efficiency of agricultural systems and increase the resistance of crop ...

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16.1K 조회수.  University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences. 실험 프로토콜은 RGB와 hyperspectral 화상 식물 루트 시스템을 성장 하는 토양의 평가 대 한 제공 됩니다. RGB 이미지 시간 시리즈 hyperspectral에서 chemometric 정보 검색의 조합 공장 루트 역학에 대 한 통찰력을 최적화 합니다.

비디오: RGB and Spectral Root Imaging for Plant Phenotyping and Physiological Research: Experimental Setup and Imaging Protocols

Transcript and Metabolite Profiling for the Evaluation of Tobacco Tree and Poplar as Feedstock for the Bio-based Industry

The global demand for food, feed, energy, and water poses extraordinary challenges for future generations. It is evident that robust platforms for the exploration of renewable resources are necessary to overcome these challenges. Within the multinational framework MultiBioPro we are developing biorefinery pipelines to maximize the use of plant biomass. More specifically, we use poplar and tobacco tree (Nicotiana glauca) as target crop species for improving saccharification, isoprenoid, long chain hydrocarbon contents, fiber quality, and suberin and lignin contents. The methods used to obtain these outputs include GC-MS, LC-MS and RNA sequencing platforms. The metabolite pipelines are well established tools to generate these types of data, but also have the limitations in that only well characterized metabolites can be used. The deep sequencing will allow us to include all transcripts present during the developmental stages of the tobacco tree leaf, but has to be mapped back to the sequence of Nicotiana tabacum. With these set-ups, we aim at a basic understanding for underlying processes and at establishing an industrial framework to exploit the outcomes. In a more long term perspective, we believe that data generated here will provide means for a sustainable biorefinery process using poplar and tobacco tree as raw material. To date the basal level of metabolites in the samples have been analyzed and the protocols utilized are provided in this article.

Plant biomass offers a renewable resource for multiple products, including fuel, feed, food, and a variety of materials. In this paper we investigate the properties of tobacco tree (Nicotiana glauca) and poplar as suitable sources for a biorefinery pipeline.

바이오 기반 산업을위한 원료로 담배 나무와 포플러의 평가에 대한 성적 증명서 및 대사 산물 프로파일

The global demand for food, feed, energy, and water poses extraordinary challenges for future generations. It is evident that robust platforms for the ...

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환경과학

Experimental Protocol for Manipulating Plant-induced Soil Heterogeneity

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as plant-soil feedbacks (PSF) have large effects on plant performance, and create environmental heterogeneity that depends on the community composition. Understanding the importance of PSF for plant community assembly necessitates understanding of the role of heterogeneity in PSF, in addition to mean PSF effects. Here, we describe a protocol for manipulating plant-induced soil heterogeneity. Two example experiments are presented: (1) a field experiment with a 6-patch grid of soils to measure plant population responses and (2) a greenhouse experiment with 2-patch soils to measure individual plant responses. Soils can be collected from the zone of root influence (soils from the rhizosphere and directly adjacent to the rhizosphere) of plants in the field from conspecific and heterospecific plant species. Replicate collections are used to avoid pseudoreplicating soil samples. These soils are then placed into separate patches for heterogeneous treatments or mixed for a homogenized treatment. Care should be taken to ensure that heterogeneous and homogenized treatments experience the same degree of soil disturbance. Plants can then be placed in these soil treatments to determine the effect of plant-induced soil heterogeneity on plant performance. We demonstrate that plant-induced heterogeneity results in different outcomes than predicted by traditional coexistence models, perhaps because of the dynamic nature of these feedbacks. Theory that incorporates environmental heterogeneity influenced by the assembling community and additional empirical work is needed to determine when heterogeneity intrinsic to the assembling community will result in different assembly outcomes compared with heterogeneity extrinsic to the community composition.

