We are thankful to Carlo Manzo and Maria Garc&#237;a Parajo for their help and source code of the diffusion coefficient analysis. This work was supported in part by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (SAF 2017-82940-R) and the RETICS Program of the Instituto de salud Carlos III (RD12/0009/009 and RD16/0012/0006; RIER). LMM and JV are supported by the COMFUTURO program of the Fundaci&#243;n General CSIC.

<ol>
	<li>Yu, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+studies+in+live+cells.">Single-molecule studies in live cells.</a> Annual Review of Pysical Chemistry. 67 (565-585), (2016).</li><li>Mattheyses, A. L., Simon, S. M., Rappoport, J. Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+with+total+internal+reflection+fluorescence+microscopy+for+the+cell+biologist.">Imaging with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy for the cell biologist.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 123 (Pt 21), 3621-3628 (2010).</li><li>Jaqaman, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Robust+single-particle+tracking+in+live-cell+time-lapse+sequences.">Robust single-particle tracking in live-cell time-lapse sequences.</a> Nature Methods. 5 (8), 695-702 (2008).</li><li>Bakker, G. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lateral+mobility+of+individual+integrin+nanoclusters+orchestrates+the+onset+for+leukocyte+adhesion.">Lateral mobility of individual integrin nanoclusters orchestrates the onset for leukocyte adhesion.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A. 109 (13), 4869-4874 (2012).</li><li>Kusumi, A., Sako, Y., Yamamoto, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Confined+lateral+diffusion+of+membrane+receptors+as+studied+by+single+particle+tracking+(nanovid+microscopy).+Effects+of+calcium-induced+differentiation+in+cultured+epithelial+cells.">Confined lateral diffusion of membrane receptors as studied by single particle tracking (nanovid microscopy). Effects of calcium-induced differentiation in cultured epithelial cells.</a> Biophysical Journal. 65 (5), 2021-2040 (1993).</li><li>Ferrari, R. M., Manfroi, A. J., Young, W. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strongly+and+weakly+self-similar+diffusion.">Strongly and weakly self-similar diffusion.</a> Physica D. 154, 111-137 (2001).</li><li>Sbalzarini, I. F., Koumoutsakos, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Feature+point+tracking+and+trajectory+analysis+for+video+imaging+in+cell+biology.">Feature point tracking and trajectory analysis for video imaging in cell biology.</a> Journal of Structural Biology. 151 (2), 182-195 (2005).</li><li>Ewers, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-particle+tracking+of+murine+polyoma+virus-like+particles+on+live+cells+and+artificial+membranes.">Single-particle tracking of murine polyoma virus-like particles on live cells and artificial membranes.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A. 102 (42), 15110-15115 (2005).</li><li>Manzo, C., Garcia-Parajo, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+progress+in+single+particle+tracking:+from+methods+to+biophysical+insights.">A review of progress in single particle tracking: from methods to biophysical insights.</a> Report on Progress in Physics. 78 (12), 124601 (2015).</li><li>Calebiro, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+analysis+of+fluorescently+labeled+G-protein-coupled+receptors+reveals+complexes+with+distinct+dynamics+and+organization.">Single-molecule analysis of fluorescently labeled G-protein-coupled receptors reveals complexes with distinct dynamics and organization.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A. 110 (2), 743-748 (2013).</li><li>Digman, M. A., Dalal, R., Horwitz, A. F., Gratton, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+the+number+of+molecules+and+brightness+in+the+laser+scanning+microscope.">Mapping the number of molecules and brightness in the laser scanning microscope.</a> Biophysical Journal. 94 (6), 2320-2332 (2008).</li><li>Schindelin, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fiji:+an+open-source+platform+for+biological-image+analysis.">Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis.</a> Nature Methods. 9 (7), 676-682 (2012).</li><li>Martinez-Munoz, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separating+Actin-Dependent+Chemokine+Receptor+Nanoclustering+from+Dimerization+Indicates+a+Role+for+Clustering+in+CXCR4+Signaling+and+Function.">Separating Actin-Dependent Chemokine Receptor Nanoclustering from Dimerization Indicates a Role for Clustering in CXCR4 Signaling and Function.</a> Molecular Cell. 70 (1), 106-119 (2018).</li><li>Destainville, N., Salome, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+and+correction+of+systematic+errors+due+to+detector+time-averaging+in+single-molecule+tracking+experiments.">Quantification and correction of systematic errors due to detector time-averaging in single-molecule tracking experiments.</a> Biophysical Journal. 90 (2), L17-L19 (2006).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The described method is easy to perform even without having any previous experience working with Matlab. However, Matlab routines require extremely accuracy with the nomenclature of the different commands and the localization of the different folders employed by the program. In the tracking analysis routine (step 3), multiple parameters can be modified. The &#34;Setting Gaussian-Mixture Model Fitting&#34; window (step 3.8) controls how U-track will detect single particles on the video. This is done by fitting a Gaussian ...

