Name: synthesis and characterization of amphiphilic gold nanoparticles
Uploaded: 2019-07-02T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synthesis and Characterization of Amphiphilic Gold Nanoparticles at JoVE.com

Z.P.G. and F.S. thank the Swiss National Science Foundation and, specifically, NCCR &#39;Molecular Systems Engineering&#39;. Z.L. and F.S. thank the support of the Swiss National Science Foundation Division II grant. All authors thank Quy Ong for fruitful discussions and for proofreading the manuscript.

1. Synthesis of 11-mercapto-1-undecanesulfonate (MUS)
NOTE: This protocol can be used at any scale desired. Here, a 10 g scale-of-product is described.
<ol>
	<li>Sodium undec-10-enesulfonate 
	<ol>
		<li>Add 11-bromo-1-undecene (25 mL, 111.975 mmol), sodium sulfite (28.75 g, 227.92 mmol), and benzyltriethylammonium bromide (10 mg) to a mixture of 200 mL of methanol (MeOH) and 450 mL of deionized (DI) water (4:9 v/v MeOH:H2O ratio) in a 1 L round-bottom flask.</li>...

<ol>
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C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipid+tail+protrusions+mediate+the+insertion+of+nanoparticles+into+model+cell+membranes.">Lipid tail protrusions mediate the insertion of nanoparticles into model cell membranes.</a> Nature Communications. 5, 4482-4493 (2014).</li><li>Cagno, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Broad-spectrum+non-toxic+antiviral+nanoparticles+with+a+virucidal+inhibition+mechanism.">Broad-spectrum non-toxic antiviral nanoparticles with a virucidal inhibition mechanism.</a> Nature Materials. 17 (2), 195-203 (2018).</li><li>Uzun, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water-soluble+amphiphilic+gold+nanoparticles+with+structured+ligand+shells.">Water-soluble amphiphilic gold nanoparticles with structured ligand shells.</a> Chemical Communications. 2 (2), 196-198 (2008).</li><li>Huang, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Colloidal+stability+of+self-assembled+monolayer-coated+gold+nanoparticles:+The+effects+of+surface+compositional+and+structural+heterogeneity.">Colloidal stability of self-assembled monolayer-coated gold nanoparticles: The effects of surface compositional and structural heterogeneity.</a> Langmuir. 29 (37), 11560-11566 (2013).</li><li>Carney, R. 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C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Free+energy+change+for+insertion+of+charged,+monolayer-protected+nanoparticles+into+lipid+bilayers.">Free energy change for insertion of charged, monolayer-protected nanoparticles into lipid bilayers.</a> Soft Matter. 10 (4), 648-658 (2014).</li><li>Ong, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+Ligand+Shell+for+Mixed-Ligand+Coated+Gold+Nanoparticles.">Characterization of Ligand Shell for Mixed-Ligand Coated Gold Nanoparticles.</a> Accounts of Chemical Research. 50 (8), 1911-1919 (2017).</li><li>Marbella, L. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NMR+techniques+for+noble+metal+nanoparticles.">NMR techniques for noble metal nanoparticles.</a> Chemistry of Materials. 27 (8), 2721-2739 (2015).</li><li>Templeton, A. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactivity+of+Monolayer-Protected+Gold+Cluster+Molecules+Steric+Effects.">Reactivity of Monolayer-Protected Gold Cluster Molecules Steric Effects.</a> Journal of American Chemical Society. 120 (8), 1906-1911 (1998).</li><li>Harkness, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+structural+mass+spectrometry+strategy+for+the+relative+quantitation+of+ligands+on+mixed+monolayer-protected+gold+nanoparticles.">A structural mass spectrometry strategy for the relative quantitation of ligands on mixed monolayer-protected gold nanoparticles.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 82 (22), 9268-9274 (2010).</li></ol>

This protocol describes first the synthesis of MUS ligand and, then, the synthesis and characterization of amphiphilic MUS:OT gold nanoparticles. Synthesizing MUS with minimal salt content enables a better reliability of the stoichiometric ratio between the ligands during the nanoparticle synthesis, which is a key factor for the reproducible synthesis of MUS:OT nanoparticles with a target hydrophobic content (Figure 8). The use of methanol as a common solvent for MUS and OT, along with the s...

