이 연구는 저명한 젊은 학자를 위한 국립 과학 기금(National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars, 82025024)의 지원을 받았습니다. 중국 국립 자연 과학 재단 (82230080)의 핵심 프로젝트; 중국 국가 핵심 R&D 프로그램(2021YFA1300604); 중국 국립 자연 과학 재단 (81871735, 82272438 및 82002245); 저명한 젊은 학자를 위한 광둥성 자연과학 기금(2023B1515020058); 광둥성 자연과학재단(2021A1515011639); 중국 산둥성 자연과학재단의 주요 국가 기초 연구 개발 프로그램(ZR2020ZD11); 박사후 과학 재단(2022M720059); 남부 의과 대학 Nanfang 병원의 뛰어난 청소년 개발 계획(2022J001).

Microbiota Multi-Omics를 위한 향상된 박테리아 세포외 소포체 분리

<ol>
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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+tremendous+biomedical+potential+of+bacterial+extracellular+vesicles.">The tremendous biomedical potential of bacterial extracellular vesicles.</a> Trends in Biotechnology. 40 (10), 1173-1194 (2022).</li><li>Coumans, F. A. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methodological+guidelines+to+study+extracellular+vesicles.">Methodological guidelines to study extracellular vesicles.</a> Circulation Research. 120 (10), 1632-1648 (2017).</li><li>Northrop-Albrecht, E. J., Taylor, W. R., Huang, B. Q., Kisiel, J. 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L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimization+of+small+extracellular+vesicle+isolation+from+expressed+prostatic+secretions+in+urine+for+in-depth+proteomic+analysis.">Optimization of small extracellular vesicle isolation from expressed prostatic secretions in urine for in-depth proteomic analysis.</a> Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 11 (2), 12184 (2022).</li><li>Liang, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gut+bacterial+extracellular+vesicles:+important+players+in+regulating+intestinal+microenvironment.">Gut bacterial extracellular vesicles: important players in regulating intestinal microenvironment.</a> Gut Microbes. 14 (1), 2134689 (2022).</li><li>Alberti, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+vesicles+derived+from+gut+microbiota+in+inflammatory+bowel+disease+and+colorectal+cancer.">Extracellular vesicles derived from gut microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer.</a> Biomedical papers of the Medical Faculty of the University Palacky, Olomouc, Czech Republic. 165 (3), 233-240 (2021).</li><li>D&#237;ez-Sainz, E., Milagro, F. I., Riezu-Boj, J. I., Lorente-Cebri&#225;n, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+gut+microbiota-derived+extracellular+vesicles+on+obesity+and+diabetes+and+their+potential+modulation+through+diet.">Effects of gut microbiota-derived extracellular vesicles on obesity and diabetes and their potential modulation through diet.</a> Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry. 78 (2), 485-499 (2022).</li><li>Lajqi, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gut+microbiota-derived+small+extracellular+vesicles+endorse+memory-like+inflammatory+responses+in+murine+neutrophils.">Gut microbiota-derived small extracellular vesicles endorse memory-like inflammatory responses in murine neutrophils.</a> Biomedicines. 10 (2), 442 (2022).</li><li>Lee, K. 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J., Kaparakis-Liaskos, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methods+of+bacterial+membrane+vesicle+production,+purification,+quantification,+and+examination+of+their+immunogenic+functions.">Methods of bacterial membrane vesicle production, purification, quantification, and examination of their immunogenic functions.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 2523, 43-61 (2022).</li><li>Stentz, R., Miquel-Clop&#233;s, A., Carding, S. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comprehensive+isolation+of+extracellular+vesicles+and+nanoparticles.">Comprehensive isolation of extracellular vesicles and nanoparticles.</a> Nature Protocols. 18 (5), 1462-1487 (2023).</li><li>Iwai, K., Minamisawa, T., Suga, K., Yajima, Y., Shiba, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+human+salivary+extracellular+vesicles+by+iodixanol+density+gradient+ultracentrifugation+and+their+characterizations.">Isolation of human salivary extracellular vesicles by iodixanol density gradient ultracentrifugation and their characterizations.</a> Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 5, 30829 (2016).</li><li>Vandeputte, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stool+consistency+is+strongly+associated+with+gut+microbiota+richness+and+composition,+enterotypes+and+bacterial+growth+rates.">Stool consistency is strongly associated with gut microbiota richness and composition, enterotypes and bacterial growth rates.</a> Gut. 65 (1), 57-62 (2016).</li><li>Wen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+extracellular+vesicles:+A+position+paper+by+the+Microbial+Vesicles+Task+Force+of+the+Chinese+Society+of+Extracellular+Vesicles.">Bacterial extracellular vesicles: A position paper by the Microbial Vesicles Task Force of the Chinese Society of Extracellular Vesicles.</a> Interdisciplinary Medicine. 1, 12046 (2023).</li></ol>

저자는 상충되는 이해관계가 없음을 선언한다.

