Name: addressing practical issues in atomic force microscopy-based micro-indentation on human articular cartilage explants
Uploaded: 2022-10-28T14:10:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Addressing Practical Issues in Atomic Force Microscopy-Based Micro-Indentation on Human Articular Cartilage Explants at JoVE.com

We thank the orthopedic surgeons from the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery of the University Hospital of Tuebingen for providing the tissue samples.

Femoral condyles collected from patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty at the University Hospital of T&#252;bingen, Germany, were used. Only articular cartilage samples from patients with degenerative and posttraumatic joint pathologies were included in this study. Departmental, institutional, as well as local ethical committee approval were obtained before the commencement of the study (Project no.674/2016BO2). Written informed consent was received from all patients before participation.
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As a progressive and multifactorial disease, OA triggers structural and functional changes in the articular cartilage.Throughout the course of OA, impairments in mechanical features are accompanied by structural and biochemical changes at the surface of the articular cartilage27,31. The earliest pathological events occurring in OA are proteoglycan depletion coupled with collagen network disruption32,33<su...

Due to the ever-shrinking size of electronic devices and systems, the rapid development of micro- and nano-based technology and equipment has gained momentum. One such device is atomic force microscopy (AFM), which can scan biological surfaces and retrieve topographic or biomechanical information at both nano- and micrometer scales1,2. Among its vast features, this tool can be operated as a micro- as well as a nano-indenter to obtain information about the mechanical properties of various biological systems3,4,5,6. The data are collected by physical contact with the surface through a mechanical probe, which can be as small as about 1 nm at its tip7. The resulting deformation of the sample is then displayed based on the indentation depth of the cantilever tip and the force applied on the sample8.
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a long-term degenerative chronic disease characterized by deterioration of the articular cartilage in the joints and surrounding tissues, which can lead to complete exposure of the bone surfaces. The burden of OA is substantial; currently, half of all women and one-third of all men aged 65 and over suffer from OA9. Traumas, obesity, and the resulting altered biomechanics of the joint10&#160;determine the articular cartilage degeneration, which is viewed as a common end result. The pioneering study of Ganz et al. posited that the early steps of the OA process may involve the biomechanical properties of cartilage11, and since then researchers have confirmed this hypothesis12. Likewise, it is generally accepted that the biomechanical properties of the tissue are functionally orchestrated by the ultrastructural organization as well as cell-cell and cell-matrix crosstalk. Any alterations can dramatically impact the overall tissue biomechanical functioning13. To date, OA diagnosis is clinical and is based on plain film radiography14. This approach is two-sided: firstly, the lack of a defined degenerative cut-off threshold to formulate the diagnosis of OA makes the condition difficult to quantify, and, secondly, imaging methods lack sensitivity and standardization and cannot detect localized cartilage damage15,16,17. To this end, the assessment of the mechanical properties of the cartilage has the decisive advantage that it describes a parameter that changes during the course of OA regardless of the etiology of the disease and has a direct influence on tissue functionality at a very early stage. Indentation instruments measure the force by which the tissue resists the indentation. This is, in fact, not a new concept; the earliest studies date back to the 1980s and 1990s. In this period, numerous studies suggested that indentation instruments designed for the arthroscopic measurements of articular cartilage could be well suited to detect degenerative changes in the cartilage. Even 30 years ago, some studies were able to demonstrate that indentation instruments were able to detect in vivo changes in the cartilage surface during tissue degeneration by conducting compressive stiffness measurements during arthroscopy18,19,20.
AFM indentation (AFM-IT) of the articular cartilage provides information about a pivotal mechanical property of the tissue, namely, stiffness. This is a mechanical parameter that describes the relation between an applied, nondestructive load and the resultant deformation of the indented tissue area21. AFM-IT has been shown to be capable of quantifying age-dependent modifications in stiffness in macroscopically unaffected collagen networks, thus, differentiating between the pathological changes associated with OA onset (grade 0 on the Outerbridge scale in articular cartilage)22. We have previously shown that AFM-ITs, on the basis of spatial chondrocyte organization as an image-based biomarker for early cartilage degeneration, allow for not only quantifying but also actually pinpointing the earliest degenerative mechanical changes. These findings have already been confirmed by others23,24. Hence, AFM-IT acts as an interesting tool to diagnose and identify early degenerative changes. These changes can be already measured at a cellular level, reshaping the understanding of the OA pathophysiological process.
In this protocol, we demonstrate a complete histological and biomechanical grading procedure of articular cartilage explants, from native cartilage explant preparation to AFM data acquisition and processing. Through a step-by-step approach, we show how to generate, grade, and visually classify articular cartilage tissue according to different stages of degeneration by means of 2D large mosaic imaging, followed by micro-AFM indentations.
Even though, currently, AFM-IT is one of the most sensitive tools to measure biomechanical changes in cartilage7, like any other instrumental technique, it has limitations and practical peculiarities25&#160;that can lead to erroneous data acquisition. To this end, we subject to scrutiny the most common problems that arise during AFM measurements of the cartilage explants and describe, where possible, how to minimize or overcome them. These include topographical aspects of the samples and the difficulties to stabilize them in an AFM-compatible environment, physical peculiarities of the tissue&#39;s surface, and the resulting difficulties in performing AFM measurements on such surfaces. Examples of erroneous force-distance curves are also presented, emphasizing the conditions that may cause them. Additional limitations inherent to the geometry of the cantilever tip and the use of the Hertz model for the data analysis are also discussed.

