The authors are grateful for support and assistance provided by Jeff Fox and Vidya Venkatramani of the University of Rochester Center for Musculoskeletal Research&#39;s Histology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Imaging (HBMI) Core, funded in part by P30AR06965. Additionally, the authors would like to thank the Center for Light Microscopy and Nanoscopy (CALMN) at the University of Rochester Medical Center for assistance with multiphoton microscopy. This study was funded by R01 AR070765 and R01 AR070765-04S1, as well as 1R35GM147054 and 1R01AR082349.

Understanding Tendon Impingement &#8211; Murine Explant Model for Studying Mechanobiology

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The experimental murine hind limb explant platform paired with the tissue culture protocol described in this study provide a suitable model for studying the mechanobiology of impingement-driven fibrocartilage formation at the Achilles tendon insertion. The utility of this explant model is demonstrated by the representative results, which indicate maintenance of cell viability concomitant with significant and spatially heterogeneous change in Toluidine blue staining after 7 days of static impingement. These findings sugge...

A multitude of tendons, including the Achilles tendon and rotator cuff tendons, experience bony impingement due to normal anatomical positioning1,2,3,4. Tendon impingement generates compressive strain directed transversely to the longitudinal fiber axis5,6,7. Regions of tendon impingement demonstrate a unique fibrocartilage phenotype in which shrunken, round cells (fibrochondrocytes) are embedded within a disorganized collagen network with markedly increased glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content2,3,4,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24. Prior studies suggest the disparate mechanical environment produced by tendon impingement sustains this GAG-rich matrix by driving the deposition of large aggregating proteoglycans, most notably aggrecan, although the underlying mechanisms are unclear1,3,12,13,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39. While fibrocartilage is a normal feature in impinged regions of healthy tendons, aberrant proteoglycan metabolism associated with excessive fibrocartilage formation is a hallmark feature of tendinopathy, a common and debilitating disease that disproportionately emerges in chronically impinged tendons1,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49. Accordingly, tendon impingement is clinically recognized as an important extrinsic factor driving several of the most common tendinopathies, including rotator cuff disease and insertional Achilles tendinopathy (IAT)50,51,52. Currently, treatment of tendinopathy is inefficient. For example, approximately 47% of patients with IAT require surgical intervention after failed conservative management, with variable postoperative outcomes53,54,55,56. Despite the apparent relationship between impingement and tendinopathy, the mechanobiological mechanisms by which cells in impinged tendon sense and respond to their mechanical environment are poorly described, which obscures understanding of tendinopathy pathogenesis and results in inadequate treatment.
Explant models are useful tools in the study of tendon mechanobiology57,58. As a first step towards understanding the mechanobiology of tendon impingement, several prior studies have explored cellular response following the application of simple uniaxial compression to cells or excised tendon explants27,29,30,31,32,33,34,39. However, cells in vitro lack extracellular and pericellular matrices that facilitate strain transfer, sequester important growth factors and cytokines released by mechanical deformation, and provide substrate for focal adhesion complexes that play a role in mechanotransduction57,59. Additionally, both in vitro and excised explant studies fail to recapitulate the multiaxial mechanical strain environment generated by tendon impingement in vivo, which depends on anatomical features of the impinged region5,6. In the context of the impinged Achilles tendon insertion, this includes surrounding tissues such as the retrocalcaneal bursa and Kager&#39;s fat pad60,61,62,63. Conversely, in vivo models of tendon impingement25,28,36,37,38,64,65,66 allow minimal control over the magnitude and frequency of load applied directly to the tendon, which is a well-recognized limitation of in vivo models for studying tendon mechanobiology57,58,67,68,69,70. Given challenges in measuring tendon strain in vivo, the internal strain environment generated within these models is often poorly characterized.