The ligand shell of gold nanoparticles can be engineered to exhibit several different properties that can be applied to address challenges in biomedicine1,2,3,4. Such versatility allows for the control of the intermolecular interactions between nanoparticles and biomolecules5,6,7. Hydrophobicity and charge play a decisive role, as well as other surface parameters that affect how nanoparticles interact with biomolecules5,8,9. To tune the nanoparticles&#39; surface properties, the choice of thiolate molecules that make up the ligand shell offers a myriad of possibilities, according to the characteristics sought. For example, a mixture of ligand molecules with hydrophobic and hydrophilic (e.g.,&#160;charged) end groups are often used to generate amphiphilic nanoparticles10,11.
One prominent example of this type of nanoparticles is protected by a mixture of OT and MUS (hereafter called MUS:OT nanoparticles) that has been shown to possess many relevant properties12,13,14. First, with a ligand shell composition of 66% MUS (hereafter 66:34 MUS:OT), the colloidal stability of the nanoparticles is high, reaching up to 33% in weight in deionized water, as well as in phosphate-buffered saline (1x, 4 mM phosphate, 150 mM NaCl)15. Moreover, these particles do not precipitate at relatively low pH values: for example, at pH 2.3 and with salt concentrations of 1 M NaCl15, these nanoparticles remain colloidally stable for months.The stoichiometric ratio between the two molecules on the ligand shell is important because it dictates the colloidal stability in solutions with a high ionic strength16.
These particles have been shown to traverse the cell membrane without porating it, via an energy-independent pathway1,12. The spontaneous fusion between these particles and lipid bilayers underlies their diffusivity through cell membranes17. The mechanism behind this interaction is the minimization of contact between a hydrophobic solvent-accessible surface area and water molecules upon fusion with lipid bilayers18. Compared to all-MUS nanoparticles (nanoparticles having only the MUS ligand on their shell), the higher hydrophobicity on mixed MUS:OT nanoparticles (for example, at a 66:34 MUS:OT composition) increases the span of the core diameter that can fuse with lipid bilayers18.Different self-assembly organizations of the ligand shell correlate to distinct binding modes of 66:34 MUS:OT nanoparticles with various proteins, such as albumin and ubiquitin, when compared to all-MUS particles19.Recently, it has been reported that 66:34 MUS:OT nanoparticles can be utilized as a broad-spectrum antiviral agent that irreversibly destroys the viruses because of multivalent electrostatic bindings of MUS ligands and nonlocal couplings of OT ligands to capsid proteins14.In all these cases, it has been found that the hydrophobic content, as well as the core size of the nanoparticles, determines how these bio-nano interactions take place. These diverse properties of MUS:OT nanoparticles have prompted many computer simulation studies that aimed to clarify the mechanisms underpinning the interactions between MUS:OT particles and various biological structures such as lipid bilayers20.
The preparation of MUS:OT-protected Au nanoparticles poses a few challenges. First, the charged ligand (MUS) and the hydrophobic ligand (OT) are immiscible. Thus, the solubility of the nanoparticles and of the ligands needs to be taken into account throughout the synthesis, as well as during characterization. Additionally, the purity of the MUS ligand molecules&#8212;specifically, the content of inorganic salts in the starting material&#8212;influences the quality, reproducibility, as well as the short- and long-term colloidal stability of the nanoparticles.
Here, a detailed synthesis and characterization of this class of amphiphilic gold nanoparticles protected by a mixture of MUS and OT are outlined. A protocol for the synthesis of the negatively charged MUS ligand is reported to ensure the purity and, hence, the reproducibility of different nanoparticle syntheses. Then, the procedure to generate these nanoparticles, based on a common one-phase synthesis, followed by thorough purification, is reported in detail. Various necessary characterization techniques21, such as TEM, UV-Vis, TGA, and NMR, have been combined to obtain all the necessary parameters for any further biological experiments.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>11-bromo-1-undecene</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>467642-25 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Sulfite</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S0505-250 g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzyltriethyl-ammonium bromide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>147125-25 g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH1135-2.5 LP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DI water</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>ZRXQ003WW</td>
			<td>Deionized water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 L round bottom flask</td>
			<td>DURAN</td>
			<td>24 170 56</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diethyl ether</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>1.00930 EMD Millipore</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stirring bar</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z329207,</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dow Corning High Vacuum Grease</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z273554 ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filtering flask</td>
			<td>DURAN</td>
			<td>20 201 63</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filtering Buchner Funnel</td>
			<td>FisherSci</td>
			<td>11707335</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol &#62;99.8%, ACS, Reagent</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>2081.321DP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deuterium dioxide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>151882 ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thioacetic acid 96%</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>T30805 ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbon black</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>05105-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Celite</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D3877 SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>Filtration medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Condenser</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z531154</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid, ACS reagent 37%</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>320331 SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Hydroxide, BioXtra, pellets (anhydrous)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S8045 SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>525-0155P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>250 mL round bottom flask</td>
			<td>DURAN</td>
			<td>24 170 37</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>500 mL round bottom flask</td>
			<td>DURAN</td>
			<td>24 170 46</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitric acid, fACS reagent 70%</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>438073 SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gold(III) chloride trihydrate &#62;99.9% trace metal basis</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>520918 ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-octanethiol &#62;98.5%</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>471836 ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Borohydride purum p.a.&#62;96%</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>71320 ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Separatory funnel</td>
			<td>SIgma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z330655 SIGMA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Funnel</td>
			<td>DURAN</td>
			<td>21 351 46</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2V folded filtering papers</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>1202-150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon filters</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>UFC903024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iodine, ACS reagent, &#62;99.8%, solid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>207772 SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mm NMR-Tubes, Type 5HP (high precision)</td>
			<td>Armar</td>
			<td>32210.503</td>
			<td>Length 178 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol-d4 99.8 atom%D</td>
			<td>Armar</td>
			<td>16400.2035</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TGA crucible</td>
			<td>Thepro</td>
			<td>9095-9270.45</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>400 mesh carbon supported copper grid</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Science</td>
			<td>CF400-Cu</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>quartz cuvette</td>
			<td>Hellma Analytics</td>
			<td>100-1-40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

