Name: assessing dyslexia at six year of age
Uploaded: 2020-05-01T13:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age at JoVE.com

This work has been funded by the Regional Government of Andalusia (Spain), through public calls for funding, applied for by the SEJ-521 research group, Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders.

This present study has been developed in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration, which establishes ethical principles for the development of research with humans. In addition, it follows the guidelines and was approved by the University of Malaga&#8217;s Experimentation Ethics Committee (CEUMA).
NOTE: The protocol presented below should be carried out by psychologists within the school setting, beginning in the first year of Primary Education (6 years of age), and with the collaboration of t...

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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Redefining+learning+disabilities+as+inadequate+response+to+instruction:+the+promise+and+potential+problems.">Redefining learning disabilities as inadequate response to instruction: the promise and potential problems.</a> Learning Disabilities Research &amp; Practice. 18, 137-146 (2003).</li><li>Kavale, K. A., Holdnack, J. A., Mostert, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Responsiveness+to+intervention+and+the+identification+of+specific+learning+disabilities:+A+critique+and+alternative+proposal.">Responsiveness to intervention and the identification of specific learning disabilities: A critique and alternative proposal.</a> Learning Disability Quarterly. 28, 2-16 (2005).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., Crespo, P., Jim&#233;nez, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modelo+de+respuesta+a+la+intervenci&#243;n:+definici&#243;n+y+principales+componentes.">Modelo de respuesta a la intervenci&#243;n: definici&#243;n y principales componentes.</a> Modelo de respuesta a la intervenci&#243;n. Un enfoque preventivo para el abordaje de las dificultades espec&#237;ficas de aprendizaje. , (2019).</li><li>Cuetos, F., Rodr&#237;guez, B., Ruano, E., Arribas, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PROLEC-R.+Bater&#237;a+de+Evaluaci&#243;n+de+los+Procesos+Lectores.">PROLEC-R. Bater&#237;a de Evaluaci&#243;n de los Procesos Lectores.</a> TEA ediciones. , (2012).</li><li>Fawcett, A. J., Nicolson, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The dyslexia Screening Test-Junior. , (2004).</li><li>Weschler, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children- 5th edition. , (2005).</li><li>Babayigit, S., Stainthorp, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+the+relationships+between+cognitive-linguistic+skills+and+literacy+skills:+new+insights+from+a+transparent+orthography.">Modeling the relationships between cognitive-linguistic skills and literacy skills: new insights from a transparent orthography.</a> Journal of Educational Psychology. 103, 169-189 (2011).</li><li>Caravolas, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+patterns,+but+equivalent+predictors,+of+growth+in+reading+inconsistent+and+inconsistent+orthographies.">Different patterns, but equivalent predictors, of growth in reading inconsistent and inconsistent orthographies.</a> Psychological Science. 20, 1-10 (2013).</li><li>Georgiou, G. K., Parrilla, R., Papadopoulos, T. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predictors+of+word+decoding+and+reading+fluency+across+languages+varying+in+orthographic+consistency.">Predictors of word decoding and reading fluency across languages varying in orthographic consistency.</a> Journal of Educational Psychology. 100, 466 (2008).</li><li>Gonz&#225;lez-Valenzuela, M. J., D&#237;az-Gir&#225;ldez, F., L&#243;pez-Montiel, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cognitive+predictors+of+word+and+pseudoword+Reading+in+Spanish+First-Grade+Children.">Cognitive predictors of word and pseudoword Reading in Spanish First-Grade Children.</a> Frontiers in Psychology. 7 (774), 1-12 (2016).</li><li>Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., Branum-Martin, L., Francis, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+technical+adequacy+of+three+methods+for+identifying+specific+learning+disabilities+based+on+cognitive+discrepancies.">Evaluation of the technical adequacy of three methods for identifying specific learning disabilities based on cognitive discrepancies.</a> School Psychology Review. 41, 3-22 (2012).</li><li>Fletcher, J. M., Vaughn, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Responsiveness+To+Intervention:+A+decade+later.">Responsiveness To Intervention: A decade later.</a> Journal of Learning Disabilities. 45 (3), 195-203 (2012).</li><li>Vaughn, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+intensive+reading+intervention+for+eighth-grade+students+with+persistently+inadequate+response+to+intervention.">Effects of intensive reading intervention for eighth-grade students with persistently inadequate response to intervention.</a> Journal of Learning Disabilities. 45, 515-525 (2012).</li><li>Brown Waesche, J. S., Schatschneider, C., Maner, J. K., Ahmed, Y., Wagner, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Examining+agreement+and+longitudinal+stability+among+traditional+and+RTI-based+definitions+of+reading+disability+using+the+affected-status+agreement+statistic.">Examining agreement and longitudinal stability among traditional and RTI-based definitions of reading disability using the affected-status agreement statistic.</a> Journal of Learning Disabilities. 44, 296-307 (2011).</li><li>Stuebing, K. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Are+child+cognitive+characterstics+strong+predictors+of+response+to+intervention?+A+meta-analysis.">Are child cognitive characterstics strong predictors of response to intervention? A meta-analysis.</a> Review of Educational Research. 48, 1-22 (2014).</li><li>Gonz&#225;lez-Valenzuela, M. 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In this study, we presented a proposed dyslexia detection protocol to be applied from Year 1 in Primary Education within the school setting. This action protocol considers the strengths of the diagnostic model8,13,32 and the response to intervention model21,22,33,34,35</sup...

