This work has been funded by the Regional Government of Andalusia (Spain), through public calls for funding, applied for by the SEJ-521 research group, Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders.

This present study has been developed in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration, which establishes ethical principles for the development of research with humans. In addition, it follows the guidelines and was approved by the University of Malaga&#8217;s Experimentation Ethics Committee (CEUMA).
NOTE: The protocol presented below should be carried out by psychologists within the school setting, beginning in the first year of Primary Education (6 years of age), and with the collaboration of teachers (Figure 6).
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6. Stage of Protocol of Evaluation of Dyslexia <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
1. Stage 1: Assessment of instruction
<ol>
	<li>Inform parents that their children will be assessed, in order to analyze whether they are at risk of having dyslexia.</li>
	<li>Obtain informed consent from parents so that students can be assessed periodically.</li>
	<li>Assess the reading and writing performance, based on the curriculum (CBM), of all the students in class, following adequate reading and writing instruction in in their regular classroom20, for two hours every day over the course of approximately six months. For the assessment of reading and writing performance based on the curriculum, use the indicators recommended by the National Reading Panel (NRP): phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary, reading fluency and comprehension24.</li>
	<li>For the evaluation of these indicators, administer the test to detect dyslexia25,26 either collectively or individually, informing participants of the instructions for performing each test.</li>
	<li>Analyze the scores obtained. If the majority of the students have achieved similar appropriate scores in the assessment, rule out the possibility of inadequate teaching.</li>
</ol>
2. Stage 2: Multilevel assessment of student performance
<ol>
	<li>Level 1: Screening
	<ol>
		<li>After analysing the scores obtained in stage 1, identify students who are at risk of dyslexia, according to the standards established for the tests administered.</li>
		<li>Include students identified as being at risk in the next level.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Level 2: Assessment following group instruction
	<ol>
		<li>After any students identified as being at risk have received frequent reading and writing instruction in small groups, (30 minutes, three to five times a week, for approximately 10 sessions), evaluate their response to that instruction, either collectively or individually24.</li>
		<li>To perform this assessment, administer screening tests for dyslexia25,26, which take the aforementioned indicators into account, informing the participants of the instructions to perform each test.</li>
		<li>Identify students who present a risk of dyslexia determined on the basis of low test scores, following the instruction received.</li>
		<li>Include the selected students in the next level.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Level 3: Assessment following intensive instruction
	<ol>
		<li>After students identified as being at risk have received even more frequent reading and writing instruction in smaller groups, evaluate their response to that instruction24.</li>
		<li>To perform this assessment, administer screening tests for dyslexia, collectively or individually25,26, which take the aforementioned indicators into account, informing the participants of the instructions to perform each test.</li>
		<li>Identify students who present a risk of dyslexia determined on the basis of low test scores, following the instruction received.</li>
		<li>Include the students selected in the next level.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Stage 3: Specific student assessment
<ol>
	<li>To corroborate the diagnosis of dyslexia among students identified as being at risk, carry out the following assessment protocol for each student. 
	NOTE: Students who do not present any intellectual disabilities or sensory-motor handicaps, but who do perform poorly in reading comprehension and fluency and written accuracy, and present problems in most of the cognitive-linguistic variables evaluated, as well as possible socio-emotional, family and/or school repercussions, shall be classed as having dyslexia.</li>
	<li>Interview with parents
	<ol>
		<li>To begin the specific student assessment protocol, inform parents that their child needs to be evaluated extensively because they have suspected dyslexia.</li>
		<li>Obtain informed consent from parents so that students can be assessed specifically.</li>
		<li>Conduct a structured interview with the student&#8217;s parents, in order to gather information about their child in terms of their personal development (biological, motor, sensory, social, communicative-linguistic) and the family setting (family history, family organisation, expectations about their child&#39;s difficulties, family impact of the child&#8217;s difficulties).</li>
		<li>Have the psychologist ask the parents about their child&#39;s development, the existence of family history and the family setting.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Interview with the teacher
	<ol>
		<li>Conduct a structured interview with the teacher, in order to find out their opinion about the problem their student might present, their personal development (motor, sensory, social, communicative-linguistic, style of learning and motivation), the classroom environment (class organisation, position of the student within the classroom, materials used by the student, the student&#39;s integration in the classroom) and their school record (schools attended, academic performance, diversity management measures received and approach to schooling).</li>
