Name: assessing dyslexia at six year of age
Uploaded: 2020-05-01T13:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age at JoVE.com

This work has been funded by the Regional Government of Andalusia (Spain), through public calls for funding, applied for by the SEJ-521 research group, Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders.

This present study has been developed in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration, which establishes ethical principles for the development of research with humans. In addition, it follows the guidelines and was approved by the University of Malaga&#8217;s Experimentation Ethics Committee (CEUMA).
NOTE: The protocol presented below should be carried out by psychologists within the school setting, beginning in the first year of Primary Education (6 years of age), and with the collaboration of t...

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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Redefining+learning+disabilities+as+inadequate+response+to+instruction:+the+promise+and+potential+problems.">Redefining learning disabilities as inadequate response to instruction: the promise and potential problems.</a> Learning Disabilities Research &amp; Practice. 18, 137-146 (2003).</li><li>Kavale, K. A., Holdnack, J. A., Mostert, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Responsiveness+to+intervention+and+the+identification+of+specific+learning+disabilities:+A+critique+and+alternative+proposal.">Responsiveness to intervention and the identification of specific learning disabilities: A critique and alternative proposal.</a> Learning Disability Quarterly. 28, 2-16 (2005).</li><li>Jim&#233;nez, J. E., Crespo, P., Jim&#233;nez, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modelo+de+respuesta+a+la+intervenci&#243;n:+definici&#243;n+y+principales+componentes.">Modelo de respuesta a la intervenci&#243;n: definici&#243;n y principales componentes.</a> Modelo de respuesta a la intervenci&#243;n. Un enfoque preventivo para el abordaje de las dificultades espec&#237;ficas de aprendizaje. , (2019).</li><li>Cuetos, F., Rodr&#237;guez, B., Ruano, E., Arribas, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PROLEC-R.+Bater&#237;a+de+Evaluaci&#243;n+de+los+Procesos+Lectores.">PROLEC-R. Bater&#237;a de Evaluaci&#243;n de los Procesos Lectores.</a> TEA ediciones. , (2012).</li><li>Fawcett, A. J., Nicolson, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The dyslexia Screening Test-Junior. , (2004).</li><li>Weschler, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children- 5th edition. , (2005).</li><li>Babayigit, S., Stainthorp, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+the+relationships+between+cognitive-linguistic+skills+and+literacy+skills:+new+insights+from+a+transparent+orthography.">Modeling the relationships between cognitive-linguistic skills and literacy skills: new insights from a transparent orthography.</a> Journal of Educational Psychology. 103, 169-189 (2011).</li><li>Caravolas, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+patterns,+but+equivalent+predictors,+of+growth+in+reading+inconsistent+and+inconsistent+orthographies.">Different patterns, but equivalent predictors, of growth in reading inconsistent and inconsistent orthographies.</a> Psychological Science. 20, 1-10 (2013).</li><li>Georgiou, G. K., Parrilla, R., Papadopoulos, T. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predictors+of+word+decoding+and+reading+fluency+across+languages+varying+in+orthographic+consistency.">Predictors of word decoding and reading fluency across languages varying in orthographic consistency.</a> Journal of Educational Psychology. 100, 466 (2008).</li><li>Gonz&#225;lez-Valenzuela, M. J., D&#237;az-Gir&#225;ldez, F., L&#243;pez-Montiel, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cognitive+predictors+of+word+and+pseudoword+Reading+in+Spanish+First-Grade+Children.">Cognitive predictors of word and pseudoword Reading in Spanish First-Grade Children.</a> Frontiers in Psychology. 7 (774), 1-12 (2016).</li><li>Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., Branum-Martin, L., Francis, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+technical+adequacy+of+three+methods+for+identifying+specific+learning+disabilities+based+on+cognitive+discrepancies.">Evaluation of the technical adequacy of three methods for identifying specific learning disabilities based on cognitive discrepancies.</a> School Psychology Review. 41, 3-22 (2012).</li><li>Fletcher, J. M., Vaughn, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Responsiveness+To+Intervention:+A+decade+later.">Responsiveness To Intervention: A decade later.</a> Journal of Learning Disabilities. 45 (3), 195-203 (2012).</li><li>Vaughn, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+intensive+reading+intervention+for+eighth-grade+students+with+persistently+inadequate+response+to+intervention.">Effects of intensive reading intervention for eighth-grade students with persistently inadequate response to intervention.</a> Journal of Learning Disabilities. 45, 515-525 (2012).</li><li>Brown Waesche, J. S., Schatschneider, C., Maner, J. K., Ahmed, Y., Wagner, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Examining+agreement+and+longitudinal+stability+among+traditional+and+RTI-based+definitions+of+reading+disability+using+the+affected-status+agreement+statistic.">Examining agreement and longitudinal stability among traditional and RTI-based definitions of reading disability using the affected-status agreement statistic.</a> Journal of Learning Disabilities. 44, 296-307 (2011).</li><li>Stuebing, K. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Are+child+cognitive+characterstics+strong+predictors+of+response+to+intervention?+A+meta-analysis.">Are child cognitive characterstics strong predictors of response to intervention? A meta-analysis.</a> Review of Educational Research. 48, 1-22 (2014).</li><li>Gonz&#225;lez-Valenzuela, M. 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In this study, we presented a proposed dyslexia detection protocol to be applied from Year 1 in Primary Education within the school setting. This action protocol considers the strengths of the diagnostic model8,13,32 and the response to intervention model21,22,33,34,35</sup...