박테리아 세포외 소포체(BEV)는 박테리아가 분비하는 지질-이중층 나노입자로, 풍부한 단백질, 지질, 핵산 및 기타 생체 활성 분자를 운반하여 박테리아20의 기능적 효과를 매개하는 데 기여합니다. 장에서 유래한 BEV는 염증성 장 질환, 크론병, 대장암과 같은 질병의 발병에 관여하고 일반적인 대사에 영향을 미치고 인지 기능 장애를 중재하는 것으로 확인되었습니다 4,16,17,20,21,22,...

소화관은 인체에서 가장 풍부한 미생물 군집을 보유한 기관으로 널리 알려져 있으며, 박테리아의 90% 이상이 집락 형성 및 증식에 관여합니다 1,2. 장내 미생물총(microbiota)이 장내 미세환경을 조절하고 동시에 주로 손상된 장 장벽(intestal barrier)을 통해 멀리 떨어진 장기의 기능 장애와 상호 작용한다는 광범위한 증거가 입증되었습니다 3,4. 장내 미생물군의 불균형과 염증성 장 질환(IBD)5,6 및 장-뇌 축 을 통한 인지 장애(5,6,7,8)의 진행 사이에 상관관계가 있다는 증거가 늘어나고 있습니다. 박테리아에 의해 생성되는 박테리아 세포외 소포체(BEV)는 이러한 병리학적 과정에서 중요한 역할을 합니다.
BEV는 직경이 20nm에서 400nm에 이르는 박테리아 유도체를 캡슐화하는 나노 크기의 입자입니다. 박테리아와 숙주 유기체 사이의 상호작용을 촉진하는 것으로 입증되었다 9,10. 눈에 보이지 않음에도 불구하고, 이러한 입자는 진단 바이오마커, 치료 표적 및 약물 전달 수단으로서 광범위한 응용 분야로 인해 연구자들로부터 점점 더 많은 관심을 받고 있습니다11. BEV 연구를 위한 생체 표본으로 자주 사용되는 인간 대변은 주로 장내 세균에서 추출하며 물, 박테리아, 지질, 단백질, 소화되지 않은 음식물 찌꺼기, 박리된 상피 세포의 복잡한 혼합물을 함유하고 있습니다. 복잡한 배설물 구성은 BEV의 분리 및 순도에 문제를 제기하여 BEV에 대한 포괄적이고 객관적이며 현실적인 분석을 방해합니다. 따라서 오염 부품의 간섭을 최소화하고 BEV의 수율을 높이기 위한 효과적인 전략이 즉각적인 주의가 필요한 중요한 문제로 떠올랐습니다.
기존의 분리 전략은 초고속 원심분리(UC), 밀도 구배 원심분리(DGC) 및 크기 배제 크로마토그래피(SEC)12,13,14,15,16,17과 같은 기술에 크게 의존합니다. 현재 DGC는 BEV 분리 분야에서 가장 널리 적용되는 방법 중 하나로, 시료의 초기 로딩 위치에 의해 결정되는 "하향식(Top-down)" 및 "상향식(Bottom-up)"의 두 가지 침전 부유 모드를 포함합니다. 이러한 방법론은 크기 및 밀도 차이에 따라 세포외 소포체(EV)를 다른 구성 요소와 구별하여 다양한 순도와 회수율을 제공합니다. 선행 연구에 따르면 단일 접근법 전략은 혈액 내 지단백질18 및 소변 내 Tamm-Horsfall 단백질과 같은 체액 샘플의 용해성 단백질에서 EV를 적절하게 분리하는 데 불충분하다고 합니다19. 또한 진핵 세포외 소포체(EEV)의 크기 분포는 BEV의 크기 분포와 겹치는 경우가 많으므로 BEV 수율을 최적화하기 위해 추가적인 방법론적 개선이 필요합니다. 결과적으로 BEV 연구의 발전은 효과적인 분리 및 정제 방법론의 개발에 달려 있습니다. 특히, Tulkens et al15는 EEV에서 분변 BEV를 분리하기 위해 직교 생물물리학 전략을 사용했으며, 상향식 DGC 모드의 원심분리 시간은 최대 18시간이었습니다. 대조적으로, 이 연구는 이를 7시간으로 줄여 그래디언트-초원심분리 시간을 크게 절약하고 프로세스를 단순화했습니다.
본 연구에서는 저속에서 극도로 빠른 속도까지 다양한 차등 원심분리 속도로 BEV를 농축한 후 최적화된 완충 조건에서 두 가지 DGC 모드를 사용하는 분변 BEV를 분리하고 정제했습니다. 형태학, 입자 크기 및 농도를 기반으로 한 평가는 이 향상된 방법으로 칭찬할 만한 성능을 나타냈습니다. 이 연구는 향후 연구의 토대가 될 수 있으며, 더 넓은 영역으로 응용 분야를 확장하고 인체 내 BEV의 이질성에 대한 통찰력을 제공할 수 있습니다. 또한 BEV 분리 및 분석 기술의 표준화에도 기여합니다.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1 % (w/v) glutaraldehyde (prepared from 2.5 % stock solution in deionized water)</td>
			<td>ACMEC</td>
			<td>AP1126</td>
			<td>Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 % (w/v) methylcellulose (prepared from original powder in deionized water)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M7027</td>
			<td>Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3.6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 % (w/v) uranyl acetate (prepared from original powder in deionized water)</td>
			<td>Polysciences</td>
			<td>21447-25</td>
			<td>Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1000 &#956;L, 200 &#956;L, 10 &#956;L Pipette</td>
			<td>KIRGEN</td>
			<td>KG1313, KG1212, KG1011</td>
			<td>Transfer the solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 % (w/v) bovine serum albumin solution (prepared from the original powder in TBST buffer)</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD0030</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for blocking at Step 8.5.6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 &#215; loading buffer</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD006</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting and Coomassie brilliant blue stain at Step 8.5.1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>75 % (v/v) alcohol</td>
			<td>LIRCON</td>
			<td>LIRCON-500 mL</td>
			<td>Surface disinfection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well plate</td>
			<td>Rar</td>
			<td>A8096</td>
			<td>Measure the absorbance values&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Calnexin antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab92573</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-CD63 antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab134045</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-CD9 antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab236630</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Flagellin antibody</td>
			<td>Sino Biological</td>
			<td>40067-MM06</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Integrin beta 1 antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab30394</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-LPS antibody</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>MA1-83152</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-LTA antibody</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher&#160;</td>
			<td>MA1-7402</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-OmpA antibody</td>
			<td>CUSABIO</td>
			<td>CSB-PA359226ZA01EOD, https://www.cusabio.com/</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Syntenin antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab133267</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-TSG101 antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab125011</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Primary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autoclave</td>