synthesis and characterization of amphiphilic gold nanoparticles

Gold nanoparticles covered with a mixture of 1-octanethiol (OT) and 11-mercapto-1-undecane sulfonic acid (MUS) have been extensively studied because of their interactions with cell membranes, lipid bilayers, and viruses. The hydrophilic ligands make these particles colloidally stable in aqueous solutions and the combination with hydrophobic ligands creates an amphiphilic particle that can be loaded with hydrophobic drugs, fuse with the lipid membranes, and resist nonspecific protein adsorption. Many of these properties depend on nanoparticle size and the composition of the ligand shell. It is, therefore, crucial to have a reproducible synthetic method and reliable characterization techniques that allow the determination of nanoparticle properties and the ligand shell composition. Here, a one-phase chemical reduction, followed by a thorough purification to synthesize these nanoparticles with diameters below 5 nm, is presented. The ratio between the two ligands on the surface of the nanoparticle can be tuned through their stoichiometric ratio used during synthesis. We demonstrate how various routine techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrometry, are combined to comprehensively characterize the physicochemical parameters of the nanoparticles.

The reaction steps to synthesize MUS are shown in Figure 1. The 1H NMR spectra of the product of each step are represented in Figure 2. The synthesis workflow of the binary MUS:OT amphiphilic gold nanoparticles is described in Figure 3. Following the synthesis, the workup of the nanoparticles consisted of washing the particles several times with ethanol and DI water. Prior to any character...

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Synthesis and Characterization of Amphiphilic Gold Nanoparticles

Amphiphilic gold nanoparticles can be used in many biological applications. A protocol to synthesize gold nanoparticles coated by a binary mixture of ligands and a detailed characterization of these particles is presented.

Gold nanoparticles covered with a mixture of 1-octanethiol (OT) and 11-mercapto-1-undecane sulfonic acid (MUS) have been extensively studied because of ...