		<li>In this section, have the psychologist give the teacher the following instructions: &#34;In order to obtain information and your opinion about the student, complete this structured interview referring to the student&#8217;s possible problem, their personal development, learning and motivation, their academic record and environment in the classroom&#34;.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Measure of Intelligence
	<ol>
		<li>Administer a cognitive scale27 to assess intelligence in children, in accordance with the instructions set out in the test handbook, in order to rule out possible intellectual limitations.</li>
		<li>Analyze the student profile obtained, in order to ascertain information about the cognitive and linguistic aspects (fluent reasoning, visual-spatial, working memory, processing speed and verbal comprehension) required to make the diagnosis and to establish the affected and unaffected cognitive-linguistic areas that would justify dyslexia and rule out other problems.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Measure of Reading and Writing
	<ol>
		<li>To measure reading fluency and comprehension, individually carry out a reading assessment25 for children aged six.</li>
		<li>In the reading fluency test, instruct the student to read a list of words and another list of pseudowords as fast as they can. Record the number they got right and the time they took to complete each test. Correct the answers in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the test handbook.</li>
		<li>For the reading comprehension test, instruct the student to read a text in silence and then answer questions about what they have read. Record the answers given by the student and correct them in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the test handbook.</li>
		<li>Analyze the student&#39;s reading profile in terms of accuracy, speed and comprehension, in accordance with the test instructions.</li>
		<li>To assess written accuracy, carry out the copying and dictation test with the student26, in accordance with the instructions indicated in the test handbook.
		<ol>
			<li>To carry out the copying test, instruct the student to copy out several texts by hand in a maximum of one minute. Correct the student&#8217;s answers in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the test handbook.</li>
			<li>To carry out the dictation test, instruct the student to write down by hand the words they will hear in a maximum of two minutes. Correct the student&#8217;s answers in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the test handbook.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Analyze the numbers of right and wrong answers from both tests, in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Cognitive-linguistic measures
<ol>
	<li>After assessing reading and writing performance, evaluate the cognitive-linguistic variables that might explain the appearance of dyslexia24,28,29,30,31: phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, naming speed, short-term memory, vocabulary, and phonological and semantic fluency.</li>
	<li>To assess phonological awareness, use a phonemic segmentation test26.
	<ol>
		<li>In this test, instruct the student to repeat words after removing a certain syllable or phoneme.</li>
		<li>Write down the answers given by the student and correct them in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the test handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To assess knowledge of the alphabet, use a letter reading test25.
	<ol>
		<li>In this test, instruct the student to say the names of the letters shown to them on printed cards.</li>
		<li>Record the answers given by the student and correct them in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the test handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To assess naming speed, use a test for the student to name pictures26.
	<ol>
		<li>In this test, instruct the student to say the name of the pictures shown on cards as quickly as possible.</li>
		<li>Make a note of any errors and the time they take. Correct the test in accordance with the correction criteria indicated in the test handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To assess short-term memory, use an inverse digit test26.
	<ol>
		<li>In this test, instruct the student to repeat in reverse order the sequence of digits they will hear.</li>
		<li>Write down the answers given by the student and correct them in accordance with the criteria established in the test handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To assess vocabulary, carry out a vocabulary test26.
	<ol>
		<li>Instruct the student to simply mark the drawing that represents the word given by the examiner.</li>
		<li>Correct the student&#8217;s answers in accordance with the criteria established in the test handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To assess phonological fluency, use a verbal fluency test26.
	<ol>
		<li>In this test, instruct the student to say in one minute all the words that begin with the sound /p/.</li>
		<li>Write down the answers given by the student and correct them in accordance with the criteria established in the test handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To assess semantic fluency, carry out a semantic fluency test26 and instruct the student to say in one minute all the animal names they know.
	<ol>
		<li>Write down the answers given by the student and correct them in accordance with the criteria established in the test handbook.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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L., Shekitka, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+should+reading+disabilities+be+operationalized?+A+survey+of+experts.">How should reading disabilities be operationalized? A survey of experts.</a> Learning Disabilities Research &amp; Practice. 17, 118-123 (2002).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose

In this study, we presented a proposed dyslexia detection protocol to be applied from Year 1 in Primary Education within the school setting. This action protocol considers the strengths of the diagnostic model8,13,32 and the response to intervention model21,22,33,34,35</sup...