The DSM-5 establishes specific learning difficulties as a diagnostic category within neuro-developmental disorders. Dyslexia has been considered one of the most common specific learning difficulties. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition, along with spelling and orthographical accuracy. It also entails difficulties in reading comprehension1. These manifestations appear after the start of compulsory schooling, from the age of six onwards.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages. Some authors state that between 5% and 17.5% of school age children are affected by dyslexia2,3. These percentages indicate the importance of considering early detection, since it has serious consequences within school and family settings, due to the poor academic performance that characterizes people with dyslexia and the socio-emotional problems they sometimes display.
In spite of this, there is often a lack of consensus about how to identify dyslexia. This is due to the on-going debate about the adequacy of identification criteria offered by the different explanatory models, derived from ambiguity in the definitions given in dyslexia. On the one hand, the traditional perspective advocates a model of diagnosis for the identification of these problems. More recently, however, the response to intervention model has emerged as an alternative for such purposes.
The diagnostic model considers several criteria when identifying dyslexia: the discrepancy criterion, the exclusion criterion and the specificity criterion (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Criterion of Diagnostic Model <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Discrepancy Criterion <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Criterion of Diagnostic Model (Exclusion Criterion) <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Criterion of Diagnostic Model (Specificity Criterion) <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The discrepancy criterion is based on the fact that people with dyslexia present a discrepancy between their intellectual potential and their performance. This criterion is not accepted by some authors who do not find it necessary to use IQ to determine the appearance of dyslexia4,5. In contrast, other authors find that divergent children are more resistant to interventions than non-divergent children or that there are differences between them6,7. Although the discrepancy criterion has been widely criticized, there does not appear to be consensus about its use. In our opinion, it is somewhat premature to dispense with IQ when it comes to identifying dyslexia. Discarding the use of IQ might make it hard to distinguish this problem from others such as intellectual disability. In this regard, discrepancy should be the first step in identifying dyslexia8.
The exclusion criterion refers to the difference between dyslexia and other specific disorders with which it occurs concomitantly. These disorders are usually sensory deficits, mental disability, emotional disturbances and socio-cultural or educational disadvantages1,9. There is some controversy about the overlap between some of these disorders and dyslexia. Hence, for example, socio-emotional alterations and low social competence are sometimes included as characteristics of people with dyslexia, when it would actually appear that these difficulties are being generated by dyslexia10. Advocates for the use of the exclusion criterion argue that there is a risk that dyslexia will fall into a catchall category that encompasses other comorbid pathologies11 if they are not considered for its diagnosis.
The specificity criterion implies certain restrictions with regard to the domains that are affected in dyslexia, such as language, reasoning and instrumental learning problems1,9. Some authors argue that language problems should be included within the category of dyslexia12,13. However, others believe that they should be differentiated and categorized as comorbid conditions, because language is acquired without formal education whereas other domains do require such instruction10. In this regard, dyslexia is characterized by problems with reading and writing, justified by difficulties in phonological processing14,15 or a general sensory deficit16,17. Those who argue that dyslexia is a deficit in phonological processing indicate that dyslexics present difficulties in tasks involving the effective use of the phonological code, presenting a deficit in the creation of phonological representations of words. As a result, they present difficulties acquiring the alphabetical principle and remembering grapheme-phoneme correspondences10. Proponents of dyslexia as a general sensory deficit argue that people with dyslexia present difficulties in tasks that require the processing of auditory stimuli presented quickly, displaying difficulties of auditory perception, owing to a deficit in their rapid temporal processing10. These basic difficulties give rise to phonological problems, which explain the difficulties they face recognising words.