The DSM-5 establishes specific learning difficulties as a diagnostic category within neuro-developmental disorders. Dyslexia has been considered one of the most common specific learning difficulties. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition, along with spelling and orthographical accuracy. It also entails difficulties in reading comprehension1. These manifestations appear after the start of compulsory schooling, from the age of six onwards.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages. Some authors state that between 5% and 17.5% of school age children are affected by dyslexia2,3. These percentages indicate the importance of considering early detection, since it has serious consequences within school and family settings, due to the poor academic performance that characterizes people with dyslexia and the socio-emotional problems they sometimes display.
In spite of this, there is often a lack of consensus about how to identify dyslexia. This is due to the on-going debate about the adequacy of identification criteria offered by the different explanatory models, derived from ambiguity in the definitions given in dyslexia. On the one hand, the traditional perspective advocates a model of diagnosis for the identification of these problems. More recently, however, the response to intervention model has emerged as an alternative for such purposes.
The diagnostic model considers several criteria when identifying dyslexia: the discrepancy criterion, the exclusion criterion and the specificity criterion (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Criterion of Diagnostic Model <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Discrepancy Criterion <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Criterion of Diagnostic Model (Exclusion Criterion) <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Criterion of Diagnostic Model (Specificity Criterion) <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The discrepancy criterion is based on the fact that people with dyslexia present a discrepancy between their intellectual potential and their performance. This criterion is not accepted by some authors who do not find it necessary to use IQ to determine the appearance of dyslexia4,5. In contrast, other authors find that divergent children are more resistant to interventions than non-divergent children or that there are differences between them6,7. Although the discrepancy criterion has been widely criticized, there does not appear to be consensus about its use. In our opinion, it is somewhat premature to dispense with IQ when it comes to identifying dyslexia. Discarding the use of IQ might make it hard to distinguish this problem from others such as intellectual disability. In this regard, discrepancy should be the first step in identifying dyslexia8.
The exclusion criterion refers to the difference between dyslexia and other specific disorders with which it occurs concomitantly. These disorders are usually sensory deficits, mental disability, emotional disturbances and socio-cultural or educational disadvantages1,9. There is some controversy about the overlap between some of these disorders and dyslexia. Hence, for example, socio-emotional alterations and low social competence are sometimes included as characteristics of people with dyslexia, when it would actually appear that these difficulties are being generated by dyslexia10. Advocates for the use of the exclusion criterion argue that there is a risk that dyslexia will fall into a catchall category that encompasses other comorbid pathologies11 if they are not considered for its diagnosis.
The specificity criterion implies certain restrictions with regard to the domains that are affected in dyslexia, such as language, reasoning and instrumental learning problems1,9. Some authors argue that language problems should be included within the category of dyslexia12,13. However, others believe that they should be differentiated and categorized as comorbid conditions, because language is acquired without formal education whereas other domains do require such instruction10. In this regard, dyslexia is characterized by problems with reading and writing, justified by difficulties in phonological processing14,15 or a general sensory deficit16,17. Those who argue that dyslexia is a deficit in phonological processing indicate that dyslexics present difficulties in tasks involving the effective use of the phonological code, presenting a deficit in the creation of phonological representations of words. As a result, they present difficulties acquiring the alphabetical principle and remembering grapheme-phoneme correspondences10. Proponents of dyslexia as a general sensory deficit argue that people with dyslexia present difficulties in tasks that require the processing of auditory stimuli presented quickly, displaying difficulties of auditory perception, owing to a deficit in their rapid temporal processing10. These basic difficulties give rise to phonological problems, which explain the difficulties they face recognising words.