Understanding the role of environmental heterogeneity in species coexistence has typically focused on types of heterogeneity that are extrinsic to the community&#8217;s species composition. We provide novel detailed methods for creating soil heterogeneity treatments using soils subject to plant-soil feedback conditioning, or heterogeneity intrinsic to the community composition.

조작 식물에 의한 토양의 이질성에 대한 실험 프로토콜

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as ...

Soil Lysimeter Excavation for Coupled Hydrological, Geochemical, and Microbiological Investigations

Studying co-evolution of hydrological and biogeochemical processes in the subsurface of natural landscapes can enhance the understanding of coupled Earth-system processes. Such knowledge is imperative in improving predictions of hydro-biogeochemical cycles, especially under climate change scenarios. We present an experimental method, designed to capture sub-surface heterogeneity of an initially homogeneous soil system. This method is based on destructive sampling of a soil lysimeter designed to simulate a small-scale hillslope. A weighing lysimeter of one cubic meter capacity was divided into sections (voxels) and was excavated layer-by-layer, with sub samples being collected from each voxel. The excavation procedure was aimed at detecting the incipient heterogeneity of the system by focusing on the spatial assessment of hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological properties of the soil. Representative results of a few physicochemical variables tested show the development of heterogeneity. Additional work to test interactions between hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological signatures is planned to interpret the observed patterns. Our study also demonstrates the possibility of carrying out similar excavations in order to observe and quantify different aspects of soil-development under varying environmental conditions and scale.

This study presents an excavation method for investigating subsurface hydrological, geochemical, and microbiological heterogeneity of a soil lysimeter. The lysimeter simulates an artificial hillslope which was initially under homogeneous condition and had been subjected to approximately 5,000 mm of water over eight cycles of irrigation in an 18-month period.

결합 문학, 지구 화학 및 미생물 조사를위한 토양 모형 매립 발굴

Studying co-evolution of hydrological and biogeochemical processes in the subsurface of natural landscapes can enhance the understanding of coupled ...

Experimental Column Setup for Studying Anaerobic Biogeochemical Interactions Between Iron (Oxy)Hydroxides, Trace Elements, and Bacteria

Fate and speciation of trace elements (TEs), such as arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg), in aquifers are closely related to physio-chemical conditions, such as redox potential (Eh) and pH, but also to microbial activities that can play a direct or indirect role on speciation and/or mobility. Indeed, some bacteria can directly oxidize As(III) to As(V) or reduce As(V) to As(III). Likewise, bacteria are strongly involved in Hg cycling, either through its methylation, forming the neurotoxin monomethyl mercury, or through its reduction to elemental Hg&#176;. The fates of both As and Hg are also strongly linked to soil or aquifer composition; indeed, As and Hg can bind to organic compounds or (oxy)hydroxides, which will influence their mobility. In turn, bacterial activities such as iron (oxy)hydroxide reduction or organic matter mineralization can indirectly influence As and Hg sequestration. The presence of sulfate/sulfide can also strongly impact these particular elements through the formation of complexes such as thio-arsenates with As or metacinnabar with Hg.
Consequently, many important questions have been raised on the fate and speciation of As and Hg in the environment and how to limit their toxicity. However, due to their reactivity towards aquifer components, it is difficult to clearly dissociate the biogeochemical processes that occur and their different impacts on the fate of these TE.
To do so, we developed an original, experimental, column setup that mimics an aquifer with As- or Hg-iron-oxide rich areas versus iron depleted areas, enabling a better understanding of TE biogeochemistry in anoxic conditions. The following protocol gives step by step instructions for the column set-up either for As or Hg, as well as an example with As under iron and sulfate reducing conditions.

Experimental Column Setup for Studying Anaerobic Biogeochemical Interactions Between Iron OxyHydroxides, Trace Elements, and Bacteria

Fate and speciation of arsenic and mercury in aquifers are closely related to physio-chemical conditions and microbial activity. Here, we present an original experimental column setup that mimics an aquifer and enables a better understanding of trace element biogeochemistry in anoxic conditions. Two examples are presented, combining geochemical and microbiological approaches.

