This study was funded by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China 82101000 (H. W.), U21A20368 (L. Y.), and 82100982 (F. L.), and supported by Sichuan Science and Technology Program 2023NSFSC1499 (H. W.).

All animal procedures in this study were reviewed and approved by the Ethical Committee of the West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University (WCHSIRB-D-2021-597). Sprague-Dawley rats (male, body weight 300 g) were used for the present study.
1. Presurgical preparation
<ol>
	<li>Instrument preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Refer to Figure 1A for the surgical instruments used in this study: electric shaver, tissue scissors, ophthalmic scissors, ophthalmic forceps, disposable scalpel, periosteal separator, oral low-speed handpiece, oral probe, disposable irrigation vac, needle holder, 3.0 suture.</li>
		<li>Prepare an oral probe and mark the large curved end of the probe with a marker pen according to the diameter of the defect (Figure 1B). Use this to determine the size of the defect during the surgery.</li>
		<li>Sterilize all surgical materials and instruments used to perform the procedure before use. Pack the desired materials in folded cloth or wrapping paper and seal them with autoclave tape for steam sterilization (125-135&#176;C for 20-25 min).</li>
		<li>Surgical area preparation: Disinfect the operating table and the environment around the table by spraying with 75% alcohol. Create an approximately 60 cm x 90 cm sterile area with autoclaved drapes on the operating table.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Anesthesia preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize the rats intraperitoneally with 10% ketamine hydrochloride (50-100 mg/kg) and 2% xylazine 2 mg/kg). Use subcutaneous injection of carprofen (5 mg/kg) for preoperative and intraoperative analgesia. Examine the depth of anesthesia by toe pinch test. After anesthesia, apply sterile eye ointment to the eyes to prevent dry eyes and corneal injury.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Surgical procedure
<ol>
	<li>Place the rat in a lateral recumbency position on the sterile surgical table and remove the lower limb hairs with an electric shaver.</li>
	<li>Use 5% iodophor solution and 75% alcohol to disinfect the skin tissue in the surgical area.</li>
	<li>Locate the proximal and distal femur and make a 2.5 cm incision along the long axis of the femur to cut through the skin tissue of the rat.
	<ol>
		<li>Separate the skin layer from the fascia with ophthalmic forceps and tissue scissors, and expose the lateral approach to the femur through the biceps femoris and lateral femoral muscles.</li>
		<li>Locate the intersection of the two muscle septa (a white tissue line) and carefully separate with a disposable surgical blade along the muscle border until the femoral surface is reached. 
		NOTE: When using a disposable blade to separate the muscle, it is important to separate along the muscle septum and be careful of causing vascular injury within the soft tissue. Beginners and those unfamiliar with the anatomy must use ophthalmic forceps and periosteal separators in blunt dissection between the two muscle bulks.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Apply a periosteal separator to bluntly separate the femoral surface muscles and expose the middle of the femoral diaphysis.</li>
	<li>Use a sterile marker pen to mark the area of the defect site on the mid-surface of the femoral diaphysis, located at the top of the lateral 1/3 oblique crest of the femoral head.</li>
	<li>Use the oral low-speed handpiece with a 1.2 mm diameter slow-motion ball drill to drill a small hole perpendicular to the bone surface at the marked site, destroying the periosteum and the bone cortex with a depth deep enough to reach the bone marrow cavity. At this drilling depth level, expand the size of the hole parallel to this depth in all directions, trimming to achieve a box-cavity shape.</li>
	<li>Use a labeled oral probe parallel to the edge of the defect to determine the defect diameter and morphology during and after preparation.</li>
	<li>Close the muscle and skin layers with 3-0 monofilament absorbable sutures, respectively, and disinfect the surgical area with 5% iodophor from the inside out.</li>
</ol>
3. Post-operative care
<ol>
	<li>After surgery, administer carprofen (5 mg/kg) subcutaneously and put the rat on a constant temperature heating pad until recovery from anesthesia. When the rat regains consciousness, gently move it to a cage that contains dry, autoclaved bedding.</li>
	<li>Continue analgesia for 24 h and post-operative monitoring for 1 week after surgery.</li>
</ol>
4. Sample collection and analysis
<ol>
	<li>Humanly euthanize the rat after surgery by injecting pentobarbital sodium 100-200 mg/kg intraperitoneally. Carefully separate the muscle and fascial tissue on the surface of the femur and remove the femur on the operated side completely. Collect specimens at 0 days (Figure 2A, B), 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 6 weeks postoperatively.</li>
	<li>Fix the femoral specimens in 4% paraformaldehyde for 24 h. Analyze the structure of the femora by using micro-computed tomography. Set the scanning parameters as follows: X-ray tube potential, 70 kVp; filter, AL 0.5 mm; X-ray intensity, 0.2 mA; voxel size, 17 &#181;m; and integration time, 1 &#215; 300 ms. Reconstruct 3D model images using bitmap data.</li>
	<li>Decalcify the specimens in 10% EDTA for 8 weeks before dehydrating the femoral specimens in a graded series of ethanol dilutions. Then, embed the samples in paraffin wax15.
	<ol>
		<li>Cut the embedded samples into 5 &#181;m paraffin sections from the sagittal plane.</li>
		<li>Stain sections with both a hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) staining kit and a Masson staining kit. Observe the healing of the defect area by histopathology.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Establishment and Evaluation of a Rat Femoral Box: Cavity Defect Model