The response to intervention model (RTI) integrates evaluation and intervention within the school system by means of a multi-level prevention system that maximizes the performance of students and reduces behavioural problems18. This model can be used to identify pupils who are at risk of manifesting reading and writing difficulties, monitoring their progress and offering interventions based on the pupil&#8217;s response. This model identifies people with dyslexia as subjects who do not respond to the intervention received by all students in the classroom and assume that it may be due to a cognitive or educational deficit19. The identification of dyslexia is a decision-making process, in which assessment will be interspersed with instruction. In each assessment stage, the progress made by students after each instruction stage is considered. So, if the performance assessment of the class as a whole is found to be adequate, the possible inadequacy of the instruction delivered is ruled out. Once it has been confirmed that instruction is adequate, the second stage involves identifying, by means of curricular measures, any students whose performance and progress is below that of their classmates, considering them to be students at risk of having dyslexia. In the third stage, individual curricular adaptations will be applied for these children. If these curricular adaptations are not sufficient, because the child is still not progressing, specialized educational measures are required, and the child is considered to be dyslexic19,20,21 (Figure 5). This model focuses on academic performance, eliminates the IQ-performance discrepancy and assessments of intelligence, and reduces the number of false positives8. However, there are few criteria to determine whether a child does or does not respond well to intervention over time. In addition, these problems coexist with other issues, and non-response to intervention could be due to the existence of comorbidity between them10,22,23. These studies are sceptical about the use of the RTI model as a diagnostic instrument.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. Multilevel System of Model &#8220;Response to Intervention&#8221; <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Therefore, there does not appear to be any consensus regarding the criteria that should be used to identify specific learning disabilities, and, in particular, dyslexia. Whereas diagnostic models use discrepancy, exclusion and specificity criteria, the response to intervention model considers poor performance in basic instrumental tasks following adequate instruction as a criterion. Both models have been criticized and present certain weaknesses. For this reason, the Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders research group at the University of Malaga has developed a protocol for the early detection of dyslexia, which considers the strengths of the diagnostic model and the response to intervention model.
In short, the aim of this paper is to present a proposed protocol to detect dyslexia at an early age. It sets out to provide an objective diagnostic procedure for the assessment of this neurodevelopmental disorder, in order to differentiate it from other comorbid disorders, from an early age. For the diagnosis of this specific learning disability, the protocol takes into account the evaluation of certain specific cognitive and linguistic determinants after adequate instruction in reading and writing (response to intervention model), as well as the discrepancy, exclusion and specificity criteria (diagnosis model). The action protocol is developed over several stages, following different types of instruction, and we propose the use of structured interviews with parents and teachers alongside standardized tests for the evaluation of intelligence, reading and writing, as well as the risk factors that determine the appearance of the problem. This action protocol provides a dynamic model for the detection of dyslexia, which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants, in order to offer effective prevention at an early age.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1392px;" width="1391">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:396px;">PROLEC-R. Bater&#237;a de Evaluaci&#243;n de los Procesos Lectores</td>
			<td style="width:153px;">TEA ediciones</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td style="width:717px;">This Instrument assess of reading performance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">The dyslexia Screening Test-Junior</td>
			<td>Pearson Assessment</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td>Screening tests for dyslexia (writing, comprehension reading, phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">The Wescher Intelligence Scale for Children- 5 edition</td>
			<td style="width:153px;">Pearson Assessment</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td>This instrument assess the intelligence</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessing dyslexia at six year of age