This protocol addresses the batch-to-batch reproducibility of sulfonate and amphiphilic gold nanoparticles that our laboratory uses in experiments with cells, viruses, and proteins. This technique addresses the inorganic contaminants common to this type of synthesis. It also introduces checks and balances after each step to ensure the reproducibility of amphiphilic gold nanoparticles.This technique is laborious and requires patience. The level of difficulty depends on scale, so start at a small scale, and familiarize yourself with each instrument and step before scaling up. First, add 11-bromo-1-undecene, sodium sulfite, and benzyltriethylammonium bromide to 200 milliliters of methanol and 450 milliliters of deionized water, in a one liter round bottom flask.Reflux the reaction mixture at 102 degrees Celsius for 48 hours until the solution becomes colorless. After workup, suspend the isolated white powder in 400 milliliters of methanol in a round bottom flask. Using a filtering flask and borosilicate filter, filter the solution to remove the methanol insoluble inorganic byproducts.Next, dissolve approximately 30 grams of sodium undec-10-enesulfonate in 500 milliliters of methanol, in a one-liter round bottom flask. Add 2.6 times excess of thioacetic acid to the solution, and stir it in front of a 250 watt UV lamp overnight. Once the reaction is complete, evaporate the methanol completely.Dry the powder under vacuum, and then disperse it in diethyl ether. Filter the mixture and wash the solid product with diethyl ether to remove any excess thioacetic acid until no more colored substances appear in the diethyl ether supernatant. After drying the solid under high vacuum, dissolve it in methanol, yielding a yellow to orange solution.Next, add three grams of carbon black to the solution and mix vigorously. Then, filter the mixture through Celite, covering 2/3 of a fluted filter paper. To synthesize MUS, combine approximately 400 milliliters of one molar hydrochloric acid and 35 grams of sodium 11-acetylthio-undecanesulfonate in a one liter round bottom flask.Reflux the mixture at 102 degrees Celsius for 12 hours to cleave the thioacetate group and obtain a thiol. On the following day, transfer the product to a two liter round bottom flask. To keep the solution acidic and prevent crystallization of inorganic salts, add 200 milliliters of one molar sodium hydroxide, and 400 milliliters of deionized water to the flask to give a final volume of one liter.Store the clear solution at four degrees Celsius overnight to crystallize the product as fine solids that are viscous when wet. On the following day, decant the clear supernatant. Then, transfer the product to 50 milliliter centrifuge tubes and centrifuge for five minutes at 4000 times g.Following centrifugation, decant the supernatant into another round bottom flask. Transfer the white pellets to centrifuge tubes, and dry under high vacuum to obtain methanol-soluble MUS in about 30%yield. Weigh 177.2 milligrams of gold(III)chloride trihydrate in a small glass vial.Following this, dissolve 87 milligrams of MUS in 10 milliliters of methanol, in a 20 milliliter glass vial. Sonicate the solution in an ultrasonic bath until no solid material is visible, to ensure complete dissolution. Add 26 microliters of 1-Octanethiol to the methanol solution, and agitate it to mix the ligands.Add 500 milligrams of sodium borohydride to 100 milliliters of ethanol in a 250 milliliter round bottom flask. Stir vigorously until the solution is clear. Dissolve the gold salt in 100 milliliters of ethanol in a 500 milliliter round bottom flask and stir at 800 RPM until the gold salt dissolves completely.Next, add the ligand solution to the reaction mixture. Wait 15 minutes for the formation of the gold-thiolate complex, which is indicated by a color change from translucent yellow to turbid yellow. Add the previously prepared sodium borohydride solution drop-wise to the reaction mixture, using a separatory funnel.Adjust the interval time of the drops so that the addition of sodium borohydride takes about an hour. Once the sodium borohydride addition is complete, remove the addition funnel and allow the reaction mixture to stir for another hour. Then, remove the magnetic stir bar using a magnet placed on the outside of the round bottom flask.Store the reaction mixture at four degrees Celsius overnight to precipitate the nanoparticles. After decanting the supernatant ethanol, transfer the remaining precipitant to 50 milliliter centrifuge tubes and centrifuge for three minutes at 4000 times g. After centrifugation, decant the supernatant.Disperse the nanoparticles again with ethanol by vortexing. Then, centrifuge the samples again. Dry the nanoparticles under vacuum to remove the residual ethanol.To clean the nanoparticles from free hydrophilic ligands, dissolve the precipitates in 15 milliliters of deionized water, and transfer the solutions to centrifuge tubes with filtration membranes of 30 kilodalton cutoff molecular weight. Concentrate the nanoparticle solutions by centrifugation for five minutes at 4000 times g. Following centrifugation, add 15 milliliters of deionized water, and centrifuge to concentrate again.To turn the nanoparticles into a manageable powder, freeze-dry the remaining aqueous solution. To characterize the nanoparticles by ligand ratio, prepare a 150 milligram per milliliter methanol-d4 solution of iodine. Add 600 microliters of the solution to approximately five milligrams of nanoparticles in a glass vial to etch the nanoparticles.Wrap the cap of the vial with paraffin film and sonicate it in an ultrasonic bath for 20 minutes. Then, transfer the solution to an NMR tube and acquire a proton NMR spectrum with 32 scans. The MUS synthesis is shown here.The proton NMR spectra of the product of each step are represented here. The synthesis workflow of the binary MUS Octanethiol amphiphilic gold nanoparticles is described here. Prior to characterization, the cleanliness of the nanoparticles from unbound free ligands was monitored by proton NMR.The size distribution of the nanoparticles was characterized by TEM, which shows that the average diameter is 2.4 nanometers pointing to approximately 18.08 nanometers squared of surface area, and 7.23 nanometers cubed of volume per particle. Localized surface plasma and resonance absorption was measured by acquiring UV-vis spectra. Representative proton NMR spectra with peak assignments and integration for determining the ligand ratio in the iodine-etched nanoparticles are shown here.The NMR spectrum of the nanoparticles showed that the ratio of MUS to Octanethiol is 85 to 15. The surface coverage of the nanoparticles was examined by TGA. Based on TGA data, ligand density can be estimated to be 4.8 ligands per nanometer squared.The stoichiometric ratios versus the NMR ratios of Octanethiol resulting from various syntheses are compared here. The most important things to remember in this procedure are to, on one side, the removal of inorganic impurities while preparing MUS ligands, and on the other side, the workup of the nanoparticles. This procedure is amenable to various combinations of ligands, but make sure to always characterize each batch individually.One question this procedure can answer, for example, is to what extent the ligand ratio corresponds to the stoichiometry found on the surface of the nanoparticles. Scaling up the production of the ligand and proving the batch-to-batch reproducibility of the nanoparticles, has allowed us to tackle important questions related to biology and medicine. For example, we have established the virucidal properties of these nanoparticles.Please, work carefully when using the UV lamp, and always wear protective gloves when handling liquid nitrogen. Always follow chemical safety rules.