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	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany</td>
			<td>1397-89-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Atomic force microscop (AFM) head&#160;</td>
			<td>CellHesion 200, Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td>JPK00518</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biocompatible sample glue&#160;</td>
			<td>Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td>H000033</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcein AM</td>
			<td>Cayman, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA</td>
			<td>14948</td>
			<td>Cell membrane permeable stain, used for cartilage disc sorting- top view imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cantilever</td>
			<td>Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td>SAA-SPH-5UM</td>
			<td>Frequency Nom: 30KHz, k: 0.2N/m, lenght nom: 115&#956;m, width nom: 40&#956;m,&#160; geometry: rectangular, cylindrical tip with a 5&#956;m end radius</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cartilage ctting device&#160;</td>
			<td>Self-made&#160;</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Cutting plastic device containing predefined wholes of 4mmx1mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CDD camera integrated in the AFM</td>
			<td>The Imaging Source Europe GmbH, Bremen, Germany</td>
			<td>DFK 31BF03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CDD camera integrated in the fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems, Wetzlar, Germany</td>
			<td>DFC3000G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryotome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems, Wetzlar, Germany</td>
			<td>CM3050S&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data Processing Software for the AFM</td>
			<td>Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Version 5.0.86,&#160; can be downloaded for free from the following website https://customers.jpk.com</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle&#39;s medium (DMEM)&#160;</td>
			<td>Gibco, Life Technologies, Darmstadt, Germany</td>
			<td>41966052</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence Microscope (Leica DMi8)</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems, Wetzlar, Germany</td>
			<td>11889113</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass block cantiliver holder</td>
			<td>Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td>SP-90-05</td>
			<td>Extra long glass block with angled faces, designed especially for the use with the JPK PetriDishHeaterTM (Bruker).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted phase contrast microscope (integrated in the AFM)</td>
			<td>AxioObserver D1, Carl Zeiss Microscopy, Jena, Germany</td>
			<td>L201306_03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leibovitz&#39;s L-15 medium without L-glutamine&#160;</td>
			<td>Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany</td>
			<td>F1315</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope glass slides</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA</td>
			<td>CLS294775X50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mounting medium With DAPI</td>
			<td>ibidi GmbH, Gr&#228;felfing, Germany</td>
			<td>50011</td>
			<td>Mounting media with nuclear DAPI (4&#8242;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) counterstaining used for cartilage discs&#160; side view imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA</td>
			<td>P4333</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish heater associated with AFM (Petri Dish Heater)</td>
			<td>Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td>T-05-0117</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel</td>
			<td>Feather Medical Products, Osaka, Japan</td>
			<td>2023-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicone Skirt</td>
			<td>Bruker Nano GmbH, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Protective silicone membrane (D55x0.25) which is placed on the basis of the base of the glas block to prevent&#160; medium condensation in the AFM head.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Statistical program - SPSS</td>
			<td>IBM, Armonk, New York, USA</td>
			<td>SPSS Statistics 22</td>
			<td>Vesion 280.0.0.0 (190)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue culture dishes&#160;</td>
			<td>TPP Techno Plastic Products AG, Trasadingen, Switzerland</td>
			<td>TPP93040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-tek O.C.T. Compound</td>
			<td>Sakura Finetek, Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands</td>
			<td>SA6255012</td>
			<td>Water-soluble embedding medium&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