Membrane proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer are in continuous movement due to thermal diffusion. Their dynamics are essential to regulate cell responses, as intermolecular interactions allow formation of complexes that vary in size from monomers to oligomers and influence the stability of signaling complexes. Elucidating the mechanisms controlling protein dynamics is thus a new challenge in cell biology, necessary to understand signal transduction pathways and to identify unanticipated cell functions.
Some optical methods have been developed to study these interactions in living cells1. Among these, total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, developed in the early 1980s, allows the study of molecular interactions at or very near the cell membrane2. To study dynamic parameters of membrane protein trajectories obtained from TIRF data in living cells, a single particle tracking method (SPT)is required. Although several algorithms are available for this, we currently use those published by Jaqaman et al.3 that address particle motion heterogeneity in a dense particle field by linking particles between consecutive frames to connect the resulting track segments into complete trajectories (temporary particle disappearance). The software captures the particle merging and splitting that result from aggregation and dissociation events3. One of the output data of this software is detection of the particles along the entire trajectory by defining their X and Y positions in each frame.
Once particles are detected, we apply different algorithms to determine the short timelag diffusion coefficient (D1-4)4,5. By applying the Moment Scaling Spectrum (MSS)6,7,8 analysis or by fitting the &#39;alpha&#39; value by adjustment of the Mean Square Displacement (MSD) to the curve9, we also classify the particles according to the type of trajectory.
Analysis of spot intensity in fluorescence images is a shared objective for scientists in the field10,11. The most common algorithm used is the so-called Number and Brightness. This method nonetheless does not allow correct frame-by-frame intensity detection in particles in the mobile fraction. We have, thus, generated a new algorithm to evaluate these particle intensities frame-by-frame and to determine their aggregation state. Once the coordinates of each particle are detected using U-Track2 software3, we define its intensity in each frame over the complete trajectory, also taking into account the cell background in each frame. This software offers different possibilities to determine the spot intensity and the cell background and, using known monomeric and dimeric proteins as references, calculates the approximate number of proteins in the particle detected (cluster size).
In this article, we describe a careful guide to perform these three steps: 1) detecting and tracking single particles along a video of fluorescence microscopy using U-track; 2) analyzing the instantaneous diffusion coefficient (D1-4) of those particles and the type of movement (confined, free, or directed) of particles with long trajectories by MSS; 3) measuring the spot intensity along the video corrected by the estimated background fluorescence for each spot. This allows cluster size estimation and identification of the photobleaching steps.
The use of this protocol does not require specialized skills and can be performed in any laboratory with cell culture, flow cytometry and microscopy facilities. The protocol uses ImageJ or Fiji (a distribution of ImageJ12), U-track3, and some ad hoc made routines (http://i2pc.es/coss/Programs/protocolScripts.zip). U-track and ad hoc routines run over Matlab that can be installed in any compatible computer.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Human Jurkat cells</td><td>ATCC</td><td>CRL-10915</td><td>Human T cell line. Any other cell type can be analyzed with this software</td></tr><tr><td>pAcGFPm-N1 (PT3719-5)DNA3GFP</td><td>Clontech</td><td>632469</td><td>Different fluorescent proteins can be followed and analyzed with this routine</td></tr><tr><td>Gene Pulse X Cell electroporator&amp;nbsp;</td><td>BioRad&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td>We use 280 V, 975 mF, for Jurkat cells.&amp;nbsp; Use the transfection method best working in your hands.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Cytomics FC 500 flow cytometer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MoFlo Astrios Cell Sorter&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td></td><td>Depending on the level of transfection, cell sorting may not be required.&amp;nbsp; You can also employ cells with stable expression of adequate levels of the receptor of interest.</td></tr><tr><td>Dako Qifikit</td><td>DakoCytomation</td><td>K0078</td><td>Used for quantification the number of receptors in the cell surface.</td></tr><tr><td>Glass bottom microwell dishes</td><td>MatTek corporation</td><td>P35G-1.5-10-C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Human Fibronectin from plasma</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>F0895</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Recombinant human CXCL12</td><td>PeproTech</td><td>300928A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Inverted Leica AM TIRF</td><td>Leica</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EM-CCD camera</td><td>Andor&amp;nbsp;</td><td>DU 885-CSO-#10-VP</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MATLAB</td><td>The MathWorks, Natick, MA</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>U-Track2 software</td><td>Danuser Laboratory</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ImageJ</td><td>NIH</td><td></td><td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/</td></tr><tr><td>FiJi</td><td>FiJI</td><td></td><td>https://imagej.net/Fiji)</td></tr><tr><td>u-Track2 software</td><td></td><td></td><td>Matlab tool.&amp;nbsp; For installing, download .zip file from the web page (http://lccb.hms.harvard.edu/software.html) and uncompress the file in a directory of your choice</td></tr><tr><td>GraphPad Prism</td><td>GraphPad software</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