In this manuscript, we present a custom experimental platform that recreates impingement of the Achilles tendon insertion upon the calcaneus within whole murine hind limb explants that, when paired with this tissue culture protocol, maintains viability over 7 days in explant culture and allows for study of the biologic sequelae of tendon impingement. The platform is built upon a 3D printed polylactic acid (PLA) base that provides the foundation for the attachment of the grips and 3D printed PLA volume reduction insert. The grips are used to clamp the upper leg and knee proximal to the Achilles myotendinous junction with the caudal aspect of the hind limb facing upward, allowing the Achilles tendon to be imaged from above using an ultrasound probe or inverted microscope (Figure 1A). The volume reduction insert&#160;slides along a track on the base and reduces the required volume of tissue culture media. A braided line wrapped around the hind paw is routed out of the platform utilizing the base design and a 3D printed PLA clip. By pulling on the string, the hind paw is dorsiflexed, and the Achilles tendon insertion is impinged against the calcaneus, resulting in elevated transverse compressive strain5,6 (Figure 1A). The platform is contained within an acrylic bath that maintains the hind limb explants submerged in tissue culture media. Securing the taut string to the outside of the bath with adhesive tape maintains ankle dorsiflexion to produce static impingement of the Achilles tendon insertion. CAD files for 3D printed components are provided in multiple formats (Supplementary File 1), allowing import into a range of commercial and free, open-source CAD software for modification to suit experimental needs. If access to 3D printers is not available for fabrication, CAD files can be provided to online 3D printing services that will print and ship the parts at low cost.
Importantly, the triceps surae-Achilles musculotendinous complex spans both the knee and ankle joints71,72,73. Consequently, tensile strain in the Achilles tendon is influenced by knee flexion. Knee extension places the Achilles tendon under tension, whereas knee flexion reduces tension. By first extending the knee and then passively dorsiflexing the ankle, compressive strains at the impinged insertion can be superimposed upon tensile strains. Conversely, by passively dorsiflexing the ankle with the knee flexed, tensile strain is reduced, and compressive strain remains. The current protocol explores three such conditions. 1) For static impingement, the foot is dorsiflexed to &#60; 110&#176; with respect to the tibia to impinge the insertion, with the knee flexed to reduce tension. 2) For the baseline tension group, the ankle is extended above 145&#176; of dorsiflexion with the knee extended, generating predominately tensile strain at the insertion. 3) For the unloaded group, explants are cultured in a Petri dish with the knee and ankle in neutral positions in the absence of externally applied load. The angles referred to above are photographically measured relative to a coordinate system where the foot and tibia are parallel at an angle of 180&#176; and perpendicular at an angle of 90&#176;.
Key steps of the protocol include 1) dissection of hind limb explants and careful removal of the skin and plantaris tendon; 2) explant culture following a 48 h dexamethasone pretreatment; 3) tissue sectioning and histological staining; and 4) color image analysis to assess fibrocartilage formation. Following dissection, each hind limb explant is pretreated for 48 h in culture media&#160;supplemented with dexamethasone74. Contralateral limbs from each mouse are assigned to separate experimental groups for pairwise comparison, which helps control biological variability. After pretreatment, explants are positioned into platforms as described above and cultured for 7 more days (Figure 1B). Additional comparisons are made to a pretreated (day 0) group in which explants are removed immediately following the 48 h pretreatment.
After explant culture, hind limbs are trimmed down, formalin fixed, decalcified and embedded in paraffin. Serial sectioning in sagittal orientation provides visualization of the Achilles tendon from the myotendinous junction to the calcaneal insertion while allowing section depth to be tracked through the entire tendon. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP X-nick labeling (TUNEL) is used to visualize DNA damage secondary to apoptosis and assess viability. Toluidine blue histology and custom color image analysis are performed to quantify changes in GAG staining. Toluidine blue stained tissue sections are then used for SHG imaging to characterize alterations in collage fiber organization (Figure 1B).
The provided representative results suggest altered histological staining of the GAG-rich matrix and disorganization of the extracellular collagen network generated by 7 days of static impingement within the model. This model can be utilized to explore molecular mechanisms underlying impingement-driven fibrocartilaginous change.