The DSM-5 establishes specific learning difficulties as a diagnostic category within neuro-developmental disorders. Dyslexia has been considered one of the most common specific learning difficulties. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition, along with spelling and orthographical accuracy. It also entails difficulties in reading comprehension1. These manifestations appear after the start of compulsory schooling, from the age of six onwards.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages. Some authors state that between 5% and 17.5% of school age children are affected by dyslexia2,3. These percentages indicate the importance of considering early detection, since it has serious consequences within school and family settings, due to the poor academic performance that characterizes people with dyslexia and the socio-emotional problems they sometimes display.
In spite of this, there is often a lack of consensus about how to identify dyslexia. This is due to the on-going debate about the adequacy of identification criteria offered by the different explanatory models, derived from ambiguity in the definitions given in dyslexia. On the one hand, the traditional perspective advocates a model of diagnosis for the identification of these problems. More recently, however, the response to intervention model has emerged as an alternative for such purposes.
The diagnostic model considers several criteria when identifying dyslexia: the discrepancy criterion, the exclusion criterion and the specificity criterion (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Criterion of Diagnostic Model <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Discrepancy Criterion <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Criterion of Diagnostic Model (Exclusion Criterion) <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Criterion of Diagnostic Model (Specificity Criterion) <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The discrepancy criterion is based on the fact that people with dyslexia present a discrepancy between their intellectual potential and their performance. This criterion is not accepted by some authors who do not find it necessary to use IQ to determine the appearance of dyslexia4,5. In contrast, other authors find that divergent children are more resistant to interventions than non-divergent children or that there are differences between them6,7. Although the discrepancy criterion has been widely criticized, there does not appear to be consensus about its use. In our opinion, it is somewhat premature to dispense with IQ when it comes to identifying dyslexia. Discarding the use of IQ might make it hard to distinguish this problem from others such as intellectual disability. In this regard, discrepancy should be the first step in identifying dyslexia8.
The exclusion criterion refers to the difference between dyslexia and other specific disorders with which it occurs concomitantly. These disorders are usually sensory deficits, mental disability, emotional disturbances and socio-cultural or educational disadvantages1,9. There is some controversy about the overlap between some of these disorders and dyslexia. Hence, for example, socio-emotional alterations and low social competence are sometimes included as characteristics of people with dyslexia, when it would actually appear that these difficulties are being generated by dyslexia10. Advocates for the use of the exclusion criterion argue that there is a risk that dyslexia will fall into a catchall category that encompasses other comorbid pathologies11 if they are not considered for its diagnosis.
The specificity criterion implies certain restrictions with regard to the domains that are affected in dyslexia, such as language, reasoning and instrumental learning problems1,9. Some authors argue that language problems should be included within the category of dyslexia12,13. However, others believe that they should be differentiated and categorized as comorbid conditions, because language is acquired without formal education whereas other domains do require such instruction10. In this regard, dyslexia is characterized by problems with reading and writing, justified by difficulties in phonological processing14,15 or a general sensory deficit16,17. Those who argue that dyslexia is a deficit in phonological processing indicate that dyslexics present difficulties in tasks involving the effective use of the phonological code, presenting a deficit in the creation of phonological representations of words. As a result, they present difficulties acquiring the alphabetical principle and remembering grapheme-phoneme correspondences10. Proponents of dyslexia as a general sensory deficit argue that people with dyslexia present difficulties in tasks that require the processing of auditory stimuli presented quickly, displaying difficulties of auditory perception, owing to a deficit in their rapid temporal processing10. These basic difficulties give rise to phonological problems, which explain the difficulties they face recognising words.
The response to intervention model (RTI) integrates evaluation and intervention within the school system by means of a multi-level prevention system that maximizes the performance of students and reduces behavioural problems18. This model can be used to identify pupils who are at risk of manifesting reading and writing difficulties, monitoring their progress and offering interventions based on the pupil&#8217;s response. This model identifies people with dyslexia as subjects who do not respond to the intervention received by all students in the classroom and assume that it may be due to a cognitive or educational deficit19. The identification of dyslexia is a decision-making process, in which assessment will be interspersed with instruction. In each assessment stage, the progress made by students after each instruction stage is considered. So, if the performance assessment of the class as a whole is found to be adequate, the possible inadequacy of the instruction delivered is ruled out. Once it has been confirmed that instruction is adequate, the second stage involves identifying, by means of curricular measures, any students whose performance and progress is below that of their classmates, considering them to be students at risk of having dyslexia. In the third stage, individual curricular adaptations will be applied for these children. If these curricular adaptations are not sufficient, because the child is still not progressing, specialized educational measures are required, and the child is considered to be dyslexic19,20,21 (Figure 5). This model focuses on academic performance, eliminates the IQ-performance discrepancy and assessments of intelligence, and reduces the number of false positives8. However, there are few criteria to determine whether a child does or does not respond well to intervention over time. In addition, these problems coexist with other issues, and non-response to intervention could be due to the existence of comorbidity between them10,22,23. These studies are sceptical about the use of the RTI model as a diagnostic instrument.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. Multilevel System of Model &#8220;Response to Intervention&#8221; <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Therefore, there does not appear to be any consensus regarding the criteria that should be used to identify specific learning disabilities, and, in particular, dyslexia. Whereas diagnostic models use discrepancy, exclusion and specificity criteria, the response to intervention model considers poor performance in basic instrumental tasks following adequate instruction as a criterion. Both models have been criticized and present certain weaknesses. For this reason, the Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders research group at the University of Malaga has developed a protocol for the early detection of dyslexia, which considers the strengths of the diagnostic model and the response to intervention model.
In short, the aim of this paper is to present a proposed protocol to detect dyslexia at an early age. It sets out to provide an objective diagnostic procedure for the assessment of this neurodevelopmental disorder, in order to differentiate it from other comorbid disorders, from an early age. For the diagnosis of this specific learning disability, the protocol takes into account the evaluation of certain specific cognitive and linguistic determinants after adequate instruction in reading and writing (response to intervention model), as well as the discrepancy, exclusion and specificity criteria (diagnosis model). The action protocol is developed over several stages, following different types of instruction, and we propose the use of structured interviews with parents and teachers alongside standardized tests for the evaluation of intelligence, reading and writing, as well as the risk factors that determine the appearance of the problem. This action protocol provides a dynamic model for the detection of dyslexia, which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants, in order to offer effective prevention at an early age.