synthesis-and-characterization-of-amphiphilic-gold-nanoparticles

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Metal-organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and technological applications. Their signature property is their ultrahigh porosity, which however imparts a series of challenges when it comes to both constructing them and working with them. Securing desired MOF chemical and physical functionality by linker/node assembly into a highly porous framework of choice can pose difficulties, as less porous and more thermodynamically stable congeners (e.g., other crystalline polymorphs, catenated analogues) are often preferentially obtained by conventional synthesis methods. Once the desired product is obtained, its characterization often requires specialized techniques that address complications potentially arising from, for example, guest-molecule loss or preferential orientation of microcrystallites. Finally, accessing the large voids inside the MOFs for use in applications that involve gases can be problematic, as frameworks may be subject to collapse during removal of solvent molecules (remnants of solvothermal synthesis). In this paper, we describe synthesis and characterization methods routinely utilized in our lab either to solve or circumvent these issues. The methods include solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries, and materials activation (cavity evacuation) by supercritical CO2 drying. Finally, we provide a protocol for determining a suitable pressure region for applying the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis to nitrogen isotherms, so as to estimate surface area of MOFs with good accuracy.

Synthesis, activation, and characterization of intentionally designed metal-organic framework materials is challenging, especially when building blocks are incompatible or unwanted polymorphs are thermodynamically favored over desired forms. We describe how applications of solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries and activation via supercritical CO2 drying, can address some of these challenges.

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and ...

Synthesis and Catalytic Performance of Gold Intercalated in the Walls of Mesoporous Silica

As a promising catalytically active nano reactor, gold nanoparticles intercalated in mesoporous silica (GMS) were successfully synthesized and properties of the materials were investigated. We used a one pot sol-gel approach to intercalate gold nano particles in the walls of mesoporous silica. To start with the synthesis, P123 was used as template to form micelles. Then TESPTS was used as a surface modification agent to intercalate gold nano particles. Following this process, TEOS was added in as a silica source which underwent a polymerization process in acid environment. After hydrothermal processing and calcination, the final product was acquired. Several techniques were utilized to characterize the porosity, morphology and structure of the gold intercalated mesoporous silica. The results showed a stable structure of mesoporous silica after gold intercalation. Through the oxidation of benzyl alcohol as a benchmark reaction, the GMS materials showed high selectivity and recyclability.

Here, we present a protocol with a sol-gel process to synthesize gold intercalated in the walls of mesoporous materials (GMS), which is confirmed to possess a mesoporous matrix with gold intercalated in the walls imparting great stability and recyclability.