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Absorbent underpads</td><td>VWR</td><td>82020-845</td><td>For benchtop dissection</td></tr><tr><td>Acrylic bath</td><td>Source One</td><td>X001G46CB1</td><td>Contains the explant platform submerged in culture media</td></tr><tr><td>Autoclave bin</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>13-361-20</td><td>Used as secondary containment, holds two platforms</td></tr><tr><td>Base</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>3D printed from CAD files provided as Supplementary Files</td></tr><tr><td>Braided line</td><td>KastKing</td><td>30lb test</td><td>Used to wrap around paw and apply ankle dorsiflexion</td></tr><tr><td>Clip</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>3D printed from CAD files provided as Supplementary Files</td></tr><tr><td>Cover glass</td><td>Fisherbrand</td><td>12-541-034</td><td>Rectangular, No. 2, 50 mm x 24 mm</td></tr><tr><td>Cytoseal XYL</td><td>VWR</td><td>8312-4</td><td>Xylene-based mounting media for coverslipping Toluidine blue stained tissue sections</td></tr><tr><td>Dexamethasone</td><td>MP Biomedical LLC</td><td>194561</td><td>CAS#50-02-2</td></tr><tr><td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), anhydrous</td><td>Invitrogen by ThermoFisher</td><td>D12345</td><td>CAS#67-68-5, use to solubilize dexamethasone into concentrated stock solutions</td></tr><tr><td>Double-sided tape</td><td>Scotch Brand</td><td>34-8724-5195-9</td><td>To attach sandpaper to Grip platens</td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Modified Eagle Medium (1X DMEM)</td><td>Gibco by ThermoFisher</td><td>11965092</td><td>high glucose, (-) pyruvate, (+) glutamine</td></tr><tr><td>EDTA tetrasodium salt dihydrate</td><td>Thermo Scientific Chemicals</td><td>J15700.A1</td><td>CAS#10378-23-1, used to make 14% EDTA solution for sample decalcifcation</td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol, 200 proof</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>T038181000</td><td>CAS#64-17-5, 1 L supply</td></tr><tr><td>Foam biopsy pads</td><td>Leica</td><td>3801000</td><td>Used with processing cassettes, help hold ankle joints in desired position during fixation and decalcification</td></tr><tr><td>Forceps, #SS Standard Inox</td><td>Dumont</td><td>11203-23</td><td>Straight, smooth, fine tips</td></tr><tr><td>Forceps, Micro-Adson 4.75&quot;</td><td>Fisherbrand</td><td>13-820-073</td><td>Straight, fine tips with serrated teeth</td></tr><tr><td>Garnet Sandpaper, 50-D Grit</td><td>Norton</td><td>M600060 01518</td><td>Or other coarse grit sandpaper</td></tr><tr><td>Glacial acetic acid</td><td>Fisher Chemical</td><td>A38S-500</td><td>CAS#64-19-7, for adjusting pH of sodium acetate buffer used for Toluidine blue histology, as well as 14% EDTA decalcification solution</td></tr><tr><td>Grips</td><td>ADMET</td><td>GV-100NT-A4</td><td>Stainless steel vice grips, screws and springs described in the protocol are included</td></tr><tr><td>Histobond Adhesive Microscope Slides</td><td>VWR</td><td>16005-108</td><td>Sagittal sections of hind limbs explants reliably adhere to these slides through all staining protocols</td></tr><tr><td>In situ Cell Death Detection Kit, TMR Red</td><td>Roche</td><td>12156792910</td><td>TUNEL assay</td></tr><tr><td>Labeling tape</td><td>Fisherbrand</td><td>15-959</td><td>Or any other labeling tape of preference</td></tr><tr><td>L-ascorbic acid</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A4544-100G</td><td>CAS#50-81-7, for culture media formulation</td></tr><tr><td>Neutral buffered formalin, 10%</td><td>Leica</td><td>3800600</td><td>For sample fixation, 5 gallon supply</td></tr><tr><td>Nunc petri dishes</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P7741-1CS</td><td>100 mm diameter x 25 mm height, maintain explants submerged in 70 mL of culture media as described in protocol</td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin-streptomycin (100X)</td><td>Gibco by ThermoFisher</td><td>15140122</td><td>Add 5 mL to 500 mL 1X DMEM for 1% v/v (1X) working concentration</td></tr><tr><td>Polylactic acid (PLA) 1.75 mm filament</td><td>Hatchbox</td><td>-</td><td>Choose filament diameter compatible with your 3D printer extruder, in color of choice.</td></tr><tr><td>Processing cassettes</td><td>Leica</td><td>3802631</td><td>For fixation, decalcification and paraffin embedding</td></tr><tr><td>Prolong Gold Antifade Reagent with DAPI</td><td>Invitrogen by ThermoFisher</td><td>P36931</td><td>Mounting media for coverslipping tissue sections after TUNEL</td></tr><tr><td>Proteinase K</td><td>Fisher BioReagents</td><td>BP1700-50</td><td>CAS#39450-01-6, used for antigen retrieval in TUNEL protocol</td></tr><tr><td>Scissors, Fine</td><td>FST</td><td>14094-11</td><td>Straight, sharp</td></tr><tr><td>Slide Staining Set, 12-place</td><td>Mercedes Scientific&amp;nbsp;</td><td>MER 1011</td><td>Rack with 12 stain dishes and slide dippers for Toluidine blue histology</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium acetate, anhydrous</td><td>Thermo Scientific Chemicals</td><td>A1318430</td><td>CAS#127-09-3, used to make buffer for Toluidine blue histology</td></tr><tr><td>Tissue-Tek Accu-Edge Low Profile Microtome Blades</td><td>VWR</td><td>25608-964</td><td>For paraffin sectioning</td></tr><tr><td>Toluidine Blue O</td><td>Thermo Scientific Chemicals</td><td>348601000</td><td>CAS#92-31-9</td></tr><tr><td>Volume Reduction Insert</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>3D printed from CAD files provided as Supplementary Files</td></tr><tr><td>Xylenes</td><td>Leica</td><td>3803665</td><td>4 gallon supply for histological staining</td></tr></tbody></table>