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious consequences within school and family settings, due to the poor academic performance that characterizes people with dyslexia and the socio-emotional problems they sometimes display. One of the most frequent problems in the identification of the dyslexia is the lack of a common diagnostic protocol that encompasses specific criteria for the assessment of any child. The Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders research group at the University of Malaga has developed a protocol for the early detection of dyslexia. The protocol is based on the diagnostic and response to intervention models. Consequently, it takes into account diagnostic criteria agreed upon by some associations and committees of experts, as well as certain specific cognitive and language determinants that characterize people who present with dyslexia following adequate instruction, according to recent research. The action protocol is developed over several stages, and we propose the use of structured interviews with parents and teachers alongside standardized tests for the evaluation of intelligence, reading and writing, as well as the risk factors that determine the appearance of the problem. This action protocol provides a model for the detection of dyslexia, which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants, in order to offer effective intervention and/or prevention from an early age.

This next section sets out a series of representative results obtained by one student diagnosed with dyslexia, following the proposed action protocol.
Table 1 shows the scores obtained by Year 1 Primary students in phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary, and reading fluency and comprehension, after ordinary reading and writing instruction. The results indicate that most of the students achieve similar direct scores in the assessment, close to the average...

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Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

This research sets out a proposed protocol for the identification of dyslexia. The protocol is based on diagnostic and response to intervention models. The proposal involves using structured interviews and standardized tests for the assessment of reading and writing performance and determinant factors.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious ...

The aim of this protocol is to submit a proposed assessment procedure for the objective diagnosis of dyslexia at an early age.For the diagnosis of this specific learning disability, the protocol takes into account the evaluation of certain specific cognitive and linguistic determinants, following adequate instruction in reading and writing, response to intervention model, as well as the discrepancy exclusion and specificity criteria diagnosis model.This action protocol shows a dynamic model for the detection of dyslexia which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants in order to offer effective intervention and or prevention at an early age.Dyslexia has been considered one of the most common specific learning disability, and therefore, a permanent disorder in neuro-development.It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word pronunciation, along with spelling and orthographical accuracy.Is also entails difficulties in reading comprehension.There is often a lack of consensus about how to identify dyslexia.This is due to the ongoing debate about the adequacy of identification criteria offered by the differing explanatory models.Divide from ambiguity in the definition like in Dyslexia On the one hand, the traditional perspective advocates a model of diagnosis for the identification of this problem.More however, respond to intervention model has an alternative.The diagnostic model considers several criteria when identifying dyslexia:the discrepancy criterion, the exclusion criterion, and the specificity criterion.The discrepancy criterion is based on the fact that people with dyslexia present a discrepancy between their intellectual potential and their performance.The exclusion criterion refers to the difference between dyslexia and specific disorders alongside which it occurs.The specificity criterion implies certain restrictions with regard to the domains that are affected in dyslexia such as, language, reasoning, and instrumental learning problems.The response to intervention model, on the other hand, identifies people with dyslexia as subjects who do not respond to the intervention receipt by other students in the classroom and assumes that it may be due to acclimative or educational deficit.Based on this model the identification of dyslexia is a decision making process in which the stage of assessment will be interspersed with a stage of instruction.In each assessment stage, the progress made by students after each instruction stage is considered.There has not appear to be any consensus regarding the criteria that should be used to identify the specific learning disabilities, and in particular dyslexia.Bart's model has been criticized on presenting certain weaknesses.For this reason the learning disability on development disorder research group at the University of M

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JoVE Journal

Behavior

Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognitive functions across the lifespan in a sample of 378 healthy subjects (age range 18-89 years). Consistent with previous findings we found an age-related cognitive decline across a wide range of neuropsychological domains (memory, attention, executive functions), thereby proving the usability of our tablet-based application. Regardless of prior computer experience, subjects of all age groups were able to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter. Increased motivation and compliance proved to be beneficial for task performance, thereby potentially increasing the validity of the results. Our promising findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

We tested the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognition. Results show an age-related cognitive decline, thereby proving the usability of our application. Findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on ...