image processing protocol for the analysis of the diffusion and cluster size of membrane receptors by fluorescence microscopy

Particle tracking on a video sequence and the posterior analysis of their trajectories is nowadays a common operation in many biological studies. Using the analysis of cell membrane receptor clusters as a model, we present a detailed protocol for this image analysis task using Fiji (ImageJ) and Matlab routines to: 1) define regions of interest and design masks adapted to these regions; 2) track the particles in fluorescence microscopy videos; 3) analyze the diffusion and intensity characteristics of selected tracks. The quantitative analysis of the diffusion coefficients, types of motion, and cluster size obtained by fluorescence microscopy and image processing provides a valuable tool to objectively determine particle dynamics and the consequences of modifying environmental conditions. In this article we present detailed protocols for the analysis of these features. The method described here not only allows single-molecule tracking detection, but also automates the estimation of lateral diffusion parameters at the cell membrane, classifies the type of trajectory and allows complete analysis thus overcoming the difficulties in quantifying spot size over its entire trajectory at the cell membrane.

The use of this protocol allows the automated tracking of particles detected in fluorescence microscopy movies and the analysis of their dynamic characteristics. Initially, cells are transfected with the fluorescently-coupled protein to be tracked. The appropriate level of receptors presents on the cell surface that allows SPT is obtained by cell sorting (Figure 1). Selected cells are analyzed by TIRF microscopy that generates videos in a format that can be s...

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Image Processing Protocol for the Analysis of the Diffusion and Cluster Size of Membrane Receptors by Fluorescence Microscopy

Here, we present a protocol for single particle tracking image analysis that allows quantitative evaluation of diffusion coefficients, types of motion and cluster sizes of single particles detected by fluorescence microscopy.

Particle tracking on a video sequence and the posterior analysis of their trajectories is nowadays a common operation in many biological studies. Using ...

image-processing-protocol-for-analysis-diffusion-cluster-size

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

8.6K Views.  Campus Univ. Autónoma de Madrid. Nieuwe microscopietechnieken vereisen de ontwikkeling van adequate instrumenten voor het juiste begrip van de onderzochte biologische processen. Dit protocol beschrijft de beeldverwerkingsstappen die nodig zijn voor het bijhouden van één molecuul, inclusief schatting van laterale diffusieparameters en kwantificering van de spotgrootte over de gehele baan bij het celmembraan. Dit protocol combineert het gebruik van verschillende softwarestukken, waaronder ImageJ, MATLAB en uTrack, evenals en...