			<td>ZEALWAY</td>
			<td>GR110DP</td>
			<td>Sterilization for supplies and mediums used in the experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Balance</td>
			<td>Mettler Toledo</td>
			<td>AL104</td>
			<td>Balance the tube sample-loaded with PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bicinchoninic acid assay&#160;</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD2001</td>
			<td>Measure protein content of BEVs at Step 8.2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BioRender</td>
			<td>BioRender</td>
			<td>https://app.biorender.com</td>
			<td>Make the schematic workflow of BEVs isolation and purification showed in Figure 1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biosafety cabinet</td>
			<td>Haier</td>
			<td>HR1200- II B2</td>
			<td>Peform the procedures about feces sample handling</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge 5810 R; Rotor F-34-6-38</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5805000092; 5804727002, adapter: 5804774000</td>
			<td>Preprocess for BEVs (Step 3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemiluminescence Apparatus</td>
			<td>BIO-OI</td>
			<td>OI600SE-MF</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for signal detection at Step 8.5.12</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytation 5</td>
			<td>BioTek</td>
			<td>F01</td>
			<td>Microplate detector for measuring the absorbance (Step 8.1) and fluorescence (Figure 6) values&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dil-labled low density lipoprotein</td>
			<td>ACMEC</td>
			<td>AC12038</td>
			<td>Definition of distribution of interfering components&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrophoresis equipment</td>
			<td>Bio-rad</td>
			<td>1658033</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for protein separation and transfer at Step 8.5.2, 8.5.3, 8.5.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Enhanced Chemiluminescence kit HRP&#160;</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD8020</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for signal detection at Step 8.5.12</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Escherichia coli&#160;</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>ATCC8739</td>
			<td>Isolate BEVs as a positive control. Protocol: Dissolve 25 g of the LB powder in 1 L deionized water, and autoclave. Transfer the 800 &#956;L of preserved Escherichia coli into the medium. Cultivate at 37 &#176;C in the incubator shaker. Then centrifuge at 3, 000 &#215; g for 20 min at 4 &#176;C, 12, 000 &#215; g for 30 min at 4 &#176;C, filter the supernatant through 0.22 &#956;m membrane, and perform ultra-speed centrifugation at 160, 000 &#215; g for 70 min at 4 &#176;C. Pellet defined as crude BEVs from Escherichia coli was suspended in 1.2 mL PBS (Step 3, 4).&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon tubes 50 mL</td>
			<td>KIRGEN</td>
			<td>KG2811</td>
			<td>Preprocess for BEVs (Step 3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Feto Protein Staining Buffer</td>
			<td>Absci</td>
			<td>ab.001.50</td>
			<td>Coomassie brilliant blue staining at Step 8.5.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td>Biosharp</td>
			<td>BS-TFP-070B</td>
			<td>Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3 (Blotting the solution)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formvar/Carbon supported copper grids&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>TEM-FCF200CU50</td>
			<td>Morphological observation for BEVs using TEM at Step 8.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES powder</td>
			<td>Meilunbio</td>
			<td>MB6078</td>
			<td>Prepare iodixanol buffers with different concentrations for density gradient centrifugation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HRP AffiniPure Goat Anti-Mouse IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FDM007</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Secondary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HRP AffiniPure Goat Anti-Rabbit IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FDR007</td>
			<td>Western blotting (Secondary Antibody)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator shaker</td>
			<td>Qiangwen</td>
			<td>DHZ-L</td>
			<td>Cultivate Escherichia coli&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kimwipes&#8482; Delicate Task Wipes</td>
			<td>Kimtech Science</td>
			<td>34155</td>
			<td>Wipe the inner wall of the ultracentrifuge tube at Step 4.15</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth</td>
			<td>Hopebio</td>
			<td>HB0128</td>
			<td>Cultivate Escherichia coli&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low temperature freezer (-80 &#176;C)</td>
			<td>Haier</td>
			<td>DW-86L338J</td>
			<td>Store the samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Alalddin</td>
			<td>M116118</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for activating PVDF membrane at Step 8.5.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro tubes 1.5 mL</td>