addressing practical issues in atomic force microscopy-based micro-indentation on human articular cartilage explants

Without a doubt, atomic force microscopy (AFM) is currently one of the most powerful and useful techniques to assess micro and even nano-cues in the biological field. However, as with any other microscopic approach, methodological challenges can arise. In particular, the characteristics of the sample, sample preparation, type of instrument, and indentation probe can lead to unwanted artifacts. In this protocol, we exemplify these emerging issues on healthy as well as osteoarthritic articular cartilage explants. To this end, we first show via a step-by-step approach how to generate, grade, and visually classify ex vivo articular cartilage discs according to different stages of degeneration by means of large 2D mosaic fluorescence imaging of the whole tissue explants. The major strength of the ex vivo model is that it comprises aged, native, human cartilage that allows the investigation of osteoarthritis-related changes from early onset to progression. In addition, common pitfalls in tissue preparation, as well as the actual AFM procedure together with the subsequent data analysis, are also presented. We show how basic but crucial steps such as sample preparation and processing, topographic sample characteristics caused by advanced degeneration, and sample-tip interaction can impact data acquisition. We also subject to scrutiny the most common problems in AFM and describe, where possible, how to overcome them. Knowledge of these limitations is of the utmost importance for correct data acquisition, interpretation, and, ultimately, the embedding of findings into a broad scientific context.

Using a self-made cutting device, we were able to explant and generate small (4 mm x 1 mm) cartilage discs from fresh human condyles containing a single cellular spatial pattern30&#160;of single strings (SS, Figure 2A), double strings (DS), small clusters (SC), big clusters (BC; Figure 2A), and diffuse (Figure 2B). A representative cartilage explant is depicted in Figure 3A. The ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Addressing Practical Issues in Atomic Force Microscopy-Based Micro-Indentation on Human Articular Cartilage Explants at JoVE.com

Addressing Practical Issues in Atomic Force Microscopy-Based Micro-Indentation on Human Articular Cartilage Explants

We present a step-by-step approach to identify and address the most common problems associated with atomic force microscopy micro-indentations. We exemplify the emerging problems on native human articular cartilage explants characterized by various degrees of osteoarthritis-driven degeneration.

Without a doubt, atomic force microscopy (AFM) is currently one of the most powerful and useful techniques to assess micro and even nano-cues in the ...