murine hind limb explant model for studying the mechanobiology of achilles tendon impingement

Tendon impingement upon bone generates a multiaxial mechanical strain environment with markedly elevated transverse compressive strain, which elicits a localized fibrocartilage phenotype characterized by accumulation of glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-rich matrix and remodeling of the collagen network. While fibrocartilage is a normal feature in impinged regions of healthy tendons, excess GAG deposition and disorganization of the collagen network are hallmark features of tendinopathy. Accordingly, impingement is clinically recognized as an important extrinsic factor in the initiation and progression of tendinopathy. Nevertheless, the mechanobiology underlying tendon impingement remains understudied. Prior efforts to elucidate the cellular response to tendon impingement have applied uniaxial compression to cells and excised tendon explants in vitro. However, isolated cells lack a three-dimensional extracellular environment crucial to mechanoresponse, and both in vitro and excised explant studies fail to recapitulate the multiaxial strain environment generated by tendon impingement in vivo, which depends on anatomical features of the impinged region. Moreover, in vivo models of tendon impingement lack control over the mechanical strain environment. To overcome these limitations, we present a novel murine hind limb explant model suitable for studying the mechanobiology of Achilles tendon impingement. This model maintains the Achilles tendon in situ to preserve local anatomy and reproduces the multiaxial strain environment generated by impingement of the Achilles tendon insertion upon the calcaneus during passively applied ankle dorsiflexion while retaining cells within their native environment. We describe a tissue culture protocol integral to this model and present data establishing sustained explant viability over 7 days. The representative results demonstrate enhanced histological GAG staining and decreased collagen fiber alignment secondary to impingement, suggesting elevated fibrocartilage formation. This model can easily be adapted to investigate different mechanical loading regimens and allows for the manipulation of molecular pathways of interest to identify mechanisms mediating phenotypic change in the Achilles tendon in response to impingement.

Representative images of TUNEL stained tissue sections demonstrate minimal apoptotic nuclei within the body of the Achilles tendon after 7 days of explant culture across experimental groups (Figure 2A). Quantification of these images provides evidence that the tissue culture protocol maintains up to 78% viability on average within the Achilles tendon after 7 days of explant culture across loading conditions (Figure 2B).
Qualitatively,...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Unraveling the Mechanobiology of Tendon Impingement – A Multiaxial Murine Hind Limb Explant Model at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Unraveling the Mechanobiology of Tendon Impingement &#8211; A Multiaxial Murine Hind Limb Explant Model 

We present a custom experimental platform and tissue culture protocol that recreates fibrocartilaginous change driven by impingement of the Achilles tendon insertion in murine hind limb explants with sustained cell viability, providing a model suitable for exploring the mechanobiology of tendon impingement.