Video: Image Processing Protocol for the Analysis of the Diffusion and Cluster Size of Membrane Receptors by Fluorescence Microscopy

High-resolution Spatiotemporal Analysis of Receptor Dynamics by Single-molecule Fluorescence Microscopy

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., kinetics, coexistence of different states and populations, transient interactions), which are typically hidden in ensemble measurements, such as those obtained with standard biochemical or microscopy methods. Thus, dynamic events, such as receptor-receptor interactions, can be followed in real time in a living cell with high spatiotemporal resolution. This protocol describes a method based on labeling with small and bright organic fluorophores and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy to directly visualize single receptors on the surface of living cells. This approach allows one to precisely localize receptors, measure the size of receptor complexes, and capture dynamic events such as transient receptor-receptor interactions. The protocol provides a detailed description of how to perform a single-molecule experiment, including sample preparation, image acquisition and image analysis. As an example, the application of this method to analyze two G-protein-coupled receptors, i.e., &#946;2-adrenergic and &#947;-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) receptor, is reported. The protocol can be adapted to other membrane proteins and different cell models, transfection methods and labeling strategies.

This protocol describes how to use total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to visualize and track single receptors on the surface of living cells and thereby analyze receptor lateral mobility, size of receptor complexes as well as to visualize transient receptor-receptor interactions. This protocol can be extended to other membrane proteins.

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., ...

Bioengineering

From Fast Fluorescence Imaging to Molecular Diffusion Law on Live Cell Membranes in a Commercial Microscope

It has become increasingly evident that the spatial distribution and the motion of membrane components like lipids and proteins are key factors in the regulation of many cellular functions. However, due to the fast dynamics and the tiny structures involved, a very high spatio-temporal resolution is required to catch the real behavior of molecules. Here we present the experimental protocol for studying the dynamics of fluorescently-labeled plasma-membrane proteins and lipids in live cells with high spatiotemporal resolution. Notably, this approach doesn&#8217;t need to track each molecule, but it calculates population behavior using all molecules in a given region of the membrane. The starting point is a fast imaging of a given region on the membrane. Afterwards, a complete spatio-temporal autocorrelation function is calculated correlating acquired images at increasing time delays, for example each 2, 3, n repetitions. It is possible to demonstrate that the width of the peak of the spatial autocorrelation function increases at increasing time delay as a function of particle movement due to diffusion. Therefore, fitting of the series of autocorrelation functions enables to extract the actual protein mean square displacement from imaging (iMSD), here presented in the form of apparent diffusivity vs average displacement. This yields a quantitative view of the average dynamics of single molecules with nanometer accuracy. By using a GFP-tagged variant of the Transferrin Receptor (TfR) and an ATTO488 labeled 1-palmitoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (PPE) it is possible to observe the spatiotemporal regulation of protein and lipid diffusion on &#181;m-sized membrane regions in the micro-to-milli-second time range.

Spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of plasma membrane proteins and lipids is a hot topic in biology. Here this issue is addressed by a spatio-temporal image fluctuation analysis that provides conceptually the same physical quantities of single particle tracking, but it uses small molecular labels and standard microscopy setups.

It has become increasingly evident that the spatial distribution and the motion of membrane components like lipids and proteins are key factors in the ...

Single-Molecule Diffusion and Assembly on Polymer-Crowded Lipid Membranes

Cellular membranes are highly crowded environments for biomolecular reactions and signaling. Yet, most in vitro experiments probing protein interaction with lipids employ naked bilayer membranes. Such systems lack the complexities of crowding by membrane-embedded proteins and glycans and exclude the associated volume effects encountered on cellular membrane surfaces. Also, the negatively charged glass surface onto which the lipid bilayers are formed prevents the free diffusion of transmembrane biomolecules. Here, we present a well-characterized polymer-lipid membrane as a mimic for crowded lipid membranes. This protocol utilizes polyethylene glycol (PEG)-conjugated lipids as a generalized approach for incorporating crowders into the supported lipid bilayer&#160;(SLB). First, a cleaning procedure of the microscopic slides and coverslips for performing single-molecule experiments is presented. Next, methods for characterizing the PEG-SLBs and performing single-molecule experiments of the binding, diffusion, and assembly of biomolecules using single-molecule tracking and photobleaching are discussed. Finally, this protocol demonstrates how to monitor the nanopore assembly of bacterial pore-forming toxin Cytolysin A (ClyA) on crowded lipid membranes with single-molecule photobleaching analysis. MATLAB codes with example datasets are also included to perform some of the common analyses such as particle tracking, extracting diffusive behavior, and subunit counting.