			<td>KIRGEN</td>
			<td>KG2211</td>
			<td>Recover fractions after density gradient centrifugation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro tubes 2 mL</td>
			<td>KIRGEN</td>
			<td>KG2911</td>
			<td>Recover fractions after density gradient centrifugation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro tubes 5 mL</td>
			<td>BBI</td>
			<td>F610888-0001</td>
			<td>Recover fractions after density gradient centrifugation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microplate reader&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher&#160;</td>
			<td>Multiskan MK3</td>
			<td>Measure protein content of BEVs at Step 8.2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Millipore filter 0.22 &#956;m</td>
			<td>Merck millipore</td>
			<td>SLGP033RB</td>
			<td>Filtration sterilization; Material: polyethersulfone, PES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>GHTECH</td>
			<td>1.01307.040</td>
			<td>Density gradient centrifugation solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td>GHTECH</td>
			<td>1.01394.068</td>
			<td>Density gradient centrifugation solution (pH adjustment)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optima&#8482; XPN-100</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>A94469</td>
			<td>Ultracentrifugation for BEVs isolation at Step 4, 7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiPrep&#8482;</td>
			<td>Serumwerk Bernburg AG</td>
			<td>1893</td>
			<td>Density gradient centrifugation stock solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital Shaker</td>
			<td>Youning</td>
			<td>CS-100</td>
			<td>Dissolve feces at Step 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffered saline</td>
			<td>Procell</td>
			<td>PB180327</td>
			<td>Dissolve feces at Step 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipettor</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>3120000267, 3120000259</td>
			<td>Transfer the solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic pasteur pipette</td>
			<td>ABCbio</td>
			<td>ABC217003-4</td>
			<td>Remove supernatant in preprocessing at Step 3.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>ISEQ00010, IPVH00010</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for protein transfer at Step 8.5.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prefabricated polyacrylamide gel, 4&#8211;20% 15 Wells</td>
			<td>ACE</td>
			<td>F15420Gel</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for protein separation at Step 8.5.2, 8.5.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primary antibody diluent</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD0040</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting at Step 8.5.8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protein ladder</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD0672</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting and Coomassie brilliant blue stain at Step 8.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rapid protein blotting solution</td>
			<td>UBIO</td>
			<td>UW0500</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting for protein transfer at Step 8.5.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotor SW 32 Ti Swinging-Bucket Rotor</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>369650</td>
			<td>Ultracentrifugation for BEVs isolation at Step 4, 7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe 20 mL, 50 mL&#160;</td>
			<td>Jetway</td>
			<td>ZSQ-20ML, YCXWJZSQ-50 mL</td>
			<td>Transfer buffers amd remove supernatant in preprocessing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TBS powder</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD1021</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting at Step 8.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transmission electron microscope (TEM)</td>
			<td>Hitachi&#160;</td>
			<td>H-7650</td>
			<td>Morphological observation for BEVs at Step 8.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20</td>
			<td>Fdbio science</td>
			<td>FD0020</td>
			<td>Used in western blotting at Step 8.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultracentrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td>326823, 355642</td>
			<td>Ultracentrifugation for BEVs isolation at Step 4, 7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultra-clean bench</td>
			<td>AIRTECH</td>
			<td>SW-CJ-2FD</td>
			<td>Peform the procedures about liquid handling</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath</td>
			<td>Bluepard</td>
			<td>CU600</td>
			<td>Used for measuring protein content of BEVs at Step 8.2.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZetaView</td>
			<td>Particle Metrix</td>
			<td>S/N 21-734, Software ZetaView (version 8.05.14 SP7)</td>
			<td>Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) for measuring the particle size and concentrarion of BEVs at Step 8.4</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