The goal of this protocol was to create an in vitro model for studying articular cartilage mechanical properties during the onset and the progression of osteoarthritis. The main advantage of the present technique is that the cartilage explants are easy to generate and highly representative of native age cartilage. This model can be used to analyze and monitor various osteoarthritis, diagnostic, and therapeutic approaches at the biomechanical level.To begin, cut the cartilage away from the bone using a scalpel. Using a biopsy punch, generate discs of four millimeter diameter. Place the disc on a custom made cutting device.Using a spatula, fix and stabilize the cartilage disc. Cut the cartilage disc with a razor blade. Using a spatula, collect the disc and place it in a 1.5 milliliter tube.To stay in the cartilage samples, add 130 microliters of cell permeable fluorescence dye to each well of the 96 well-plate and distribute the disc on the plate as one disc per well. Place the 96 well-plate on the plate holder of the fluorescence microscope. Select the appropriate fluorescence filter and the objective.Position the objective underneath the preselected well containing individual cartilage. Focus on the disc to see the cellular pattern. Select the navigator function to get an overview of the entire well.Use the left mouse button and drag it to navigate to a different stage position. Select a square that encompasses the area of interest to be scanned. Select the software's focus map point option and then select each individual tile by left clicking in the center of it.Select the option focus map in the appeared window with all the previously selected tiles. Double click on a tile to display and bring it into proper focus. Next, click set Z to save the focal plan and proceed to the next tile.After adjusting the focal plan for each individual tile begin image acquisition by pressing start scan. Fix each preselected cartilage disc containing a cellular pattern in Petri dishes by adding sufficient biocompatible glue on the top, bottom, left, and right sides of the disc. Cover the discs with with 2.5 milliliters of Leibovitz medium without L-glutamine.Position the Petri dish in the AFM devices sample holder. To calibrate the AFM cantilever, place it on the surface of the glass block cantilever so that it rests on the polished optical plane in the center of the glass block. Lower the cantilever in 100 micrometers steps using the stepper motor function until it is completely submerged in the medium.To identify the desired cartilage measurement site, start a scanner approach with the cantilever on a clean sample free area of the Petri dish. Then retract the cantilever 1.5 millimeters away from the bottom of the plate. Switch from brightfield to fluorescence view and visually identify the top of the disc.Move the AFM sample holder exactly two millimeters toward the middle of the disc. Run a scanner approach to reach the surface of the cartilage disc and retract the cantilever by 100 micrometers. To generate a force distance curve, focus on the cells positioned in the desired measurement site.Click the run button to start the measurements and acquire five force distance curves on each measurement site. Save the curves once they are inspected. To estimate Young's moduli, using the open a batch of spectroscopy curves option, open the generated force distance curves to be analyzed.Select the Hertz-fit model followed by the elasticity-fit option. Then visualize and document Young's modulus. Adapt using the poisson ratio of 0.5 and the appropriate cantilever tip radius.Then visually check the force distance curve fit to ensure correctness. For indentation depth determination, open each of the generated force distance curves in the data analysis software and select the Hertz-fit model as the analysis process. Apply the subtract baseline offset option to zero the vertical deflection axis and select the offset plus tilt function.Use the find contact point function to automatically identify the contact point. Using the vertical tip position function, subtract the distance accounting solely for cantilever deflection from the raw piezo height during the indentation. Select the elasticity-fit option to display the processed force distance curve.Then select the area of the graph so that it lines up with the most negative value on the vertical tip position axis. In the parameter tab from the XMIN box, read and document the indentation. The discs containing single strings showed higher stiffness values with a median of 2.6 kilo pascals, which is representative of uncompromised, healthy cartilage areas.With osteoarthritis onset and progression, the AFM measurements showed a strong stepwise decrease in stiffness of 42%in double strings, 77%in small clusters, and ultimately 88%in advanced stages represented by big clusters. The discs containing a diffuse pattern displayed in elevated elasticity with an important variation of Young's modulus single values. For all the cartilage discs with assigned predominant cellular pattern organization, the indentation depth associated with the employed setpoint was found to be inversely proportional to stiffness.The artifacts seen in the generated force distance curves are indicative of either a suboptimal contact between the AFM cantilever and the cartilage surface or improper sample fixation to the Petri dish. Our cartilage explants can be further processed and analyzed using a variety of molecular biological techniques such as protein analysis via eliza, immuno labeling, western moding, or gen analysis via PCR. This method may be used to study the direct impact of new therapies on articular cartilege and may help researchers to gain important insights into the potoma mechanisms of osteoarthritis.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Bacterial Immobilization for Imaging by Atomic Force Microscopy