Here, a protocol to perform and analyze the binding, mobility, and assembly of single molecules on artificial crowded lipid membranes using single-molecule total internal reflection fluorescence (smTIRF) microscopy is presented.

Cellular membranes are highly crowded environments for biomolecular reactions and signaling. Yet, most in vitro experiments probing protein interaction ...

Biochemistry

Visualizing the Conformational Dynamics of Membrane Receptors Using Single-Molecule FRET

The ability of cells to respond to external signals is essential for cellular development, growth, and survival. To respond to a signal from the environment, a cell must be able to recognize and process it. This task mainly relies on the function of membrane receptors, whose role is to convert signals into the biochemical language of the cell. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of membrane receptor proteins in humans. Among GPCRs, metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are a unique subclass that function as obligate dimers and possess a large extracellular domain that contains the ligand-binding site. Recent advances in structural studies of mGluRs have improved the understanding of their activation process. However, the propagation of large-scale conformational changes through mGluRs during activation and modulation is poorly understood. Single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) is a powerful technique to visualize and quantify the structural dynamics of biomolecules at the single-protein level. To visualize the dynamic process of mGluR2 activation, fluorescent conformational sensors based on unnatural amino acid (UAA) incorporation were developed that allowed site-specific protein labeling without perturbation of the native structure of receptors. The protocol described here explains how to perform these experiments, including the novel UAA labeling approach, sample preparation, and smFRET data acquisition and analysis. These strategies are generalizable and can be extended to investigate the conformational dynamics of a variety of membrane proteins.

This study presents a detailed procedure to perform single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) experiments on G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) using site-specific labeling via unnatural amino acid (UAA) incorporation. The protocol provides a step-by-step guide for smFRET sample preparation, experiments, and data analysis.

The ability of cells to respond to external signals is essential for cellular development, growth, and survival. To respond to a signal from the ...

Molecular Diffusion in Plasma Membranes of Primary Lymphocytes Measured by Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a powerful technique for studying the diffusion of molecules within biological membranes with high spatial and temporal resolution. FCS can quantify the molecular concentration and diffusion coefficient of fluorescently labeled molecules in the cell membrane. This technique has the ability to explore the molecular diffusion characteristics of molecules in the plasma membrane of immune cells in steady state (i.e., without processes affecting the result during the actual measurement time). FCS is suitable for studying the diffusion of proteins that are expressed at levels typical for most endogenous proteins. Here, a straightforward and robust method to determine the diffusion rate of cell membrane proteins on primary lymphocytes is demonstrated. An effective way to perform measurements on antibody-stained live cells and commonly occurring observations after acquisition are described. The recent advancements in the development of photo-stable fluorescent dyes can be utilized by conjugating the antibodies of interest to appropriate dyes that do not bleach extensively during the measurements. Additionally, this allows for the detection of slowly diffusing entities, which is a common feature of proteins expressed in cell membranes. The analysis procedure to extract molecular concentration and diffusion parameters from the generated autocorrelation curves is highlighted. In summary, a basic protocol for FCS measurements is provided; it can be followed by immunologists with an understanding of confocal microscopy but with no other previous experience of techniques for measuring dynamic parameters, such as molecular diffusion rates.

A method to measure protein diffusion in membranes of primary immune cells using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is described. In this paper, the use of antibodies for fluorescent labeling is illustrated.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a powerful technique for studying the diffusion of molecules within biological membranes with high spatial ...