<table><tbody><tr><td>PROLEC-R. Bater&amp;iacute;a de Evaluaci&amp;oacute;n de los Procesos Lectores</td><td>TEA ediciones</td><td></td><td>This Instrument assess of reading performance</td></tr><tr><td>The dyslexia Screening Test-Junior</td><td>Pearson Assessment</td><td></td><td>Screening tests for dyslexia (writing, comprehension reading, phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary)</td></tr><tr><td>The Wescher Intelligence Scale for Children- 5 edition</td><td>Pearson Assessment</td><td></td><td>This instrument assess the intelligence</td></tr></tbody></table>

assessing dyslexia at six year of age

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious consequences within school and family settings, due to the poor academic performance that characterizes people with dyslexia and the socio-emotional problems they sometimes display. One of the most frequent problems in the identification of the dyslexia is the lack of a common diagnostic protocol that encompasses specific criteria for the assessment of any child. The Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders research group at the University of Malaga has developed a protocol for the early detection of dyslexia. The protocol is based on the diagnostic and response to intervention models. Consequently, it takes into account diagnostic criteria agreed upon by some associations and committees of experts, as well as certain specific cognitive and language determinants that characterize people who present with dyslexia following adequate instruction, according to recent research. The action protocol is developed over several stages, and we propose the use of structured interviews with parents and teachers alongside standardized tests for the evaluation of intelligence, reading and writing, as well as the risk factors that determine the appearance of the problem. This action protocol provides a model for the detection of dyslexia, which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants, in order to offer effective intervention and/or prevention from an early age.