AFM is a high-resolution (nm scale) imaging tool that mechanically probes a surface. It has the ability to image cells and biomolecules, in a liquid environment, without the need to chemically treat the sample. In order to accomplish this goal, the sample must sufficiently adhere to the mounting surface to prevent removal by forces exerted by the scanning AFM cantilever tip. In many instances, successful imaging depends on immobilization of the sample to the mounting surface. Optimally, immobilization should be minimally invasive to the sample such that metabolic processes and functional attributes are not compromised. By coating freshly cleaved mica surfaces with porcine (pig) gelatin, negatively charged bacteria can be immobilized on the surface and imaged in liquid by AFM. Immobilization of bacterial cells on gelatin-coated mica is most likely due to electrostatic interaction between the negatively charged bacteria and the positively charged gelatin. Several factors can interfere with bacterial immobilization, including chemical constituents of the liquid in which the bacteria are suspended, the incubation time of the bacteria on the gelatin coated mica, surface characteristics of the bacterial strain and the medium in which the bacteria are imaged. Overall, the use of gelatin-coated mica is found to be generally applicable for imaging microbial cells.

Live Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria can be immobilized on gelatin-coated mica and imaged in liquid using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).

AFM is a high-resolution (nm scale) imaging tool that mechanically probes a surface.  It has the ability to image cells and biomolecules, in a liquid ...

Visualization of Recombinant DNA and Protein Complexes Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows for the visualizing of individual proteins, DNA molecules, protein-protein complexes, and DNA-protein complexes. On the end of the microscope's cantilever is a nano-scale probe, which traverses image areas ranging from nanometers to micrometers, measuring the elevation of macromolecules resting on the substrate surface at any given point. Electrostatic forces cause proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids to loosely attach to the substrate in random orientations and permit imaging. The generated data resemble a topographical map, where the macromolecules resolve as three-dimensional particles of discrete sizes (Figure 1) 1,2. Tapping mode AFM involves the repeated oscillation of the cantilever, which permits imaging of relatively soft biomaterials such as DNA and proteins. One of the notable benefits of AFM over other nanoscale microscopy techniques is its relative adaptability to visualize individual proteins and macromolecular complexes in aqueous buffers, including near-physiologic buffered conditions, in real-time, and without staining or coating the sample to be imaged. 
The method presented here describes the imaging of DNA and an immunoadsorbed transcription factor (i.e. the glucocorticoid receptor, GR) in buffered solution (Figure 2). Immunoadsorbed proteins and protein complexes can be separated from the immunoadsorbing antibody-bead pellet by competition with the antibody epitope and then imaged (Figure 2A). This allows for biochemical manipulation of the biomolecules of interest prior to imaging. Once purified, DNA and proteins can be mixed and the resultant interacting complex can be imaged as well. Binding of DNA to mica requires a divalent cation 3,such as Ni2+ or Mg2+, which can be added to sample buffers yet maintain protein activity. Using a similar approach, AFM has been utilized to visualize individual enzymes, including RNA polymerase 4 and a repair enzyme 5, bound to individual DNA strands. These experiments provide significant insight into the protein-protein and DNA-protein biophysical interactions taking place at the molecular level. Imaging individual macromolecular particles with AFM can be useful for determining particle homogeneity and for identifying the physical arrangement of constituent components of the imaged particles. While the present method was developed for visualization of GR-chaperone protein complexes 1,2 and DNA strands to which the GR can bind, it can be applied broadly to imaging DNA and protein samples from a variety of sources.

A tapping mode atomic force microscope (AFM) method for the visualization of plasmid DNA, cytoplasmic proteins, and DNA-protein complexes is described. The method includes alternate approaches for preparing samples for AFM imaging following biochemical manipulation. DNA containing specific protein interacting regions are observed in near-physiologic buffer conditions.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows for the visualizing of individual proteins, DNA molecules, protein-protein complexes, and DNA-protein complexes. On ...