Mapping Molecular Diffusion in the Plasma Membrane by Multiple-Target Tracing (MTT)

Our goal is to obtain a comprehensive description of molecular processes occurring at cellular membranes in different biological functions. We aim at characterizing the complex organization and dynamics of the plasma membrane at single-molecule level, by developing analytic tools dedicated to Single-Particle Tracking (SPT) at high density: Multiple-Target Tracing (MTT)1. Single-molecule videomicroscopy, offering millisecond and nanometric resolution1-11, allows a detailed representation of membrane organization12-14 by accurately mapping descriptors such as cell receptors localization, mobility, confinement or interactions.
We revisited SPT, both experimentally and algorithmically. Experimental aspects included optimizing setup and cell labeling, with a particular emphasis on reaching the highest possible labeling density, in order to provide a dynamic snapshot of molecular dynamics as it occurs within the membrane. Algorithmic issues concerned each step used for rebuilding trajectories: peaks detection, estimation and reconnection, addressed by specific tools from image analysis15,16. Implementing deflation after detection allows rescuing peaks initially hidden by neighboring, stronger peaks. Of note, improving detection directly impacts reconnection, by reducing gaps within trajectories. Performances have been evaluated using Monte-Carlo simulations for various labeling density and noise values, which typically represent the two major limitations for parallel measurements at high spatiotemporal resolution.
The nanometric accuracy17 obtained for single molecules, using either successive on/off photoswitching or non-linear optics, can deliver exhaustive observations. This is the basis of nanoscopy methods17 such as STORM18, PALM19,20, RESOLFT21 or STED22,23, which may often require imaging fixed samples. The central task is the detection and estimation of diffraction-limited peaks emanating from single-molecules. Hence, providing adequate assumptions such as handling a constant positional accuracy instead of Brownian motion, MTT is straightforwardly suited for nanoscopic analyses. Furthermore, MTT can fundamentally be used at any scale: not only for molecules, but also for cells or animals, for instance. Hence, MTT is a powerful tracking algorithm that finds applications at molecular and cellular scales.

Mapping Molecular Diffusion in the Plasma Membrane by Multiple-Target Tracing MTT

Multiple-Target Tracing is a homemade algorithm developed for tracking individually labeled molecules within the plasma membrane of living cells. Efficiently detecting, estimating and tracing molecules over time at high-density provide a user-friendly, comprehensive tool to investigate nanoscale membrane dynamics.

Our goal is to obtain a comprehensive description of molecular processes occurring at cellular membranes in different biological functions. We aim at ...

Biology

Visualizing Clathrin-mediated Endocytosis of G Protein-coupled Receptors at Single-event Resolution via TIRF Microscopy

Many important signaling receptors are internalized through the well-studied process of clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Traditional cell biological assays, measuring global changes in endocytosis, have identified over 30 known components participating in CME, and biochemical studies have generated an interaction map of many of these components. It is becoming increasingly clear, however, that CME is a highly dynamic process whose regulation is complex and delicate. In this manuscript, we describe the use of Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy to directly visualize the dynamics of components of the clathrin-mediated endocytic machinery, in real time in living cells, at the level of individual events that mediate this process. This approach is essential to elucidate the subtle changes that can alter endocytosis without globally blocking it, as is seen with physiological regulation. We will focus on using this technique to analyze an area of emerging interest, the role of cargo composition in modulating the dynamics of distinct clathrin-coated pits (CCPs). This protocol is compatible with a variety of widely available fluorescence probes, and may be applied to visualizing the dynamics of many cargo molecules that are internalized from the cell surface.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis, a rapid and highly dynamic process internalizes many proteins, including signaling receptors. The protocol described here directly visualizes the kinetics of individual endocytic events. This is essential for understanding how core members of the endocytic machinery coordinate with each other, and how protein cargo influence this process.

Many important signaling receptors are internalized through the well-studied process of clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Traditional cell biological ...

Internalization and Observation of Fluorescent Biomolecules in Living Microorganisms via Electroporation

The ability to study biomolecules in vivo is crucial for understanding their function in a biological context. One powerful approach involves fusing molecules of interest to fluorescent proteins such as GFP to study their expression, localization and function. However, GFP and its derivatives are significantly larger and less photostable than organic fluorophores generally used for in vitro experiments, and this can limit the scope of investigation. 
We recently introduced a straightforward, versatile and high-throughput method based on electroporation, allowing the internalization of biomolecules labeled with organic fluorophores into living microorganisms. Here we describe how to use electroporation to internalize labeled DNA fragments or proteins into Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisi&#230;, how to quantify the number of internalized molecules using fluorescence microscopy, and how to quantify the viability of electroporated cells. Data can be acquired at the single-cell or single-molecule level using fluorescence or FRET. The possibility of internalizing non-labeled molecules that trigger a physiological observable response in vivo is also presented. Finally, strategies of optimization of the protocol for specific biological systems are discussed.