As a promising catalytically active nano reactor, gold nanoparticles intercalated in mesoporous silica (GMS) were successfully synthesized and properties ...

Synthesis, Characterization, and Functionalization of Hybrid Au/CdS and Au/ZnS Core/Shell Nanoparticles

Plasmonic nanoparticles are an attractive material for light harvesting applications due to their easily modified surface, high surface area and large extinction coefficients which can be tuned across the visible spectrum. Research into the plasmonic enhancement of optical transitions has become popular, due to the possibility of altering and in some cases improving photo-absorption or emission properties of nearby chromophores such as molecular dyes or quantum dots. The electric field of the plasmon can couple with the excitation dipole of a chromophore, perturbing the electronic states involved in the transition and leading to increased absorption and emission rates. These enhancements can also be negated at close distances by energy transfer mechanism, making the spatial arrangement of the two species critical. Ultimately, enhancement of light harvesting efficiency in plasmonic solar cells could lead to thinner and, therefore, lower cost devices. The development of hybrid core/shell particles could offer a solution to this issue. The addition of a dielectric spacer between a gold nanoparticles and a chromophore is the proposed method to control the exciton plasmon coupling strength and thereby balance losses with the plasmonic gains. A detailed procedure for the coating of gold nanoparticles with CdS and ZnS semiconductor shells is presented. The nanoparticles show high uniformity with size control in both the core gold particles and shell species allowing for a more accurate investigation into the plasmonic enhancement of external chromophores.

The synthesis of uniform gold nanoparticles coated with semiconductor shells of CdS or ZnS is performed. The semiconductor coating is conducted by first depositing a silver sulfide shell and exchanging the silver cations for zinc or cadmium cations.

Plasmonic nanoparticles are an attractive material for light harvesting applications due to their easily modified surface, high surface area and large ...

A Simple Method for the Size Controlled Synthesis of Stable Oligomeric Clusters of Gold Nanoparticles under Ambient Conditions

Reducing dilute aqueous HAuCl4 with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) under alkaline conditions produces 2 to 3 nm diameter nanoparticles. Stable grape-like oligomeric clusters of these yellow nanoparticles of narrow size distribution are synthesized under ambient conditions via two methods. The delay-time method controls the number of subunits in the oligoclusters by varying the time between the addition of HAuCl4 to alkaline solution and the subsequent addition of reducing agent, NaSCN. The yellow oligoclusters produced range in size from ~3 to ~25 nm. This size range can be further extended by an add-on method utilizing hydroxylated gold chloride (Na+[Au(OH4-x)Clx]-) to auto-catalytically increase the number of subunits in the as-synthesized oligocluster nanoparticles, providing a total range of 3 nm to 70 nm. The crude oligocluster preparations display narrow size distributions and do not require further fractionation for most purposes. The oligoclusters formed can be concentrated &#62;300 fold without aggregation and the crude reaction mixtures remain stable for weeks without further processing. Because these oligomeric clusters can be concentrated before derivatization they allow expensive derivatizing agents to be used economically. In addition, we present two models by which predictions of particle size can be made with great accuracy.

We describe a simple method for producing highly stable oligomeric clusters of gold nanoparticles via the reduction of chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN). The oligoclusters have a narrow size distribution and can be produced with a wide range of sizes and surface coats.

Reducing dilute aqueous HAuCl4 with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) under alkaline conditions produces 2 to 3 nm diameter nanoparticles. Stable grape-like ...

Synthesis and Characterization of Supramolecular Colloids

Control over colloidal assembly is of utmost importance for the development of functional colloidal materials with tailored structural and mechanical properties for applications in photonics, drug delivery and coating technology. Here we present a new family of colloidal building blocks, coined supramolecular colloids, whose self-assembly is controlled through surface-functionalization with a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA) derived supramolecular moiety. Such BTAs interact via directional, strong, yet reversible hydrogen-bonds with other identical BTAs. Herein, a protocol is presented that describes how to couple these BTAs to colloids and how to quantify the number of coupling sites, which determines the multivalency of the supramolecular colloids. Light scattering measurements show that the refractive index of the colloids is almost matched with that of the solvent, which strongly reduces the van der Waals forces between the colloids. Before photo-activation, the colloids remain well dispersed, as the BTAs are equipped with a photo-labile group that blocks the formation of hydrogen-bonds. Controlled deprotection with UV-light activates the short-range hydrogen-bonds between the BTAs, which triggers the colloidal self-assembly. The evolution from the dispersed state to the clustered state is monitored by confocal microscopy. These results are further quantified by image analysis with simple routines using ImageJ and Matlab. This merger of supramolecular chemistry and colloidal science offers a direct route towards light- and thermo-responsive colloidal assembly encoded in the surface-grafted monolayer.