Quantifying the Mechanical Properties of the Endothelial Glycocalyx with Atomic Force Microscopy

Our understanding of the interaction of leukocytes and the vessel wall during leukocyte capture is limited by an incomplete understanding of the mechanical properties of the endothelial surface layer. It is known that adhesion molecules on leukocytes are distributed non-uniformly relative to surface topography 3, that topography limits adhesive bond formation with other surfaces 9, and that physiological contact forces (&asymp; 5.0 &minus; 10.0 pN per microvillus) can compress the microvilli to as little as a third of their resting length, increasing the accessibility of molecules to the opposing surface 3, 7. We consider the endothelium as a two-layered structure, the relatively rigid cell body, plus the glycocalyx, a soft protective sugar coating on the luminal surface 6. It has been shown that the glycocalyx can act as a barrier to reduce adhesion of leukocytes to the endothelial surface 4. In this report we begin to address the deformability of endothelial surfaces to understand how the endothelial mechanical stiffness might affect bond formation. Endothelial cells grown in static culture do not express a robust glycocalyx, but cells grown under physiological flow conditions begin to approximate the glycocalyx observed in vivo 2. The modulus of the endothelial cell body has been measured using atomic force microscopy (AFM) to be approximately 5 to 20 kPa 5. The thickness and structure of the glycocalyx have been studied using electron microscopy 8, and the modulus of the glycocalyx has been approximated using indirect methods, but to our knowledge, there have been no published reports of a direct measurement of the glycocalyx modulus in living cells. In this study, we present indentation experiments made with a novel AFM probe on cells that have been cultured in conditions to maximize their glycocalyx expression to make direct measurements of the modulus and thickness of the endothelial glycocalyx.

The mechanical characteristics of endothelial glycocalyx were measured by indentation using micron sized spheres on AFM cantilevers. Endothelial cells were cultured in a custom chamber under physiological flow conditions to induce glycocalyx expression. Data were analyzed using a thin film model to determine the glycocalyx thickness and modulus.

Our  understanding of the interaction of leukocytes and the vessel wall during  leukocyte capture is limited by an incomplete understanding of the ...

Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Living Cells Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Mechanical properties of cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) play important roles in many biological processes including stem cell differentiation, tumor formation, and wound healing. Changes in stiffness of cells and ECM are often signs of changes in cell physiology or diseases in tissues. Hence, cell stiffness is an index to evaluate the status of cell cultures. Among the multitude of methods applied to measure the stiffness of cells and tissues, micro-indentation using an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) provides a way to reliably measure the stiffness of living cells. This method has been widely applied to characterize the micro-scale stiffness for a variety of materials ranging from metal surfaces to soft biological tissues and cells. The basic principle of this method is to indent a cell with an AFM tip of selected geometry and measure the applied force from the bending of the AFM cantilever. Fitting the force-indentation curve to the Hertz model for the corresponding tip geometry can give quantitative measurements of material stiffness. This paper demonstrates the procedure to characterize the stiffness of living cells using AFM. Key steps including the process of AFM calibration, force-curve acquisition, and data analysis using a MATLAB routine are demonstrated. Limitations of this method are also discussed.

This paper demonstrates a protocol to characterize the mechanical properties of living cells by means of microindentation using an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM).

Mechanical  properties of cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) play important roles in many  biological processes including stem cell differentiation, ...

Human Cartilage Tissue Fabrication Using Three-dimensional Inkjet Printing Technology

Bioprinting, which is based on thermal inkjet printing, is one of the most attractive enabling technologies in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. With digital control&#160;cells, scaffolds, and growth factors can be precisely deposited to the desired two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) locations rapidly. Therefore, this technology is an ideal approach to fabricate tissues mimicking their native anatomic structures. In order to engineer cartilage with native zonal organization, extracellular matrix composition (ECM), and mechanical properties, we developed a bioprinting platform using a commercial inkjet printer with simultaneous photopolymerization capable for 3D cartilage tissue engineering. Human chondrocytes suspended in poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) were printed for 3D neocartilage construction via layer-by-layer assembly. The printed cells were fixed at their original deposited positions, supported by the surrounding scaffold in simultaneous photopolymerization. The mechanical properties of the printed tissue were similar to the native cartilage. Compared to conventional tissue fabrication, which requires longer UV exposure, the viability of the printed cells with simultaneous photopolymerization was significantly higher. Printed neocartilage demonstrated excellent glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen type II production, which was consistent with gene expression. Therefore, this platform is ideal for accurate cell distribution and arrangement for anatomic tissue engineering.