Assessing Forelimb Function after Unilateral Cervical SCI using Novel Tasks: Limb Step-alternation, Postural Instability and Pasta Handling

Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) can cause devastating neurological deficits, including impairment or loss of upper limb and hand function. A majority of the spinal cord injuries in humans occur at the cervical levels. Therefore, developing cervical injury models and developing relevant and sensitive behavioral tests is of great importance. Here we describe the use of a newly developed forelimb step-alternation test after cervical spinal cord injury in rats. In addition, we describe two behavioral tests that have not been used after spinal cord injury: a postural instability test (PIT), and a pasta-handling test. All three behavioral tests are highly sensitive to injury and are easy to use. Therefore, we feel that these behavioral tests can be instrumental in investigating therapeutic strategies after cSCI.

Three new behavioral tests (forelimb step-alternation, postural instability test, pasta handling test) for evaluating forelimb function after cervical spinal cord injury in rodents are described.

Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) can cause devastating neurological deficits, including impairment or loss of upper limb and hand function. A majority ...

A Method for Investigating Age-related Differences in the Functional Connectivity of Cognitive Control Networks Associated with Dimensional Change Card Sort Performance

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional Change Card Sort task, participants switch from sorting cards one way, such as shape, to sorting them a different way, such as color. Adjusting behavior in this way exacts a small performance cost, or switch cost, such that responses are typically slower and more error-prone on switch trials in which the sorting rule changes as compared to repeat trials in which the sorting rule remains the same. The ability to flexibly adjust behavior is often said to develop gradually, in part because behavioral costs such as switch costs typically decrease with increasing age. Why aspects of higher-order cognition, such as behavioral flexibility, develop so gradually remains an open question. One hypothesis is that these changes occur in association with functional changes in broad-scale cognitive control networks. On this view, complex mental operations, such as switching, involve rapid interactions between several distributed brain regions, including those that update and maintain task rules, re-orient attention, and select behaviors. With development, functional connections between these regions strengthen, leading to faster and more efficient switching operations. The current video describes a method of testing this hypothesis through the collection and multivariate analysis of fMRI data from participants of different ages.

This video presents a method of examining age-related changes in functional connectivity of cognitive control networks engaged by targeted tasks/processes. The technique is based on multi-variate analysis of fMRI data.

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional ...

Assessing Functional Performance in the Mdx Mouse Model

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe and progressive muscle wasting disorder for which no cure is available. Nevertheless, several potential pharmaceutical compounds and gene therapy approaches have progressed into clinical trials. With improvement in muscle function being the most important end point in these trials, a lot of emphasis has been placed on setting up reliable, reproducible, and easy to perform functional tests to pre clinically assess muscle function, strength, condition, and coordination in the mdx mouse model for DMD. Both invasive and noninvasive tests are available. Tests that do not exacerbate the disease can be used to determine the natural history of the disease and the effects of therapeutic interventions (e.g. forelimb grip strength test, two different hanging tests using either a wire or a grid and rotarod running). Alternatively, forced treadmill running can be used to enhance disease progression and/or assess protective effects of therapeutic interventions on disease pathology. We here describe how to perform these most commonly used functional tests in a reliable and reproducible manner. Using these protocols based on standard operating procedures enables comparison of data between different laboratories.

Assessing Functional Performance in the Mdx Mouse Model

The primary outcome measure in clinical trials for neuromuscular disorders is generally improved muscle function. Therefore, assessing the effect of potential therapeutic compounds on muscle performance pre clinically in mouse models is of great importance. We here describe several functional tests to address this.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe and progressive muscle wasting disorder for which no cure is available. Nevertheless, several potential ...

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these processes is the ability to adjust behavior in response to changes in one&#8217;s environment (i.e., behavioral flexibility). These processes are essential to normal human behavior, and may be disrupted in diverse neuropsychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia, alcoholism, depression, stroke, and Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. Understanding of the neurobiology of executive functions has been greatly advanced by the availability of animal tasks for assessing discrete components of behavioral flexibility, particularly strategy shifting and reversal learning. While several types of tasks have been developed, most are non-automated, labor intensive, and allow testing of only one animal at a time. The recent development of automated, operant-based tasks for assessing behavioral flexibility streamlines testing, standardizes stimulus presentation and data recording, and dramatically improves throughput. Here, we describe automated strategy shifting and reversal tasks, using operant chambers controlled by custom written software programs. Using these tasks, we have shown that the medial prefrontal cortex governs strategy shifting but not reversal learning in the rat, similar to the dissociation observed in humans. Moreover, animals with a neonatal hippocampal lesion, a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia, are selectively impaired on the strategy shifting task but not the reversal task. The strategy shifting task also allows the identification of separate types of performance errors, each of which is attributable to distinct neural substrates. The availability of these automated tasks, and the evidence supporting the dissociable contributions of separate prefrontal areas, makes them particularly well-suited assays for the investigation of basic neurobiological processes as well as drug discovery and screening in disease models.