A protocol for the synthesis and characterization of colloids coated with supramolecular moieties is described. These supramolecular colloids undergo self-assembly upon the activation of the hydrogen-bonds between the surface-anchored molecules by UV-light.

Control over colloidal assembly is of utmost importance for the development of functional colloidal materials with tailored structural and mechanical ...

Hydroquinone Based Synthesis of Gold Nanorods

Gold nanorods are an important kind of nanoparticles characterized by peculiar plasmonic properties. Despite their widespread use in nanotechnology, the synthetic methods for the preparation of gold nanorods are still not fully optimized. In this paper we describe a new, highly efficient, two-step protocol based on the use of hydroquinone as a mild reducing agent. Our approach allows the preparation of nanorods with a good control of size and aspect ratio (AR) simply by varying the amount of hexadecyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and silver ions (Ag+) present in the "growth solution". By using this method, it is possible to markedly reduce the amount of CTAB, an expensive and cytotoxic reagent, necessary to obtain the elongated shape. Gold nanorods with an aspect ratio of about 3 can be obtained in the presence of just 50 mM of CTAB (versus 100 mM used in the standard protocol based on the use of ascorbic acid), while shorter gold nanorods are obtained using a concentration as low as 10 mM.

This paper describes a protocol for the synthesis of gold nanorods, based on the use of hydroquinone as reducing agent, plus the different mechanisms for controlling their size and aspect ratio.

Gold nanorods are an important kind of nanoparticles characterized by peculiar plasmonic properties. Despite their widespread use in nanotechnology, the ...

Rapid Nanoprobe Signal Enhancement by In Situ Gold Nanoparticle Synthesis

The use of nanoprobes such as gold, silver, silica or iron-oxide nanoparticles as detection reagents in bioanalytical assays can enable high sensitivity and convenient colorimetric readout. However, high densities of nanoparticles are typically needed for detection. The available synthesis-based enhancement protocols are either limited to gold and silver nanoparticles or rely on precise enzymatic control and optimization. Here, we present a protocol to enhance the colorimetric readout of gold, silver, silica, and iron oxide nanoprobes. It was observed that the colorimetric signal can be improved by up to a 10000-fold factor. The basis for such signal enhancement strategies is the chemical reduction of Au3+ to Au0. There are several chemical reactions that enable the reduction of Au3+ to Au0. In the protocol, Good&#39;s buffers and H2O2 are used and it is possible to favor the deposition of Au0 onto the surface of existing nanoprobes, in detriment of the formation of new gold nanoparticles. The protocol consists of the incubation of the microarray with a solution consisting of chloroauric acid and H2O2 in 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid pH 6 buffer following the nanoprobe-based detection assay. The enhancement solution can be applied to paper and glass-based sensors. Moreover, it can be used in commercially available immunoassays as demonstrated by the application of the method to a commercial allergen microarray. The signal development requires less than 5 min of incubation with the enhancement solution and the readout can be assessed by naked eye or low-end image acquisition devices such as a table-top scanner or a digital camera.

Rapid Nanoprobe Signal Enhancement by In Situ Gold Nanoparticle Synthesis

In this work, a protocol for signal enhancement of nanoprobe-based biosensing is presented. The protocol is based on the reduction of chloroauric acid onto the surface of existing nanoprobes that consist of gold, silver, silica or iron-oxide nanoparticles.

The use of nanoprobes such as gold, silver, silica or iron-oxide nanoparticles as detection reagents in bioanalytical assays can enable high sensitivity ...