This next section sets out a series of representative results obtained by one student diagnosed with dyslexia, following the proposed action protocol.
Table 1 shows the scores obtained by Year 1 Primary students in phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary, and reading fluency and comprehension, after ordinary reading and writing instruction. The results indicate that most of the students achieve similar direct scores in the assessment, close to the average...

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Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

This research sets out a proposed protocol for the identification of dyslexia. The protocol is based on diagnostic and response to intervention models. The proposal involves using structured interviews and standardized tests for the assessment of reading and writing performance and determinant factors.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

8.3K Views.  University of Málaga. Het doel van dit protocol is om op jonge leeftijd een voorgestelde beoordelingsprocedure in te dienen voor de objectieve diagnose van dyslexie. Voor de diagnose van deze specifieke leerstoornis houdt het protocol rekening met de evaluatie van bepaalde specifieke cognitieve en taalkundige determinanten, na adequate instructies in lezen en schrijven, respons op het interventiemodel, evenals het diagnosemodel van discrepantiediscuitie en specificiteitscriteria. Dit actieprotocol toont een dynami...

Video: Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

Making Sense of Listening: The IMAP Test Battery

The ability to hear is only the first step towards making sense of the range of information contained in an auditory signal. Of equal importance are the abilities to extract and use the information encoded in the auditory signal. We refer to these as listening skills (or auditory processing AP). Deficits in these skills are associated with delayed language and literacy development, though the nature of the relevant deficits and their causal connection with these delays is hotly debated.
When a child is referred to a health professional with normal hearing and unexplained difficulties in listening, or associated delays in language or literacy development, they should ideally be assessed with a combination of psychoacoustic (AP) tests, suitable for children and for use in a clinic, together with cognitive tests to measure attention, working memory, IQ, and language skills. Such a detailed examination needs to be relatively short and within the technical capability of any suitably qualified professional. Current tests for the presence of AP deficits tend to be poorly constructed and inadequately validated within the normal population. They have little or no reference to the presenting symptoms of the child, and typically include a linguistic component. Poor performance may thus reflect problems with language rather than with AP. To assist in the assessment of children with listening difficulties, pediatric audiologists need a single, standardized child-appropriate test battery based on the use of language-free stimuli.
We present the IMAP test battery which was developed at the MRC Institute of Hearing Research to supplement tests currently used to investigate cases of suspected AP deficits. IMAP assesses a range of relevant auditory and cognitive skills and takes about one hour to complete. It has been standardized in 1500 normally-hearing children from across the UK, aged 6-11 years. Since its development, it has been successfully used in a number of large scale studies both in the UK and the USA. IMAP provides measures for separating out sensory from cognitive contributions to hearing. It further limits confounds due to procedural effects by presenting tests in a child-friendly game-format. Stimulus-generation, management of test protocols and control of test presentation is mediated by the IHR-STAR software platform. This provides a standardized methodology for a range of applications and ensures replicable procedures across testers. IHR-STAR provides a flexible, user-programmable environment that currently has additional applications for hearing screening, mapping cochlear implant electrodes, and academic research or teaching.

A test battery (IMAP) for performing an in-depth assessment of auditory and cognitive abilities contributing to listening skills is described. It is quick to administer, child-friendly and free from linguistic confounds. Stimulus generation and protocol management are controlled via a software platform (IHR-STAR) to ensure replicable procedures.

The ability to hear is only the first step towards making sense of the range of information contained in an auditory signal. Of equal importance are the ...

Medicine

Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognitive functions across the lifespan in a sample of 378 healthy subjects (age range 18-89 years). Consistent with previous findings we found an age-related cognitive decline across a wide range of neuropsychological domains (memory, attention, executive functions), thereby proving the usability of our tablet-based application. Regardless of prior computer experience, subjects of all age groups were able to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter. Increased motivation and compliance proved to be beneficial for task performance, thereby potentially increasing the validity of the results. Our promising findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

We tested the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognition. Results show an age-related cognitive decline, thereby proving the usability of our application. Findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on ...