isolation and purification of bacterial extracellular vesicles from human feces using density gradient centrifugation

박테리아 세포외 소포체(BEV)는 박테리아-박테리아 및 박테리아-숙주 통신에 적극적인 역할을 하는 박테리아에서 파생된 나노소포체로, 모체 박테리아에서 물려받은 단백질, 지질 및 핵산과 같은 생체 활성 분자를 전달합니다. 장내 미생물군에서 유래한 BEV는 위장관 내에서 영향을 미치고 멀리 떨어진 장기에 도달할 수 있어 생리학 및 병리학에 상당한 영향을 미칩니다. 인간의 대변에서 유래한 BEV의 유형, 수량 및 역할을 탐구하는 이론적 연구는 장내 미생물군에서 BEV의 분비와 기능을 이해하는 데 매우 중요합니다. 이러한 조사는 또한 BEV를 분리하고 정제하기 위한 현재 전략의 개선을 필요로 합니다.
이 연구는 하향식(Top-down)과 상향식(Bottom-up)의 두 가지 밀도 구배 원심분리(DGC) 모드를 설정하여 BEV의 분리 및 정제 프로세스를 최적화했습니다. BEV의 농축 분포는 분획 6 내지 8(F6-F8)로 결정하였다. 접근법의 효과는 입자 형태, 크기, 농도 및 단백질 함량을 기반으로 평가되었습니다. 입자 및 단백질 회수율을 계산하고 특정 마커의 존재를 분석하여 두 DGC 모드의 회수율과 순도를 비교했습니다. 그 결과 하향식 원심분리 모드는 오염 수준이 낮고 상향식 모드와 유사한 회수율과 순도를 달성한 것으로 나타났습니다. 7시간의 원심분리 시간은 108/mg의 분변 BEV 농도를 달성하기에 충분했습니다.
대변 외에도 이 방법은 성분과 점도의 차이에 따라 적절하게 수정하여 다른 체액 유형에 적용할 수 있습니다. 결론적으로, 이 상세하고 신뢰할 수 있는 프로토콜은 BEV의 표준화된 분리 및 정제를 용이하게 하여 후속 다중 오믹스 분석 및 기능 실험을 위한 토대를 마련할 것입니다.