The ability to assess executive functions such as behavioral flexibility in rats is useful for investigating the neurobiology of cognition in both intact animals and disease models. Here we describe automated tasks for assessing strategy shifting and reversal learning, which are particularly sensitive to disruptions in prefrontal cortical networks.

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these ...

Assessing the Multiple Dimensions of Engagement to Characterize Learning: A Neurophysiological Perspective

In a recent theoretical synthesis on the concept of engagement, Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris1 defined engagement by its multiple dimensions: behavioral, emotional and cognitive. They observed that individual types of engagement had not been studied in conjunction, and little information was available about interactions or synergy between the dimensions; consequently, more studies would contribute to creating finely tuned teaching interventions. Benefiting from the recent technological advances in neurosciences, this paper presents a recently developed methodology to gather and synchronize data on multidimensional engagement during learning tasks. The technique involves the collection of (a) electroencephalography, (b) electrodermal, (c) eye-tracking, and (d) facial emotion recognition data on four different computers. This led to synchronization issues for data collected from multiple sources. Post synchronization in specialized integration software gives researchers a better understanding of the dynamics between the multiple dimensions of engagement. For curriculum developers, these data could provide informed guidelines for achieving better instruction/learning efficiency. This technique also opens up possibilities in the field of brain-computer interactions, where adaptive learning or assessment environments could be developed.

This paper aims to describe the techniques involved in the collection and synchronization of the multiple dimensions (behavioral, affective and cognitive) of learners&#8217; engagement during a task.

In a recent theoretical synthesis on the concept of engagement, Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris1 defined engagement by its multiple dimensions: ...

Behavioral Assessment of Hearing in 2 to 4 Year-old Children: A Two-interval, Observer-based Procedure Using Conditioned Play-based Responses

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human auditory development for these age groups. This paper describes an observer-based procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity with a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm. Young children are trained to perform a play-based, motor response (e.g., putting a block in a bucket) whenever they hear a target signal. An experimenter observes the child&#39;s behavior and makes a judgment about whether the signal was presented during the first or second observation interval; the experimenter is blinded to the true signal interval, so this judgment is based solely on the child&#39;s behavior. These procedures were used to test 2 to 4 year-olds (n = 33) with no known hearing problems. The signal was a 1,000 Hz warble tone presented in quiet, and the signal level was adjusted to estimate a threshold corresponding to 71%-correct detection. A valid threshold was obtained for 82% of children. These results indicate that the two-interval procedure is both feasible and reliable for use with toddlers and preschoolers. The two-interval, observer-based procedure described in this paper is a powerful tool for evaluating hearing in young children because it guards against response bias on the part of the experimenter.

This paper describes a procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity in 2 to 4 year-old children. Children are trained to perform play-based responses when they hear a target signal. Thresholds are then estimated in a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm, based on observations of the child&#39;s behaviors.

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human ...

Assessing the Effects of Music Listening on Psychobiological Stress in Daily Life

Music listening is associated with stress-reducing effects. However, most of the results on music listening and stress were gathered in experimental settings. As music listening is a popular activity of daily life, it is of utmost importance to study the effects of music listening on psychobiological stress in an everyday, daily-life setting. Here, a study protocol is presented that allows the assessment of associations between music listening and psychobiological stress in daily life by noninvasively measuring salivary cortisol (as a marker of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis) and salivary alpha-amylase (as a marker of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)). The protocol includes advice on the study design (e.g., sampling protocol), the materials and methods (e.g., the assessment of psychobiological stress in daily life, the assessment of music listening, and the manual), the selection of participants (e.g., the approval of the institutional review board and inclusion criteria), and the statistical analyses (e.g., the multilevel approach). The representative results provide evidence for a stress-reducing effect of music listening in daily life. Particularly, specific reasons for listening to music (especially relaxation), as well as the presence of others while doing so, increase this stress-reducing effect. At the same time, music listening in daily life differentially affects the HPA axis and ANS functioning, thus emphasizing the need for a multi-dimensional assessment of stress in daily life.