The response to intervention model (RTI) integrates evaluation and intervention within the school system by means of a multi-level prevention system that maximizes the performance of students and reduces behavioural problems18. This model can be used to identify pupils who are at risk of manifesting reading and writing difficulties, monitoring their progress and offering interventions based on the pupil&#8217;s response. This model identifies people with dyslexia as subjects who do not respond to the intervention received by all students in the classroom and assume that it may be due to a cognitive or educational deficit19. The identification of dyslexia is a decision-making process, in which assessment will be interspersed with instruction. In each assessment stage, the progress made by students after each instruction stage is considered. So, if the performance assessment of the class as a whole is found to be adequate, the possible inadequacy of the instruction delivered is ruled out. Once it has been confirmed that instruction is adequate, the second stage involves identifying, by means of curricular measures, any students whose performance and progress is below that of their classmates, considering them to be students at risk of having dyslexia. In the third stage, individual curricular adaptations will be applied for these children. If these curricular adaptations are not sufficient, because the child is still not progressing, specialized educational measures are required, and the child is considered to be dyslexic19,20,21 (Figure 5). This model focuses on academic performance, eliminates the IQ-performance discrepancy and assessments of intelligence, and reduces the number of false positives8. However, there are few criteria to determine whether a child does or does not respond well to intervention over time. In addition, these problems coexist with other issues, and non-response to intervention could be due to the existence of comorbidity between them10,22,23. These studies are sceptical about the use of the RTI model as a diagnostic instrument.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. Multilevel System of Model &#8220;Response to Intervention&#8221; <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Therefore, there does not appear to be any consensus regarding the criteria that should be used to identify specific learning disabilities, and, in particular, dyslexia. Whereas diagnostic models use discrepancy, exclusion and specificity criteria, the response to intervention model considers poor performance in basic instrumental tasks following adequate instruction as a criterion. Both models have been criticized and present certain weaknesses. For this reason, the Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders research group at the University of Malaga has developed a protocol for the early detection of dyslexia, which considers the strengths of the diagnostic model and the response to intervention model.
In short, the aim of this paper is to present a proposed protocol to detect dyslexia at an early age. It sets out to provide an objective diagnostic procedure for the assessment of this neurodevelopmental disorder, in order to differentiate it from other comorbid disorders, from an early age. For the diagnosis of this specific learning disability, the protocol takes into account the evaluation of certain specific cognitive and linguistic determinants after adequate instruction in reading and writing (response to intervention model), as well as the discrepancy, exclusion and specificity criteria (diagnosis model). The action protocol is developed over several stages, following different types of instruction, and we propose the use of structured interviews with parents and teachers alongside standardized tests for the evaluation of intelligence, reading and writing, as well as the risk factors that determine the appearance of the problem. This action protocol provides a dynamic model for the detection of dyslexia, which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants, in order to offer effective prevention at an early age.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1392px;" width="1391">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:396px;">PROLEC-R. Bater&#237;a de Evaluaci&#243;n de los Procesos Lectores</td>
			<td style="width:153px;">TEA ediciones</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td style="width:717px;">This Instrument assess of reading performance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">The dyslexia Screening Test-Junior</td>
			<td>Pearson Assessment</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td>Screening tests for dyslexia (writing, comprehension reading, phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">The Wescher Intelligence Scale for Children- 5 edition</td>
			<td style="width:153px;">Pearson Assessment</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td>This instrument assess the intelligence</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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assessing dyslexia at six year of age