Murine Hind Limb Explant Model for Studying the Mechanobiology of Achilles Tendon Impingement

Tendon impingement upon bone generates a multiaxial mechanical strain environment with markedly elevated transverse compressive strain, which elicits a ...

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895 Views.  University of Rochester. We bestuderen de mechanobiologie die ten grondslag ligt aan peesimpingement en het proces waarmee deze unieke mechanische vraag de vorming van gelokaliseerd vezelkraakbeen in gezondheid en ziekte stimuleert. Hier proberen we de matrix te karakteriseren voor modellering ten opzichte van ruimtelijk heterogene patronen van multiaxiale mechanische rek, gegenereerd door impingement en moleculaire mechanismen te identificeren die deze respons mediëren. In vitro modellen voor het bestuderen van imp...

Video: Auteur in de schijnwerpers: het ontrafelen van de mechanobiologie van peesimpingement - een multiaxiaal explantatiemodel voor de achterpoten van muizen 

Tissue Engineering of the Intestine in a Murine Model

Tissue-engineered small intestine (TESI) has successfully been used to rescue Lewis rats after massive small bowel resection, resulting in return to preoperative weights within 40 days.1 In humans, massive small bowel resection can result in short bowel syndrome, a functional malabsorptive state that confers significant morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs including parenteral nutrition dependence, liver failure and cirrhosis, and the need for multivisceral organ transplantation.2 In this paper, we describe and document our protocol for creating tissue-engineered intestine in a mouse model with a multicellular organoid units-on-scaffold approach. Organoid units are multicellular aggregates derived from the intestine that contain both mucosal and mesenchymal elements,3 the relationship between which preserves the intestinal stem cell niche.4 In ongoing and future research, the transition of our technique into the mouse will allow for investigation of the processes involved during TESI formation by utilizing the transgenic tools available in this species.5The availability of immunocompromised mouse strains will also permit us to apply the technique to human intestinal tissue and optimize the formation of human TESI as a mouse xenograft before its transition into humans. Our method employs good manufacturing practice (GMP) reagents and materials that have already been approved for use in human patients, and therefore offers a significant advantage over approaches that rely upon decellularized animal tissues. The ultimate goal of this method is its translation to humans as a regenerative medicine therapeutic strategy for short bowel syndrome.

This article and the accompanying video present our protocol for generating tissue-engineered intestine in the mouse, using an organoid units-on-scaffold approach.

Tissue-engineered small intestine (TESI) has successfully been used to rescue Lewis rats after massive small bowel resection, resulting in return to ...

A Novel Stretching Platform for Applications in Cell and Tissue Mechanobiology

Tools that allow the application of mechanical forces to cells and tissues or that can quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues have contributed dramatically to the understanding of basic mechanobiology. These techniques have been extensively used to demonstrate how the onset and progression of various diseases are heavily influenced by mechanical cues. This article presents a multi-functional biaxial stretching (BAXS) platform that can either mechanically stimulate single cells or quantify the mechanical stiffness of tissues. The BAXS platform consists of four voice coil motors that can be controlled independently. Single cells can be cultured on a flexible substrate that can be attached to the motors allowing one to expose the cells to complex, dynamic, and spatially varying strain fields. Conversely, by incorporating a force load cell, one can also quantify the mechanical properties of primary tissues as they are exposed to deformation cycles. In both cases, a proper set of clamps must be designed and mounted to the BAXS platform motors in order to firmly hold the flexible substrate or the tissue of interest. The BAXS platform can be mounted on an inverted microscope to perform simultaneous transmitted light and/or fluorescence imaging to examine the structural or biochemical response of the sample during stretching experiments. This article provides experimental details of the design and usage of the BAXS platform and presents results for single cell and whole tissue studies. The BAXS platform was used to measure the deformation of nuclei in single mouse myoblast cells in response to substrate strain and to measure the stiffness of isolated mouse aortas. The BAXS platform is a versatile tool that can be combined with various optical microscopies in order to provide novel mechanobiological insights at the sub-cellular, cellular and whole tissue levels.