Studies of biomolecules in vivo are crucial for understanding molecular function in a biological context. Here we describe a novel method allowing the internalization of fluorescent biomolecules, such as DNA or proteins, into living microorganisms. Analysis of in vivo data recorded by fluorescence microscopy is also presented and discussed.

The ability to study biomolecules in vivo is crucial for understanding their function in a biological context. One powerful approach involves fusing ...

Membrane Transport Processes Analyzed by a Highly Parallel Nanopore Chip System at Single Protein Resolution

Membrane protein transport on the single protein level still evades detailed analysis, if the substrate translocated is non-electrogenic. Considerable efforts have been made in this field, but techniques enabling automated high-throughput transport analysis in combination with solvent-free lipid bilayer techniques required for the analysis of membrane transporters are rare. This class of transporters however is crucial in cell homeostasis and therefore a key target in drug development and methodologies to gain new insights desperately needed.
The here presented manuscript describes the establishment and handling of a novel biochip for the analysis of membrane protein mediated transport processes at single transporter resolution. The biochip is composed of microcavities enclosed by nanopores that is highly parallel in its design and can be produced in industrial grade and quantity. Protein-harboring liposomes can directly be applied to the chip surface forming self-assembled pore-spanning lipid bilayers using SSM-techniques (solid supported lipid membranes). Pore-spanning parts of the membrane are freestanding, providing the interface for substrate translocation into or out of the cavity space, which can be followed by multi-spectral fluorescent readout in real-time. The establishment of standard operating procedures (SOPs) allows the straightforward establishment of protein-harboring lipid bilayers on the chip surface of virtually every membrane protein that can be reconstituted functionally. The sole prerequisite is the establishment of a fluorescent read-out system for non-electrogenic transport substrates.
High-content screening applications are accomplishable by the use of automated inverted fluorescent microscopes recording multiple chips in parallel. Large data sets can be analyzed using the freely available custom-designed analysis software. Three-color multi spectral fluorescent read-out furthermore allows for unbiased data discrimination into different event classes, eliminating false positive results.
The chip technology is currently based on SiO2 surfaces, but further functionalization using gold-coated chip surfaces is also possible.

The presented protocol describes the analysis of membrane protein mediated transport on the single transporter level using pore-spanning solvent-free lipid bilayers. This is achieved by the creation of bulk produced nanopore array chips, combined with highly parallel data acquisition and analysis, enabling the future establishment of membrane protein effector screenings.

Membrane protein transport on the single protein level still evades detailed analysis, if the substrate translocated is non-electrogenic. Considerable ...

Ground State Depletion Super-resolution Imaging in Mammalian Cells

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to dramatic leaps in our understanding of how cells function. The development and availability of super-resolution microscopy has considerably extended the limits of optical resolution from ~250-20 nm. Biologists are no longer limited to describing molecular interactions in terms of colocalization within a diffraction limited area, rather it is now possible to visualize the dynamic interactions of individual molecules. Here, we outline a protocol for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins by ground-state depletion microscopy&#160;for fixed cell imaging. We provide examples from two different membrane proteins, an element of the endoplasmic reticulum translocon, sec61&#946;, and a plasma membrane-localized voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channel (CaV1.2). Discussed are the specific microscope parameters, fixation methods, photo-switching buffer formulation, and pitfalls and challenges of image processing.

This article outlines a protocol for the detection of one or more plasma and/or intracellular membrane proteins using Ground State Depletion (GSD) super-resolution microscopy in mammalian cells. Here, we discuss the benefits and considerations of using such approaches for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins.

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to ...

Image Processing Protocol for the Analysis of the Diffusion and Cluster Size of Membrane Receptors by Fluorescence Microscopy

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