The gut is widely recognized as the organ harboring the most abundant microbial communities in the human body, with over 90% of bacteria involved in colonization and multiplication1,2. Extensive evidence has demonstrated that the gut microbiota modulates the gut microenvironment and simultaneously interacts with dysfunction in distant organs, primarily through an impaired intestinal barrier3,4. Mounting evidence indicates a correlation between the imbalance of gut microbiota and the progression of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)5,6, as well as cognitive disorders through the gut-brain axis5,6,7,8. Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) produced by bacteria play significant roles in these pathological processes.
BEVs are nanoscale particles encapsulating bacterial derivatives, with diameters ranging from 20 to 400 nm. They have been demonstrated to facilitate interactions between bacteria and their host organisms9,10. Despite their invisibility, these particles have garnered increasing attention from researchers due to their prospective broad applications as diagnostic biomarkers, therapeutic targets, and drug delivery vehicles11. Human feces, often used as biospecimens for studying BEVs, predominantly sourced from gut bacteria, contain a complex mixture of water, bacteria, lipids, proteins, undigested food residue, and exfoliated epithelial cells among others. The intricate fecal composition poses challenges to the isolation and purity of BEVs, thereby impeding a comprehensive, objective, and realistic analysis of BEVs. Hence, effective strategies to minimize interference from contaminating components and enhance the yield of BEVs have emerged as critical issues warranting immediate attention.
Existing isolation strategies largely rely on techniques such as ultra-high-speed centrifugation (UC), density gradient centrifugation (DGC), and size exclusion chromatography (SEC)12,13,14,15,16,17. Currently, DGC is one of the most widely applied methods in the field of BEV separation, encompassing two sedimentation-floating modes, &#34;Top-down&#34; and &#34;Bottom-up&#34;, which are determined by the initial loading position of the sample. These methodologies differentiate extracellular vesicles (EVs) from other components based on size and density disparities, yielding variable purity and recovery rates. Prior research has indicated that single-approach strategies are insufficient for adequately separating EVs from soluble proteins in body fluid samples, such as lipoprotein in blood18 and Tamm-Horsfall protein in urine19. Additionally, the size distribution of eukaryotic extracellular vesicles (EEVs) often overlaps with that of BEVs, thereby necessitating further methodological enhancements to optimize BEV yield. Consequently, advancing the study of BEVs hinges on the development of effective separation and purification methodologies. Notably, Tulkens et al15 employed an orthogonal biophysical strategy to separate fecal BEVs from EEVs, in which the centrifugation time of a Bottom-up DGC mode was up to 18 h. In contrast, this study reduced it to 7 h, greatly saving the gradient-ultracentrifugation time and simplifying the process.
In the present study, we isolated and purified fecal BEVs employing two DGC modes under optimized buffer conditions, after enriching BEVs with a range of differential centrifugation speeds, from low to extremely high velocity. Evaluations based on morphology, particle size, and concentration indicated a commendable performance by this enhanced method. This study could serve as the foundation for future research, extending its applications to a broader domain, and offering insights into the heterogeneity of BEVs within the human body. It also contributes to the standardization of BEV separation and analysis techniques.

저자 스포트라이트: Accelerating Research on Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles Separation and Heterogeneity 

Density Gradient Centrifugation을 사용한 인간 대변에서 박테리아 세포외 소포의 분리 및 정제

Our study isolates, purifies, and characterize bacterial extracellular vesicles from physicists using density gradient centrifugation. We aim to address the separation of BEVs from contaminants and provide a reliable method for researchers. Our protocol reduces centrifugation time from 18 to 7 hours.Top down mode improves BEV separation and reduces contamination from liver proteins. Our method simplifies the separation of BEVs, setting a standard for future studies. It can be applied to other body fluids with appropriate modification, enhancing our understanding and facilitating the study of BEVs revealing their inherent heterogeneity within the human body.