(옥 시) 철 수 산화물, 성분, 및 박테리아 혐 기성 생물 지구 화학적 상호 작용을 공부에 대 한 실험 열 설정

Fate and speciation of trace elements (TEs), such as arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg), in aquifers are closely related to physio-chemical conditions, such as ...

Ecosystem Fabrication (EcoFAB) Protocols for The Construction of Laboratory Ecosystems Designed to Study Plant-microbe Interactions

Beneficial plant-microbe interactions offer a sustainable biological solution with the potential to boost low-input food and bioenergy production. A better mechanistic understanding of these complex plant-microbe interactions will be crucial to improving plant production as well as performing basic ecological studies investigating plant-soil-microbe interactions. Here, a detailed description for ecosystem fabrication is presented, using widely available 3D printing technologies, to create controlled laboratory habitats (EcoFABs) for mechanistic studies of plant-microbe interactions within specific environmental conditions. Two sizes of EcoFABs are described that are suited for the investigation of microbial interactions with various plant species, including Arabidopsis thaliana, Brachypodium distachyon, and Panicum virgatum. These flow-through devices allow for controlled manipulation and sampling of root microbiomes, root chemistry as well as imaging of root morphology and microbial localization. This protocol includes the details for maintaining sterile conditions inside EcoFABs and mounting independent LED light systems onto EcoFABs. Detailed methods for addition of different forms of media, including soils, sand, and liquid growth media coupled to the characterization of these systems using imaging and metabolomics are described. Together, these systems enable dynamic and detailed investigation of plant and plant-microbial consortia including the manipulation of microbiome composition (including mutants), the monitoring of plant growth, root morphology, exudate composition, and microbial localization under controlled environmental conditions. We anticipate that these detailed protocols will serve as an important starting point for other researchers, ideally helping create standardized experimental systems for investigating plant-microbe interactions.

Ecosystem Fabrication EcoFAB Protocols for The Construction of Laboratory Ecosystems Designed to Study Plant-microbe Interactions

This article describes detailed protocols for ecosystem fabrication of devices (EcoFABs) that enable the studies of plants and plant-microbe interactions in highly controlled laboratory conditions.

식물-미생물 상호작용 연구 위한 실험실 생태계의 건설에 대 한 생태계 제조 (EcoFAB) 프로토콜

Beneficial plant-microbe interactions offer a sustainable biological solution with the potential to boost low-input food and bioenergy production. A ...

The Plant Infection Test: Spray and Wound-Mediated Inoculation with the Plant Pathogen Magnaporthe Grisea

Plants possess a powerful system to defend themselves against potential threats by pathogenic fungi. For agriculturally important plants, however, current measures to combat such pathogens have proved too conservative and, thus, not sufficiently effective, and they can potentially pose environmental risks. Therefore, it is extremely necessary to identify host-resistance factors to assist in controlling plant diseases naturally through the identification of resistant germplasm, the isolation and characterization of resistance genes, and the molecular breeding of resistant cultivars. In this regard, there is need to establish an accurate, rapid, and large-scale inoculation method to breed and develop plant resistance genes. The rice blast fungal pathogen Magnaporthe grisea causes severe disease symptoms and yield losses. Recently, M. grisea has emerged as a model organism for studying the mechanisms of plant-fungal pathogen interactions. Hence, we report the development of a plant virulence test method that is specific for M. grisea. This method provides for both spray inoculation with a conidial suspension and wounding inoculation with mycelium cubes or droplets of conidial suspension. The key step of the wounding inoculation method for detached rice leaves is to make wounds on plant leaves, which avoids any interference caused by host penetration resistance. This spray/wounding protocol contributes to the rapid, accurate, and large-scale screening of the pathotypes of M. grisea isolates. This integrated and systematic plant infection method will serve as an excellent starting point for gaining a broad perspective of issues in plant pathology.