We present in this article a novel stretching platform that can be used to investigate single cell responses to complex anisotropic biaxial mechanical deformation and quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues.

Tools that allow the application of mechanical forces to cells and tissues or that can quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues have ...

Concentric Gel System to Study the Biophysical Role of Matrix Microenvironment on 3D Cell Migration

The ability of cells to migrate is crucial in a wide variety of cell functions throughout life&#160;from embryonic development and wound healing&#160;to tumor and cancer metastasis. Despite intense research efforts, the basic biochemical and biophysical principles of cell migration are still not fully understood, especially in the physiologically relevant three-dimensional (3D) microenvironments. Here, we describe an in vitro assay designed to allow quantitative examination of 3D cell migration behaviors. The method exploits the cell&#8217;s mechanosensing ability and propensity to migrate into previously unoccupied extracellular matrix (ECM). We use the invasion of highly invasive breast cancer cells, MDA-MB-231, in collagen gels as a model system. The spread of cell population and the migration dynamics of individual cells over weeks of culture can be monitored using live-cell imaging and analyzed to extract spatiotemporally-resolved data. Furthermore, the method is easily adaptable for diverse extracellular matrices, thus offering a simple yet powerful way to investigate the role of biophysical factors in the microenvironment on cell migration.

The mechanical properties and microstructure of the extracellular matrix strongly affect 3D migration of cells. An in vitro method to study the spatiotemporal cell migration behavior in biophysically variable environments, at both population and individual cell levels, is described.

The ability of cells to migrate is crucial in a wide variety of cell functions throughout life&#160;from embryonic development and wound healing&#160;to ...

Composite Scaffolds of Interfacial Polyelectrolyte Fibers for Temporally Controlled Release of Biomolecules

Various scaffolds used in tissue engineering require a controlled biochemical environment to mimic the physiological cell niche. Interfacial polyelectrolyte complexation (IPC) fibers can be used for controlled delivery of various biological agents such as small molecule drugs, cells, proteins and growth factors. The simplicity of the methodology in making IPC fibers gives flexibility in its application for controlled biomolecule delivery. Here, we describe a method of incorporating IPC fibers into two different polymeric scaffolds, hydrophilic polysaccharide and hydrophobic polycaprolactone, to create a multi-component composite scaffold. We showed that IPC fibers can be easily embedded into these polymeric structures, enhancing the capability for sustained release and improved preservation of biomolecules. We also created a composite polymeric scaffold with topographical cues and sustained biochemical release that can have synergistic effects on cell behavior. Composite polymeric scaffolds with IPC fibers represent a novel and simple method of recreating the cellular niche.

Scaffolds for tissue engineering need to recapitulate the complex biochemical and biophysical microenvironment of the cellular niche. Here, we show the use of interfacial polyelectrolyte complexation fibers as a platform to create composite, multi-component polymeric scaffolds with sustained biochemical release.

Various scaffolds used in tissue engineering require a controlled biochemical environment to mimic the physiological cell niche. Interfacial ...

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and dampen loads in the spine. The IVD consists of a proteoglycan-rich nucleus pulposus (NP) and a collagen-rich annulus fibrosis (AF) sandwiched by cartilaginous end-plates. Together with the adjacent vertebrae, the vertebrae-IVD structure forms a functional spine unit (FSU). These microstructures contain unique cell types as well as unique extracellular matrices. Whole organ culture of the FSU preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell differentiation phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Thus, organ culture techniques are particularly useful for investigating the complex biological mechanisms of the IVD. Here, we describe a high-throughput approach for culturing whole lumbar mouse FSUs that provides an ideal platform for studying disease mechanisms and therapies for the IVD. Furthermore, we describe several applications that utilize this organ culture method to conduct further studies including contrast-enhanced microCT imaging and three-dimensional high-resolution finite element modeling of the IVD.