BEV 농축 분획의 분포 결정 박테리아 세포외 소포체(BEV)-농축 분획물의 분포를 결정하기 위해, OD 340nm에서 흡광도 값을 측정하기 위해 블랭크 대조군을 설정하고, 측정 및 요오드화놀 가이드라인을 기반으로 각 분획의 밀도를 계산하였다(단계 8.1). 표 2 는 밀도 결과를 제시하며, 분획 F4 내지 F9가 전형적으로 세포외 소포체와 관련된 범위 내에서 밀도를 나타낸다는 것을 ?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Accelerating Research on Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles Separation and Heterogeneity at JoVE.com

이 연구는 밀도 구배 원심분리(DGC)를 통해 인간의 대변에서 농축된 박테리아 세포외 소포체(BEV)를 분리 및 정제하는 방법을 설명하고, 형태, 입자 크기 및 농도에서 BEV의 물리적 특성을 식별하고, 임상 및 과학 연구에서 DGC 접근 방식의 잠재적 응용 분야에 대해 논의합니다.

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are nanovesicles derived from bacteria that play an active role in bacteria-bacteria and bacteria-host ...

우리의 연구는 밀도 구배 원심분리를 사용하여 물리학자로부터 박테리아 세포외 소포체를 분리, 정제 및 특성화합니다. 우리는 오염 물질에서 BEV를 분리하고 연구원에게 신뢰할 수 있는 방법을 제공하는 것을 목표로 합니다. 당사의 프로토콜은 원심분리 시간을 18시간에서 7시간으로 단축합니다.탑다운 모드는 BEV 분리를 개선하고 간 단백질의 오염을 줄입니다. 당사의 방법은 BEV의 분리를 단순화하여 향후 연구의 표준을 설정합니다. 적절한 변형을 통해 다른 체액에 적용할 수 있어 이해를 높이고 인체 내에 고유한 이질성을 드러내는 BEV 연구를 촉진할 수 있습니다.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Isolation and Purification of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles from Human Feces Using Density Gradient Centrifugation

1.7K 조회수.  Southern Medical University. 우리의 연구는 밀도 구배 원심분리를 사용하여 물리학자로부터 박테리아 세포외 소포체를 분리, 정제 및 특성화합니다. 우리는 오염 물질에서 BEV를 분리하고 연구원에게 신뢰할 수 있는 방법을 제공하는 것을 목표로 합니다. 당사의 프로토콜은 원심분리 시간을 18시간에서 7시간으로 단축합니다.탑다운 모드는 BEV 분리를 개선하고 간 단백질의 오염을 줄입니다. 당사의 ...

비디오: 저자 스포트라이트: Accelerating Research on Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles Separation and Heterogeneity 

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are nanovesicles derived from bacteria that play an active role in bacteria-bacteria and bacteria-host communication, transferring bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids inherited from the parent bacteria. BEVs derived from the gut microbiota have effects within the gastrointestinal tract and can reach distant organs, resulting in significant implications for physiology and pathology. Theoretical investigations that explore the types, quantities, and roles of BEVs derived from human feces are crucial for understanding the secretion and function of BEVs from the gut microbiota. These investigations also necessitate an improvement in the current strategy for isolating and purifying BEVs.
This study optimized the isolation and purification process of BEVs by establishing two density gradient centrifugation (DGC) modes: Top-down and Bottom-up. The enriched distribution of BEVs was determined in fractions 6 to 8 (F6-F8). The effectiveness of the approach was evaluated based on particle morphology, size, concentration, and protein content. The particle and protein recovery rates were calculated, and the presence of specific markers was analyzed to compare the recovery and purity of the two DGC modes. The results indicated that the Top-down centrifugation mode had lower contamination levels and achieved a recovery rate and purity similar to that of the Bottom-up mode. A centrifugation time of 7 h was sufficient to achieve a fecal BEV concentration of 108/mg.
Apart from feces, this method could be applied to other body fluid types with proper modification according to the differences in components and viscosity. In conclusion, this detailed and reliable protocol would facilitate the standardized isolation and purification of BEVs and thus, lay a foundation for subsequent multi-omics analysis and functional experiments.

This study describes a method to isolate and purify bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) enriched from human feces via density gradient centrifugation (DGC), identifies the physical characteristics of BEVs from morphology, particle size, and concentration, and discusses the potential applications of the DGC approach in clinical and scientific research.