Assessing Forelimb Function after Unilateral Cervical SCI using Novel Tasks: Limb Step-alternation, Postural Instability and Pasta Handling

Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) can cause devastating neurological deficits, including impairment or loss of upper limb and hand function. A majority of the spinal cord injuries in humans occur at the cervical levels. Therefore, developing cervical injury models and developing relevant and sensitive behavioral tests is of great importance. Here we describe the use of a newly developed forelimb step-alternation test after cervical spinal cord injury in rats. In addition, we describe two behavioral tests that have not been used after spinal cord injury: a postural instability test (PIT), and a pasta-handling test. All three behavioral tests are highly sensitive to injury and are easy to use. Therefore, we feel that these behavioral tests can be instrumental in investigating therapeutic strategies after cSCI.

Three new behavioral tests (forelimb step-alternation, postural instability test, pasta handling test) for evaluating forelimb function after cervical spinal cord injury in rodents are described.

Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) can cause devastating neurological deficits, including impairment or loss of upper limb and hand function. A majority ...

Assessing Functional Performance in the Mdx Mouse Model

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe and progressive muscle wasting disorder for which no cure is available. Nevertheless, several potential pharmaceutical compounds and gene therapy approaches have progressed into clinical trials. With improvement in muscle function being the most important end point in these trials, a lot of emphasis has been placed on setting up reliable, reproducible, and easy to perform functional tests to pre clinically assess muscle function, strength, condition, and coordination in the mdx mouse model for DMD. Both invasive and noninvasive tests are available. Tests that do not exacerbate the disease can be used to determine the natural history of the disease and the effects of therapeutic interventions (e.g. forelimb grip strength test, two different hanging tests using either a wire or a grid and rotarod running). Alternatively, forced treadmill running can be used to enhance disease progression and/or assess protective effects of therapeutic interventions on disease pathology. We here describe how to perform these most commonly used functional tests in a reliable and reproducible manner. Using these protocols based on standard operating procedures enables comparison of data between different laboratories.

Assessing Functional Performance in the Mdx Mouse Model

The primary outcome measure in clinical trials for neuromuscular disorders is generally improved muscle function. Therefore, assessing the effect of potential therapeutic compounds on muscle performance pre clinically in mouse models is of great importance. We here describe several functional tests to address this.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe and progressive muscle wasting disorder for which no cure is available. Nevertheless, several potential ...

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these processes is the ability to adjust behavior in response to changes in one&#8217;s environment (i.e., behavioral flexibility). These processes are essential to normal human behavior, and may be disrupted in diverse neuropsychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia, alcoholism, depression, stroke, and Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. Understanding of the neurobiology of executive functions has been greatly advanced by the availability of animal tasks for assessing discrete components of behavioral flexibility, particularly strategy shifting and reversal learning. While several types of tasks have been developed, most are non-automated, labor intensive, and allow testing of only one animal at a time. The recent development of automated, operant-based tasks for assessing behavioral flexibility streamlines testing, standardizes stimulus presentation and data recording, and dramatically improves throughput. Here, we describe automated strategy shifting and reversal tasks, using operant chambers controlled by custom written software programs. Using these tasks, we have shown that the medial prefrontal cortex governs strategy shifting but not reversal learning in the rat, similar to the dissociation observed in humans. Moreover, animals with a neonatal hippocampal lesion, a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia, are selectively impaired on the strategy shifting task but not the reversal task. The strategy shifting task also allows the identification of separate types of performance errors, each of which is attributable to distinct neural substrates. The availability of these automated tasks, and the evidence supporting the dissociable contributions of separate prefrontal areas, makes them particularly well-suited assays for the investigation of basic neurobiological processes as well as drug discovery and screening in disease models.

The ability to assess executive functions such as behavioral flexibility in rats is useful for investigating the neurobiology of cognition in both intact animals and disease models. Here we describe automated tasks for assessing strategy shifting and reversal learning, which are particularly sensitive to disruptions in prefrontal cortical networks.

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these ...