The methods described in this paper show how to convert a commercial inkjet printer into a bioprinter with simultaneous UV polymerization. The printer is capable of constructing 3D tissue structure with cells and biomaterials. The study demonstrated here constructed a 3D neocartilage.

Bioprinting, which is based on thermal inkjet printing, is one of the most attractive enabling technologies in the field of tissue engineering and ...

Novel Atomic Force Microscopy Based Biopanning for Isolation of Morphology Specific Reagents against TDP-43 Variants in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Because protein variants play critical roles in many diseases including TDP-43 in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), alpha-synuclein in Parkinson&#8217;s disease and beta-amyloid and tau in Alzheimer&#8217;s disease, it is critically important to develop morphology specific reagents that can selectively target these disease-specific protein variants to study the role of these variants in disease pathology and for potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications. We have developed novel atomic force microscopy (AFM) based biopanning techniques that enable isolation of reagents that selectively recognize disease-specific protein variants. There are two key phases involved in the process, the negative and positive panning phases. During the negative panning phase, phages that are reactive to off-target antigens are eliminated through multiple rounds of subtractive panning utilizing a series of carefully selected off-target antigens. A key feature in the negative panning phase is utilizing AFM imaging to monitor the process and confirm that all undesired phage particles are removed. For the positive panning phase, the target antigen of interest is fixed on a mica surface and bound phages are eluted and screened to identify phages that selectively bind the target antigen. The target protein variant does not need to be purified providing the appropriate negative panning controls have been used. Even target protein variants that are only present at very low concentrations in complex biological material can be utilized in the positive panning step. Through application of this technology, we acquired antibodies to protein variants of TDP-43 that are selectively found in human ALS brain tissue. We expect that this protocol should be applicable to generating reagents that selectively bind protein variants present in a wide variety of different biological processes and diseases.

Using atomic force microscopy in combination with biopanning technology we created a negative and positive biopanning system to acquire antibodies against disease-specific protein variants present in any biological material, even at low concentrations. We were successful in obtaining antibodies to TDP-43 protein variants involved in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

Because protein variants play critical roles in many diseases including TDP-43 in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), alpha-synuclein in ...

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging and Force Spectroscopy of Supported Lipid Bilayers

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient magnification to examine membrane substructures and even individual molecules. AFM can act as a force probe to measure interactions and mechanical properties of membranes. Supported lipid bilayers are conventionally used as membrane models in AFM studies. In this protocol, we demonstrate how to prepare supported bilayers and characterize their structure and mechanical properties using AFM. These include bilayer thickness and breakthrough force. 
The information provided by AFM imaging and force spectroscopy help define mechanical and chemical properties of membranes. These properties play an important role in cellular processes such as maintaining cell hemostasis from environmental stress, bringing membrane proteins together, and stabilizing protein complexes.

We describe a protocol for preparation of supported lipid bilayers and its characterization using atomic force microscopy and force spectroscopy.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient ...

3D Hydrogel Scaffolds for Articular Chondrocyte Culture and Cartilage Generation

Human articular cartilage is highly susceptible to damage and has limited self-repair and regeneration potential. Cell-based strategies to engineer cartilage tissue offer a promising solution to repair articular cartilage. To select the optimal cell source for tissue repair, it is important to develop an appropriate culture platform to systematically examine the biological and biomechanical differences in the tissue-engineered cartilage by different cell sources. Here we applied a three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic hydrogel culture platform to systematically examine cartilage regeneration potential of juvenile, adult, and osteoarthritic (OA) chondrocytes. The 3D biomimetic hydrogel consisted of synthetic component poly(ethylene glycol) and bioactive component chondroitin sulfate, which provides a physiologically relevant microenvironment for in vitro culture of chondrocytes. In addition, the scaffold may be potentially used for cell delivery for cartilage repair in vivo. Cartilage tissue engineered in the scaffold can be evaluated using quantitative gene expression, immunofluorescence staining, biochemical assays, and mechanical testing. Utilizing these outcomes, we were able to characterize the differential regenerative potential of chondrocytes of varying age, both at the gene expression level and in the biochemical and biomechanical properties of the engineered cartilage tissue. The 3D culture model could be applied to investigate the molecular and functional differences among chondrocytes and progenitor cells from different stages of normal or aberrant development.