A study protocol is presented on how to assess associations between music listening and psychobiological stress (as measured by subjective stress levels, salivary cortisol, and salivary alpha-amylase) in daily life. Advice on study design, materials, methods, selection of participants, and statistical handling is provided. Representative results are presented and discussed.

Music listening is associated with stress-reducing effects. However, most of the results on music listening and stress were gathered in experimental ...

The Knob Supination Task: A Semi-automated Method for Assessing Forelimb Function in Rats

Tasks that accurately measure dexterity in animal models are critical to understand hand function. Current rat behavioral tasks that measure dexterity largely use video analysis of reaching or food manipulation. While these tasks are easy to implement and are robust across disease models, they are subjective and laborious for the experimenter. Automating traditional tasks or creating new automated tasks can make the tasks more efficient, objective, and quantitative. Since rats are less dexterous than primates, central nervous system (CNS) injury produces more subtle deficits in dexterity, however, supination is highly affected in rodents and crucial to hand function in primates. Therefore, we designed a semi-automated task that measures forelimb supination in rats. Rats are trained to reach and grasp a knob-shaped manipulandum and turn the manipulandum in supination to receive a reward. Rats can acquire the skill within 20 &plusmn; 5 days. While the early part of training is highly supervised, much of the training is done without direct supervision. The task reliably and reproducibly captures subtle deficits after injury and shows functional recovery that accurately reflects clinical recovery curves. Analysis of data is performed by specialized software through a graphical user interface that is designed to be intuitive. We also give solutions to common problems encountered during training, and show that minor corrections to behavior early in training produce reliable acquisition of supination. Thus, the knob supination task provides efficient and quantitative evaluation of a critical movement for dexterity in rats.

This manuscript describes a semi-automated task that quantifies supination in rats. Rats reach, grasp, and supinate a spherical manipulandum. The rat is rewarded with a pellet if the turn angle exceeds a criterion set by the user. This task increases throughput, sensitivity to injury, and objectivity compared to traditional tasks.

Tasks that accurately measure dexterity in animal models are critical to understand hand function. Current rat behavioral tasks that measure dexterity ...

Assessing Activity-based Anorexia in Mice

Rodents develop activity-based anorexia (ABA) when exposed to a restricted feeding schedule and allowed free access to a running wheel. These conditions lead to a life-threatening reduction in body weight. However, rodents exposed to only one of these conditions ultimately adapt to re-establish normal body weight. Although increased running coupled with reduction in voluntary food intake appear paradoxical under ABA conditions, ABA behavior is observed across numerous mammalian species. 
The ABA paradigm provides an animal model for anorexia nervosa (AN), an eating disorder with severe dysregulation of appetite-behavior. Subjects are singly housed with free access to a running wheel. Each day, the subject is offered food for a limited amount of time. During the course of the experiment, a subject's body weight decreases from high activity and low caloric intake. The duration of the study varies based on how long food is offered daily, the type of food offered, the strain of mouse, if drugs are being tested, and environmental factors.
A lack of effective pharmacological treatments for AN patients, their low quality of life, high cost of treatment, and their high mortality rate indicate the urgency to further research AN. We provide a basic outline for performing ABA experiments with mice, offering a method to investigate AN-like behavior in order to develop novel therapies. This protocol is optimized for use in Balb/cJ mice, but can easily be manipulated for other strains, providing great flexibility in working with different questions, especially related to genetic factors of ABA.

Mice individually housed with a running wheel while given limited access to food develop reductions in food consumption and increase activity on the running wheel. This experimental phenomenon is called activity-based anorexia. This paradigm provides an experimental tool for studying the neurobiology and behaviors underlying aspects of anorexia nervosa.

Rodents develop activity-based anorexia (ABA) when exposed to a restricted feeding schedule and allowed free access to a running wheel. These conditions ...