Behavioral Assessment of Hearing in 2 to 4 Year-old Children: A Two-interval, Observer-based Procedure Using Conditioned Play-based Responses

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human auditory development for these age groups. This paper describes an observer-based procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity with a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm. Young children are trained to perform a play-based, motor response (e.g., putting a block in a bucket) whenever they hear a target signal. An experimenter observes the child&#39;s behavior and makes a judgment about whether the signal was presented during the first or second observation interval; the experimenter is blinded to the true signal interval, so this judgment is based solely on the child&#39;s behavior. These procedures were used to test 2 to 4 year-olds (n = 33) with no known hearing problems. The signal was a 1,000 Hz warble tone presented in quiet, and the signal level was adjusted to estimate a threshold corresponding to 71%-correct detection. A valid threshold was obtained for 82% of children. These results indicate that the two-interval procedure is both feasible and reliable for use with toddlers and preschoolers. The two-interval, observer-based procedure described in this paper is a powerful tool for evaluating hearing in young children because it guards against response bias on the part of the experimenter.

This paper describes a procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity in 2 to 4 year-old children. Children are trained to perform play-based responses when they hear a target signal. Thresholds are then estimated in a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm, based on observations of the child&#39;s behaviors.

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human ...

The Knob Supination Task: A Semi-automated Method for Assessing Forelimb Function in Rats

Tasks that accurately measure dexterity in animal models are critical to understand hand function. Current rat behavioral tasks that measure dexterity largely use video analysis of reaching or food manipulation. While these tasks are easy to implement and are robust across disease models, they are subjective and laborious for the experimenter. Automating traditional tasks or creating new automated tasks can make the tasks more efficient, objective, and quantitative. Since rats are less dexterous than primates, central nervous system (CNS) injury produces more subtle deficits in dexterity, however, supination is highly affected in rodents and crucial to hand function in primates. Therefore, we designed a semi-automated task that measures forelimb supination in rats. Rats are trained to reach and grasp a knob-shaped manipulandum and turn the manipulandum in supination to receive a reward. Rats can acquire the skill within 20 &plusmn; 5 days. While the early part of training is highly supervised, much of the training is done without direct supervision. The task reliably and reproducibly captures subtle deficits after injury and shows functional recovery that accurately reflects clinical recovery curves. Analysis of data is performed by specialized software through a graphical user interface that is designed to be intuitive. We also give solutions to common problems encountered during training, and show that minor corrections to behavior early in training produce reliable acquisition of supination. Thus, the knob supination task provides efficient and quantitative evaluation of a critical movement for dexterity in rats.

This manuscript describes a semi-automated task that quantifies supination in rats. Rats reach, grasp, and supinate a spherical manipulandum. The rat is rewarded with a pellet if the turn angle exceeds a criterion set by the user. This task increases throughput, sensitivity to injury, and objectivity compared to traditional tasks.

Tasks that accurately measure dexterity in animal models are critical to understand hand function. Current rat behavioral tasks that measure dexterity ...

Assessing Activity-based Anorexia in Mice

Rodents develop activity-based anorexia (ABA) when exposed to a restricted feeding schedule and allowed free access to a running wheel. These conditions lead to a life-threatening reduction in body weight. However, rodents exposed to only one of these conditions ultimately adapt to re-establish normal body weight. Although increased running coupled with reduction in voluntary food intake appear paradoxical under ABA conditions, ABA behavior is observed across numerous mammalian species. 
The ABA paradigm provides an animal model for anorexia nervosa (AN), an eating disorder with severe dysregulation of appetite-behavior. Subjects are singly housed with free access to a running wheel. Each day, the subject is offered food for a limited amount of time. During the course of the experiment, a subject's body weight decreases from high activity and low caloric intake. The duration of the study varies based on how long food is offered daily, the type of food offered, the strain of mouse, if drugs are being tested, and environmental factors.
A lack of effective pharmacological treatments for AN patients, their low quality of life, high cost of treatment, and their high mortality rate indicate the urgency to further research AN. We provide a basic outline for performing ABA experiments with mice, offering a method to investigate AN-like behavior in order to develop novel therapies. This protocol is optimized for use in Balb/cJ mice, but can easily be manipulated for other strains, providing great flexibility in working with different questions, especially related to genetic factors of ABA.