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Whole organ culture of the intervertebral disc (IVD) preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Here we describe an IVD culture system using mouse lumbar and caudal IVDs in their functional spinal units and several applications utilizing this system.

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and ...

Soft Lithographic Procedure for Producing Plastic Microfluidic Devices with View-ports Transparent to Visible and Infrared Light

Infrared (IR) spectro-microscopy of living biological samples is hampered by the absorption of water in the mid-IR range and by the lack of suitable microfluidic devices. Here, a protocol for the fabrication of plastic microfluidic devices is demonstrated, where soft lithographic techniques are used to embed transparent Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) view-ports in connection with observation chamber(s). The method is based on a replica casting approach, where a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) mold is produced through standard lithographic procedures and then used as the template to produce a plastic device. The plastic device features ultraviolet/visible/infrared (UV/Vis/IR) -transparent windows made of CaF2 to allow for direct observation with visible and IR light. The advantages of the proposed method include: a reduced need for accessing a clean room micro-fabrication facility, multiple view-ports, an easy and versatile connection to an external pumping system through the plastic body, flexibility of the design, e.g., open/closed channels configuration, and the possibility to add sophisticated features such as nanoporous membranes.

A protocol for the fabrication of plastic microfluidic devices with transparent view-ports for visible and infrared light imaging is described.

Infrared (IR) spectro-microscopy of living biological samples is hampered by the absorption of water in the mid-IR range and by the lack of suitable ...

Proper Positioning and Restraint of a Rat Hind Limb for Focused High Resolution Imaging of Bone Micro-architecture Using In Vivo Micro-computed Tomography

The use of in vivo micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) is a powerful tool which involves the non-destructive imaging of internal structures at high resolutions in live animal models. This allows for repeated imaging of the same rodent over time. This feature not only reduces the total number of rodents required in an experimental design and thereby reduces the inter-subject variation that can arise, but also allows researchers to assess longitudinal or life-long responses to an intervention. To acquire high quality images that can be processed and analyzed to more accurately quantify outcomes of bone micro-architecture, users of in vivo &#181;CT scanners must properly anesthetize the rat, and position and restrain the hind limb. To do this, it is imperative that the rat be anesthetized to a level of complete relaxation, and that pedal reflexes are lost. These guidelines may be modified for each individual rat, as the rate of isoflurane metabolism can vary depending on strain and body size. Proper technique for in vivo &#181;CT image acquisition enables accurate and consistent measurement of bone micro-architecture within and across studies.

Proper Positioning and Restraint of a Rat Hind Limb for Focused High Resolution Imaging of Bone Micro-architecture Using In Vivo Micro-computed Tomography

This paper instructs users of in vivo micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) scanners how to anesthetize, correctly position and restrain the hind limb of a rat for minimal movement during high-resolution imaging of the tibia. The result is high quality images that can be processed to accurately quantify bone micro-architecture.

The use of in vivo micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) is a powerful tool which involves the non-destructive imaging of internal structures at high ...

Biomechanical Testing of Murine Tendons

Tendon disorders are common, affect people of all ages, and are often debilitating. Standard treatments, such as anti-inflammatory drugs, rehabilitation, and surgical repair, often fail. In order to define tendon function and demonstrate efficacy of new treatments, the mechanical properties of tendons from animal models must be accurately determined. Murine animal models are now widely used to study tendon disorders and evaluate novel treatments for tendinopathies; however, determining the mechanical properties of mouse tendons has been challenging. In this study, a new system was developed for tendon mechanical testing that includes 3D-printed fixtures that exactly match the anatomies of the humerus and calcaneus to mechanically test supraspinatus tendons and Achilles tendons, respectively. These fixtures were developed using 3D reconstructions of native bone anatomy, solid modeling, and additive manufacturing. The new approach eliminated artifactual gripping failures (e.g., failure at the growth plate failure rather than in the tendon), decreased overall testing time, and increased reproducibility. Furthermore, this new method is readily adaptable for testing other murine tendons and tendons from other animals.

The protocol describes efficient and reproducible tensile biomechanical testing methods for murine tendons through the use of custom-fit 3D printed fixtures.

Tendon disorders are common, affect people of all ages, and are often debilitating. Standard treatments, such as anti-inflammatory drugs, rehabilitation, ...