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious consequences within school and family settings, due to the poor academic performance that characterizes people with dyslexia and the socio-emotional problems they sometimes display. One of the most frequent problems in the identification of the dyslexia is the lack of a common diagnostic protocol that encompasses specific criteria for the assessment of any child. The Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders research group at the University of Malaga has developed a protocol for the early detection of dyslexia. The protocol is based on the diagnostic and response to intervention models. Consequently, it takes into account diagnostic criteria agreed upon by some associations and committees of experts, as well as certain specific cognitive and language determinants that characterize people who present with dyslexia following adequate instruction, according to recent research. The action protocol is developed over several stages, and we propose the use of structured interviews with parents and teachers alongside standardized tests for the evaluation of intelligence, reading and writing, as well as the risk factors that determine the appearance of the problem. This action protocol provides a model for the detection of dyslexia, which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants, in order to offer effective intervention and/or prevention from an early age.

This next section sets out a series of representative results obtained by one student diagnosed with dyslexia, following the proposed action protocol.
Table 1 shows the scores obtained by Year 1 Primary students in phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary, and reading fluency and comprehension, after ordinary reading and writing instruction. The results indicate that most of the students achieve similar direct scores in the assessment, close to the average...

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Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

This research sets out a proposed protocol for the identification of dyslexia. The protocol is based on diagnostic and response to intervention models. The proposal involves using structured interviews and standardized tests for the assessment of reading and writing performance and determinant factors.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious ...

The aim of this protocol is to submit a proposed assessment procedure for the objective diagnosis of dyslexia at an early age.For the diagnosis of this specific learning disability, the protocol takes into account the evaluation of certain specific cognitive and linguistic determinants, following adequate instruction in reading and writing, response to intervention model, as well as the discrepancy exclusion and specificity criteria diagnosis model.This action protocol shows a dynamic model for the detection of dyslexia which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants in order to offer effective intervention and or prevention at an early age.Dyslexia has been considered one of the most common specific learning disability, and therefore, a permanent disorder in neuro-development.It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word pronunciation, along with spelling and orthographical accuracy.Is also entails difficulties in reading comprehension.There is often a lack of consensus about how to identify dyslexia.This is due to the ongoing debate about the adequacy of identification criteria offered by the differing explanatory models.Divide from ambiguity in the definition like in Dyslexia On the one hand, the traditional perspective advocates a model of diagnosis for the identification of this problem.More however, respond to intervention model has an alternative.The diagnostic model considers several criteria when identifying dyslexia:the discrepancy criterion, the exclusion criterion, and the specificity criterion.The discrepancy criterion is based on the fact that people with dyslexia present a discrepancy between their intellectual potential and their performance.The exclusion criterion refers to the difference between dyslexia and specific disorders alongside which it occurs.The specificity criterion implies certain restrictions with regard to the domains that are affected in dyslexia such as, language, reasoning, and instrumental learning problems.The response to intervention model, on the other hand, identifies people with dyslexia as subjects who do not respond to the intervention receipt by other students in the classroom and assumes that it may be due to acclimative or educational deficit.Based on this model the identification of dyslexia is a decision making process in which the stage of assessment will be interspersed with a stage of instruction.In each assessment stage, the progress made by students after each instruction stage is considered.There has not appear to be any consensus regarding the criteria that should be used to identify the specific learning disabilities, and in particular dyslexia.Bart's model has been criticized on presenting certain weaknesses.For this reason the learning disability on development disorder research group at the University of M

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