The Plant Infection Test: Spray and Wound-Mediated Inoculation with the Plant Pathogen Magnaporthe Grisea

Here, we present a protocol to test plant virulence with the plant pathogen Magnaporthe grisea. This report will contribute to the large-scale screening of the pathotypes of fungi isolates and serve as an excellent starting point for understanding the resistant mechanisms of plants during molecular breeding.

식물 감염 테스트: 스프레이 식물 병원 체 Magnaporthe Grisea 와 상처-중재 접종

Plants possess a powerful system to defend themselves against potential threats by pathogenic fungi. For agriculturally important plants, however, current ...

Harvesting Venom Toxins from Assassin Bugs and Other Heteropteran Insects

Heteropteran insects such as assassin bugs (Reduviidae) and giant water bugs (Belostomatidae) descended from a common predaceous and venomous ancestor, and the majority of extant heteropterans retain this trophic strategy. Some heteropterans have transitioned to feeding on vertebrate blood (such as the kissing bugs, Triatominae; and bed bugs, Cimicidae) while others have reverted to feeding on plants (most Pentatomomorpha). However, with the exception of saliva used by kissing bugs to facilitate blood-feeding, little is known about heteropteran venoms compared to the venoms of spiders, scorpions and snakes.
One obstacle to the characterization of heteropteran venom toxins is the structure and function of the venom/labial glands, which are both morphologically complex and perform multiple biological roles (defense, prey capture, and extra-oral digestion). In this article, we describe three methods we have successfully used to collect heteropteran venoms. First, we present electrostimulation as a convenient way to collect venom that is often lethal when injected into prey animals, and which obviates contamination by glandular tissue. Second, we show that gentle harassment of animals is sufficient to produce venom extrusion from the proboscis and/or venom spitting in some groups of heteropterans. Third, we describe methods to harvest venom toxins by dissection of anaesthetized animals to obtain the venom glands. This method is complementary to other methods, as it may allow harvesting of toxins from taxa in which electrostimulation and harassment are ineffective. These protocols will enable researchers to harvest toxins from heteropteran insects for structure-function characterization and possible applications in medicine and agriculture.

Although many insects in the suborder Heteroptera (Insecta: Hemiptera) are venomous, their venom composition and the functions of their venom toxins are mostly unknown. This protocol describes methods to harvest heteropteran venoms for further characterization, using electrostimulation, harassment, and gland dissection.

독 독 소 암살자 버그와 다른 Heteropteran 곤충에서 수확

Heteropteran insects such as assassin bugs (Reduviidae) and giant water bugs (Belostomatidae) descended from a common predaceous and venomous ancestor, ...

An Optimized Rhizobox Protocol to Visualize Root Growth and Responsiveness to Localized Nutrients

Roots are notoriously difficult to study. Soil is both a visual and mechanical barrier, making it difficult to track roots in situ without destructive harvest or expensive equipment. We present a customizable and affordable rhizobox method that allows the non-destructive visualization of root growth over time and is particularly well-suited to studying root plasticity in response to localized resource patches. The method was validated by assessing maize genotypic variation in plasticity responses to patches containing 15N-labeled legume residue. Methods are described to obtain representative developmental measurements over time, measure root length density in resource-containing and control patches, calculate root growth rates, and determine 15N recovery by plant roots and shoots. Advantages, caveats, and potential future applications of the method are also discussed. Although care must be taken to ensure that experimental conditions do not bias root growth data, the rhizobox protocol presented here yields reliable results if carried out with sufficient attention to detail.

Visualizing and measuring root growth in situ is extremely challenging. We present a customizable rhizobox method to track root development and proliferation over time in response to nutrient enrichment. This method is used to analyze maize genotypic differences in root plasticity in response to an organic nitrogen source.