Cyclic Mechanical Loading for Inducing Tendinopathy in Rat Achilles Tendon

A Passive Ankle Dorsiflexion Testing System for an In Vivo Model of Overuse-induced Tendinopathy

Tendinopathy is a chronic tendon condition that results in pain and loss of function and is caused by repeated overload of the tendon and limited recovery time. This protocol describes a testing system that cyclically applies mechanical loads via passive dorsiflexion to the rat Achilles tendon. The custom-written code consists of pre- and post-cyclic loading measurements to assess the effects of the loading protocol along with the feedback control-based cyclic fatigue loading regimen. 
We used 25 Sprague-Dawley rats for this study, with 5 rats per group receiving either 500, 1,000, 2,000, 3,600, or 7,200 cycles of fatigue loads. The percentage differences between the pre- and post-cyclic loading measurements of the hysteresis, peak stress, and loading and unloading moduli were calculated. The results demonstrate that the system can induce varying degrees of damage to the Achilles tendon based on the number of loads applied. This system offers an innovative approach to apply quantified and physiological varying degrees of cyclic loads to the Achilles tendon for an in vivo model of fatigue-induced overuse tendon injury.

Author Spotlight: Integrating Mechanical and Biological Analysis in Tendinopathy Research 

This protocol presents a testing system used to induce quantifiable and controlled fatigue injuries in a rat Achilles tendon for an in-vivo model of overuse-induced tendinopathy. The procedure consists of securing the rat's ankle to a joint actuator that performs passive ankle dorsiflexion with a custom-written MATLAB script.

Tendinopathy is a chronic tendon condition that results in pain and loss of function and is caused by repeated overload of the tendon and limited recovery ...

Fabricating Mouse Tendon Assembloids to Study Cellular Interactions in Disease

Engineering Tendon Assembloids to Probe Cellular Crosstalk in Disease and Repair

Tendons enable locomotion by transferring muscle forces to bones. They rely on a tough tendon core comprising collagen fibers and stromal cell populations. This load-bearing core is encompassed, nourished, and repaired by a synovial-like tissue layer comprising the extrinsic tendon compartment. Despite this sophisticated design, tendon injuries are common, and clinical treatment still relies on physiotherapy and surgery. The limitations of available experimental model systems have slowed the development of novel disease-modifying treatments and relapse-preventing clinical regimes. 
In vivo human studies are limited to comparing healthy tendons to end-stage diseased or ruptured tissues sampled during repair surgery and do not allow the longitudinal study of the underlying tendon disease. In vivo animal models also present important limits regarding opaque physiological complexity, the ethical burden on the animals, and large economic costs associated with their use. Further, in vivo animal models are poorly suited to systematic probing of drugs and multicellular, multi-tissue interaction pathways. Simpler in vitro model systems have also fallen short. One major reason is a failure to adequately replicate the three-dimensional mechanical loading necessary to meaningfully study tendon cells and their function. 
The new 3D model system presented here alleviates some of these issues by exploiting murine tail tendon core explants. Importantly, these explants are easily accessible in large numbers from a single mouse, retain 3D in situ loading patterns at the cellular level, and feature an in vivo-like extracellular matrix. In this protocol, step-by-step instructions are given on how to augment tendon core explants with collagen hydrogels laden with muscle-derived endothelial cells, tendon-derived fibroblasts, and bone marrow-derived macrophages to substitute disease- and injury-activated cell populations within the extrinsic tendon compartment. It is demonstrated how the resulting tendon assembloids can be challenged mechanically or through defined microenvironmental stimuli to investigate emerging multicellular crosstalk during disease and injury.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Tendon Research by Developing Mouse Assembloids to Understand Cellular Mechanisms

Here, we present an assembloid model system to mimic tendon cellular crosstalk between the load-bearing tendon core tissue and an extrinsic compartment containing cell populations activated by disease and injury. As an important use case, we demonstrate how the system can be deployed to probe disease-relevant activation of extrinsic endothelial cells.

Murine Hind Limb Explant Model for Studying the Mechanobiology of Achilles Tendon Impingement

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