Mice individually housed with a running wheel while given limited access to food develop reductions in food consumption and increase activity on the running wheel. This experimental phenomenon is called activity-based anorexia. This paradigm provides an experimental tool for studying the neurobiology and behaviors underlying aspects of anorexia nervosa.

Rodents develop activity-based anorexia (ABA) when exposed to a restricted feeding schedule and allowed free access to a running wheel. These conditions ...

Universal Screening for Prevention of Reading, Writing, and Math Disabilities in Spanish

The purpose of this study was to describe a Spanish protocol that includes reading, writing, and math Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs) aimed at early detection of students at risk of presenting learning disabilities (LD). Early identification of LD is a critical component of the Response to Intervention (RtI) model. In early grades, the screening of foundational skills mentioned above can provide a data-based guideline for identifying students requiring a more intensive response-based intervention before starting elementary school. We designed different CBMs based on indicators of basic early reading, writing, and math skills [Indicadores de Progreso de Aprendizaje en Lectura, Escritura y Matem&#225;ticas, IPAL, IPAE, and IPAM respectively]&#160;that aim to fulfill the twofold objective of universal screening and evaluation of the Spanish students&#8217; progress. For reading, IPAL includes alphabetic principle, phonological awareness, concepts about print, and riddles in kindergarten. In first and second grades, IPAL includes alphabetic principle, nonsense words fluency, maze sentences, and oral reading fluency. In addition, it includes phonemic segmentation for first grade and prosody for second grade. For writing, IPAE includes copying letters, writing allographs, dictated letters, dictated words with arbitrary spelling, dictated words with rule-based spelling, dictated nonsense words, dictated sentences, writing sentences, and writing a story for first-third grades. Finally, for math, IPAM includes number comparison, missing number, number identification, quantity array, and counting aloud for kindergarten, and number comparison, multi-digit computation, missing number, single-digit computation, and place value for first-third grades.

This work presents a protocol to administrate Spanish Curriculum-Based Measures for the early detection of reading, math, and writing difficulties. These tools could help practitioners and applied researchers working in the context of the Response to Intervention model.

The purpose of this study was to describe a Spanish protocol that includes reading, writing, and math Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs) aimed at early ...

Computerized Dyslexia Assessment for Spanish-Speaking Children Using SICOLE-R

Advancing Dyslexia Assessment in Children Through Computerized Testing

The acquisition of reading skills is an intricate process that demands the cultivation of various domain-general and domain-specific abilities. Consequently, it is unsurprising that many children grapple with maintaining proficiency at the grade level, particularly when confronted with challenges spanning multiple abilities across both domains, as observed in individuals with reading difficulties. Strikingly, despite reading difficulties being among the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders affecting school-aged children, the majority of available diagnostic tools lack a comprehensive framework for assessing the full spectrum of cognitive skills linked to dyslexia, with minimal computerized options. Notably, there are currently limited tools with these features available for Spanish-speaking children. The aim of this study was to delineate the protocol for diagnosing Spanish-speaking children with reading difficulties using the Sicole-R multimedia battery. This tool for elementary grades focuses on evaluating cognitive skills that are associated with dyslexia as prescribed by the scientific literature. Specifically, it concentrates on assessing a range of cognitive abilities that studies have demonstrated to be linked to dyslexia. This focus is based on the observation that individuals with dyslexia typically exhibit deficits in several of the cognitive areas evaluated by this digital tool. The robust internal consistency and multidimensional internal structure of the battery were demonstrated. This multimedia battery has proven to be a fitting tool for diagnosing children with reading difficulties in primary education, offering a comprehensive cognitive profile that is valuable not only for diagnostic purposes but also for tailoring individualized instructional plans.

Author Spotlight: Validation of SICOLE-R for Assessing Cognitive and Reading Skills in Spanish-Speaking Children and Its Role in Personalized Education

The Multimedia Battery for Assessment of General-Domain and Specific-Domain Skills in Reading is a reliable and valid multimedia battery designed to assess cognitive and basic reading skills. It enables the generation of a comprehensive cognitive and reading performance profile, which is particularly beneficial for children with dyslexia.

Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

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