High Resolution Physical Characterization of Single Metallic Nanoparticles

Individual molecules can be detected and characterized by measuring the degree by which they reduce the ionic current flowing through a single nanometer-scale pore. The signal is characteristic of the molecule&#39;s physicochemical properties and its interactions with the pore. We demonstrate that the nanopore formed by the bacterial protein exotoxin Staphylococcus aureus alpha hemolysin (&#945;HL) can detect polyoxometalates (POMs, anionic metal oxygen clusters), at the single molecule limit. Moreover, multiple degradation products of 12-phosphotungstic acid POM (PTA, H3PW12O40) in solution are simultaneously measured. The single molecule sensitivity of the nanopore method allows for POMs to be characterized at significantly lower concentrations than required for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. This technique could serve as a new tool for chemists to study the molecular properties of polyoxometalates or other metallic clusters, to better understand POM synthetic processes, and possibly improve their yield. Hypothetically, the location of a given atom, or the rotation of a fragment in the molecule, and the metal oxidation state could be investigated with this method. In addition, this new technique has the advantage of allowing the real-time monitoring of molecules in solution.&#160;

Here, we present a protocol to detect discrete metal oxygen clusters, polyoxometalates (POMs), at the single molecule limit using a biological nanopore-based electronic platform. The method provides a complementary approach to traditional analytical chemistry tools used in the study of these molecules.

Individual molecules can be detected and characterized by measuring the degree by which they reduce the ionic current flowing through a single ...

Synthesis of Aptamer-PEI-g-PEG Modified Gold Nanoparticles Loaded with Doxorubicin for Targeted Drug Delivery

Due to drug resistance and toxicity in healthy cells, use of doxorubicin (DOX) has been limited in clinical cancer therapy. This protocol describes the designing of poly(ethylenimine) grafted with polyethylene glycol (PEI-g-PEG) copolymer functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with loaded aptamer (AS1411) and DOX through amide reactions. AS1411 is specifically bonded with targeted nucleolin receptors on cancer cells so that DOX targets cancer cells instead of healthy cells. First, PEG is carboxylated, then grafted to branched PEI to obtain a PEI-g-PEG copolymer, which is confirmed by 1H NMR analysis. Next, PEI-g-PEG copolymer coated gold nanoparticles (PEI-g-PEG@AuNPs) are synthesized, and DOX and AS1411 are covalently bonded to AuNPs gradually via amide reactions. The diameter of the prepared AS1411-g-DOX-g-PEI-g-PEG@AuNPs is ~39.9 nm, with a zeta potential of -29.3 mV, indicating that the nanoparticles are stable in water and cell medium. Cell cytotoxicity assays show that the newly designed DOX loaded AuNPs are able to kill cancer cells (A549). This synthesis demonstrates the delicate arrangement of PEI-g-PEG copolymers, aptamers, and DOX on AuNPs that are achieved by sequential amide reactions. Such aptamer-PEI-g-PEG functionalized AuNPs provide a promising platform for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy.

In this protocol, doxorubicin-loaded AS1411-g-PEI-g-PEG modified gold nanoparticles are synthesized via three-step amide reactions. Then, doxorubicin is loaded and delivered to target cancer cells for cancer therapy.

Due to drug resistance and toxicity in healthy cells, use of doxorubicin (DOX) has been limited in clinical cancer therapy. This protocol describes the ...

Gold Nanoparticle Synthesis

Gold nanoparticles (Au nanoparticles) that are ~12 nm in diameter were synthesized by rapidly injecting a solution of 150 mg (0.15 mmol) of tetrachloroauric acid in 3.0 g (3.7 mmol, 3.6 mL) of oleylamine (technical grade) and 3.0 mL of toluene into a boiling solution of 5.1 g (6.4 mmol, 8.7 mL) of oleylamine in 147 mL of toluene. While boiling and mixing the reaction solution for 2 hours, the color of the reaction mixture changed from clear, to light yellow, to light pink, and then slowly to dark red. The heat was then turned off, and the solution was allowed to gradually cool down to room temperature for 1 hour. The gold nanoparticles were then collected and separated from the solution using a centrifuge and washed three times; by vortexing and dispersing the gold nanoparticles in 10 mL portions of toluene, and then precipitating the gold nanoparticles by adding 40 mL portions of methanol and spinning them in a centrifuge. The solution was then decanted to remove any remaining byproducts and unreacted starting materials. Drying the gold nanoparticles in a vacuum environment produced a solid black pellet; which could be stored for long periods of time (up to one year) for later use, and then redissolved in organic solvents such as toluene.

A protocol for synthesizing ~12 nm diameter gold nanoparticles (Au nanoparticles) in an organic solvent is presented. The gold nanoparticles are capped with oleylamine ligands to prevent agglomeration. The gold nanoparticles are soluble in organic solvents such as toluene.