연구

생물학

Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles (BEVs) Enrichment from Human Faeces Using Differential Centrifugation Speeds

To begin, take the prepared human fecal samples. Cool the high speed refrigerated centrifuge to 4 degrees Celsius. Use PBS to adjust the weight of the sample tubes to 0.1 grams, and centrifuge them at 3, 000 G for 20 minutes at 4 degrees Celsius.Using a plastic pipette, transfer the supernatant into two 50 milliliter tubes, leaving 1 milliliter behind. Then, centrifuge the supernatant at 12, 000 G for 30 minutes at 4 degrees Celsius. Using a 20 milliliter syringe, aspirate the supernatant, and remove the needle from the syringe.Filter the liquid through 0.22 micrometer filters into 50 milliliter tubes. Next, wipe the bucket with 75%alcohol to eliminate any remaining contamination. Transfer approximately 30 milliliters of the filtered fecal supernatant into the ultracentrifuge tube.Fill the tube with approximately 8 milliliters of PBS, leaving a 3 millimeter gap from the tube's opening. Place the two ultracentrifuge tubes in opposing ultracentrifugation buckets, and equalize the weight of the two buckets using PBS. Load all buckets onto the rotor, irrespective of whether they are loaded with tubes.Place the samples in the centrifuge, initiate the vacuum and spin them at 160, 000 G for 70 minutes at 4 degrees Celsius. As soon as the centrifugation completes, release the chamber vacuum and open the door of the ultra centrifuge. Then, promptly remove the rotor.Transfer the buckets from the rotor to the rack, and pick up the tubes using a nipper. Discard the supernatant, and save the visible brown pellets. Add 1 milliliter of pre-chilled PBS to resuspend the pellets completely.Fill the tube with approximately 37 milliliters of PBS, leaving a 3 millimeter gap from the opening. After performing another round of ultracentrifugation, discard the supernatant and leave the tube inverted for 5 minutes. Remove any remaining solution on the inner wall with wipers.Using a 1, 000 microliter pipette, add 1.2 milliliters of pre-chilled PBS to resuspend pellets, and mix them by pipetting. Transfer 1.2 milliliters of the PBS BEV solution from one ultracentrifuge tube to a clean 1.5 milliliter micro tube.

차등 원심분리 속도를 사용한 인간 대변의 박테리아 세포외 소포(BEV) 농축

Establishment of a Density Gradient Centrifugation System to Isolate and Purify Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles (BEVs) from Human Faeces

To begin, take 500 microliters of the prepared PBS/BEV solution. Combine it with three milliliters of PBS and mix gently using a 1, 000 microliter pipette. Place a 31 milliliter ultracentrifuge tube on a foam plate with holes, and label the tube with a downward arrow.Then hold a 1, 000 microliter pipette vertically and add three milliliters of the 50%iodixanol solution to the bottom of the tube. Place a tube holder slightly above the level of the foam plate below the tube opening, and tilt the tube to an angle of 70 degrees. Using a 1, 000 microliter pipette, add three milliliters of 40%iodixanol solution on top of the 50%iodixanol solution.Then layer three milliliters of 20%iodixanol solution on the 40%iodixanol solution. Using a 1, 000 microliter pipette, add three milliliters of a 10%iodixanol solution on top of the prepared 20%iodixanol solution. Next, add 3.5 milliliters of the PBS/BEV solution on top of the 10%iodixanol solution, and gently return the tubes to an upright position.Now, position a 31 milliliter ultracentrifuge tube on a foam plate with holes, and label it with an upward arrow. Using a 1, 000 microliter pipette, vertically add 2.5 milliliters of the 60%iodixanol stock solution into the bottom of the tube, and combine it with 500 microliters of PBS/BEV solution to get three milliliters of 50%iodixanol BEV solution. Mix the solution thoroughly by pipetting.Then after layering 40, 20 and 10%iodixanol solution in sequence, use a 1, 000 microliter pipette to add 3.5 milliliters of PBS on top of the 10%iodixanol solution. Adjust the weight of the two tubes with PBS to a total weight within plus minus 0.005 grams. Next, position the tubes in the buckets and centrifuge them at 160, 000 G for seven hours at four degrees Celsius.Using a pipetter, collect the fractions obtained from a gradient ultracentrifugation mode sequentially from top to bottom against the sidewall into 10 separate 38.5 milliliter ultracentrifuge tubes. Then ultracentrifuge the fractions at 160, 000 G for 70 minutes at four degrees Celsius. Remove the supernatant, and invert the ultracentrifuge tubes for five minutes.Next, resuspend the pellets in 200 microliters of pre-chilled PBS using a 200 microliter pipette. Transfer the PBS/BEV solution into a clean 1.5 milliliter microtube. Label the fractions from F1 to F10 as obtained from one gradient ultracentrifugation mode, and proceed for analysis.