Cartilage repair represents an unmet medical challenge and cell-based approaches to engineer human articular cartilage are a promising solution. Here, we describe three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic hydrogels as an ideal tool for the expansion and maturation of human articular chondrocytes.

Human articular cartilage is highly susceptible to damage and has limited self-repair and regeneration potential. Cell-based strategies to engineer ...

An Experimental and Finite Element Protocol to Investigate the Transport of Neutral and Charged Solutes across Articular Cartilage

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a debilitating disease that is associated with degeneration of articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Degeneration of articular cartilage impairs its load-bearing function substantially as it experiences tremendous chemical degradation, i.e. proteoglycan loss and collagen fibril disruption. One promising way to investigate chemical damage mechanisms during OA is to expose the cartilage specimens to an external solute and monitor the diffusion of the molecules. The degree of cartilage damage (i.e. concentration and configuration of essential macromolecules) is associated with collisional energy loss of external solutes while moving across articular cartilage creates different diffusion characteristics compared to healthy cartilage. In this study, we introduce a protocol, which consists of several steps and is based on previously developed experimental micro-Computed Tomography (micro-CT) and finite element modeling. The transport of charged and uncharged iodinated molecules is first recorded using micro-CT, which is followed by applying biphasic-solute and multiphasic finite element models to obtain diffusion coefficients and fixed charge densities across cartilage zones.

We propose a protocol to investigate the transport of charged and uncharged molecules across articular cartilage with the aid of recently developed experimental and numerical methods.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a debilitating disease that is associated with degeneration of articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Degeneration of articular ...

Real-time Visualization and Analysis of Chondrocyte Injury Due to Mechanical Loading in Fully Intact Murine Cartilage Explants

Homeostasis of articular cartilage depends on the viability of resident cells (chondrocytes). Unfortunately, mechanical trauma can induce widespread chondrocyte death, potentially leading to irreversible breakdown of the joint and the onset of osteoarthritis. Additionally, maintenance of chondrocyte viability is important in osteochondral graft procedures for optimal surgical outcomes. We present a method to assess the spatial extent of cell injury/death on the articular surface of intact murine synovial joints after application of controlled mechanical loads or impacts. This method can be used in comparative studies to investigate the effects of different mechanical loading regimens, different environmental conditions or genetic manipulations, as well as different stages of cartilage degeneration on short- and/or long-term vulnerability of in situ articular chondrocytes. The goal of the protocol introduced in the manuscript is to assess the spatial extent of cell injury/death on the articular surface of murine synovial joints. Importantly, this method enables testing on fully intact cartilage without compromising native boundary conditions. Moreover, it allows for real-time visualization of vitally stained articular chondrocytes and single image-based analysis of cell injury induced by application of controlled static and impact loading regimens. Our representative results demonstrate that in healthy cartilage explants, the spatial extent of cell injury depends sensitively on load magnitude and impact intensity. Our method can be easily adapted to investigate the effects of different mechanical loading regimens, different environmental conditions or different genetic manipulations on the mechanical vulnerability of in situ articular chondrocytes.

We present a method to assess the spatial extent of cell injury/death on the articular surface of intact murine joints after application of controlled mechanical loads or impacts. This method can be used to investigate how osteoarthritis, genetic factors and/or different loading regimens affect the vulnerability of in situ chondrocytes.

Homeostasis of articular cartilage depends on the viability of resident cells (chondrocytes). Unfortunately, mechanical trauma can induce widespread ...