루트 성장 및 지역화 된 양분에 응답을 시각화 하는 최적화 된 Rhizobox 프로토콜

Roots are notoriously difficult to study. Soil is both a visual and mechanical barrier, making it difficult to track roots in situ without destructive ...

Colletotrichum fioriniae Development in Water and Chloroform-based Blueberry and Cranberry Floral Extracts

To accurately monitor the phenology of the bloom period and the temporal dynamics of floral chemical cues on fungal fruit rotting pathogens, floral extraction methods and coverslip bioassays were developed utilizing Colletotrichum fioriniae. In blueberry and cranberry, this pathogen is optimally controlled by applying fungicides during the bloom period because of the role flowers play in the initial stages of infection. The protocol detailed here describes how floral extracts (FE) were obtained using water-, chloroform-, and field rainwater-based methods for later use in corresponding glass coverslip bioassays. Each FE served to provide a different set of information: response of C. fioriniae to mobilized floral chemical cues in water (water-based), pathogen response to flower and fruit surface waxes (chloroform-based), and field-based monitoring of collected floral rainwater, moving in vitro observations to an agricultural setting. The FE is broadly described as either water- or chloroform-based, with an appropriate bioassay described to compensate for the inherent differences between these two materials. Rainwater that had run off flowers was collected in unique devices for each crop, alluding to the flexibility and application of this approach for other crop systems. The bioassays are quick, inexpensive, simple, and provide the ability to generate spatiotemporal and site-specific information about the presence of stimulatory floral compounds from various sources. This information will ultimately better inform disease management strategies, as FE decrease the time needed for infection to occur, thus providing insight into changing risks for pathogen infection over the growing season.

Colletotrichum fioriniae Development in Water and Chloroform-based Blueberry and Cranberry Floral Extracts

Here, bioassays designed to monitor the development of a fungal pathogen, Colletotrichum fioriniae, in the presence of blueberry or cranberry floral extracts on glass coverslips are described. Water-, chloroform-, and field rainwater- based floral extraction techniques are detailed as well as insight into how this information can be applied.

Colletotrichum fioriniae 물, 클로 프롬 기반 블루베리와 크랜베리 꽃 추출 물 개발

To accurately monitor the phenology of the bloom period and the temporal dynamics of floral chemical cues on fungal fruit rotting pathogens, floral ...

Sampling for Estimating Frankliniella Species Flower Thrips and Orius Species Predators in Field Experiments

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a polyphagous pest that has been spread worldwide. The extensive use of insecticides in attempts to control its populations eliminates natural enemies and competitor flower thrips species, thereby increasing its populations. An unsustainable situation develops with concomitant resistant pest populations, secondary pest outbreaks, and environmental degradation. Integrated pest management utilizes knowledge of pest and natural enemy relationships to implement tactics that are environmentally friendly and sustainable. Minute pirate bugs are the most important worldwide predators of thrips. They can suppress and ultimately control Frankliniella species flower thrips. Flower samples taken at least weekly are needed to understand predator-prey dynamics. Shown here is the sampling of the flowers of fruiting vegetables and companion plants to estimate the densities of individual thrips and minute pirate bug species. Representative data illustrates how the protocol is used to determine the efficacy of management tactics over time and how to evaluate the benefits of predation by minute pirate bugs. The sampling protocol is similarly adaptable to sampling thrips and minute pirate bugs in other plant species hosts.

Sampling for Estimating Frankliniella Species Flower Thrips and Orius Species Predators in Field Experiments

Presented here is a protocol to determine the number of thrips and minute pirate bug predators in crops over multiple dates in field experiments. Also illustrated is how to determine the efficacy of management tactics against thrips and evaluate the benefits of predation by minute pirate bugs.

현장 실험에서 프랭클린니엘라 종 꽃 물방울과 오리우스 종 육식 동물을 추정하기위한 샘플링

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a polyphagous pest that has been spread worldwide. The extensive use of insecticides ...