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C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fracture+healing:+mechanisms+and+interventions.">Fracture healing: mechanisms and interventions.</a> Nat Rev Rheumatol. 11 (1), 45-54 (2015).</li><li>Claes, L., Recknagel, S., Ignatius, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fracture+healing+under+healthy+and+inflammatory+conditions.">Fracture healing under healthy and inflammatory conditions.</a> Nat Rev Rheumatol. 8 (3), 133-143 (2012).</li><li>Holmes, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nonunion+bone+fracture:+a+quicker+fix.">Nonunion bone fracture: a quicker fix.</a> Nature. 550 (7677), S193 (2017).</li><li>Dimitriou, R., Jones, E., McGonagle, D., Giannoudis, P. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bone+regeneration:+current+concepts+and+future+directions.">Bone regeneration: current concepts and future directions.</a> BMC Med. 9, 66 (2011).</li><li>Schmidt, A. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autologous+bone+graft:+Is+it+still+the+gold+standard?+Injury.">Autologous bone graft: Is it still the gold standard? 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Massive+allograft+use+in+orthopedic+oncology.">Massive allograft use in orthopedic oncology.</a> Orthop Clin North Am. 37 (1), 65-74 (2006).</li><li>Yu, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomimetic+periosteum-bone+substitute+composed+of+preosteoblast-derived+matrix+and+hydrogel+for+large+segmental+bone+defect+repair.">Biomimetic periosteum-bone substitute composed of preosteoblast-derived matrix and hydrogel for large segmental bone defect repair.</a> Acta Biomater. 113, 317-327 (2020).</li><li>Pearce, A. I., Richards, R. G., Milz, S., Schneider, E., Pearce, S. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Animal+models+for+implant+biomaterial+research+in+bone:+a+review.">Animal models for implant biomaterial research in bone: a review.</a> Eur Cell Mater. 13, 1-10 (2007).</li><li>McGovern, J. A., Griffin, M., Hutmacher, D. 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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long+bone+defect+models+for+tissue+engineering+applications:+criteria+for+choice.">Long bone defect models for tissue engineering applications: criteria for choice.</a> Tissue Eng Part B Rev. 16 (2), 263-271 (2010).</li><li>Vajgel, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+systematic+review+on+the+critical+size+defect+model.">A systematic review on the critical size defect model.</a> Clin Oral Implants Res. 25 (8), 879-893 (2014).</li><li>Samsonraj, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+versatile+protocol+for+studying+calvarial+bone+defect+healing+in+a+mouse+model.">A versatile protocol for studying calvarial bone defect healing in a mouse model.</a> Tissue Eng Part C Methods. 23 (11), 686-693 (2017).</li><li>Yu, F., Li, F., Zheng, L., Ye, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epigenetic+controls+of+Sonic+hedgehog+guarantee+fidelity+of+epithelial+adult+stem+cells+trajectory+in+regeneration.">Epigenetic controls of Sonic hedgehog guarantee fidelity of epithelial adult stem cells trajectory in regeneration.</a> Sci Adv. 8 (29), eabn4977 (2022).</li><li>Colnot, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Skeletal+cell+fate+decisions+within+periosteum+and+bone+marrow+during+bone+regeneration.">Skeletal cell fate decisions within periosteum and bone marrow during bone regeneration.</a> J Bone Miner Res. 24 (2), 274-282 (2009).</li><li>Bhandari, M., Shaughnessy, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+minimally+invasive+percutaneous+technique+of+intramedullary+nail+insertion+in+an+animal+model+of+fracture+healing.">A minimally invasive percutaneous technique of intramedullary nail insertion in an animal model of fracture healing.</a> Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 121 (10), 591-593 (2001).</li><li>Muschler, G. 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All the original data and images are included in this paper. Authors declare no conflict of interest

Preclinical animal models are vital for examining bone healing and the influence of biomaterials on bone regeneration. This protocol illustrates a femoral box-cavity defect model replicating the intramembranous bone formation process associated with clinical bone regeneration. The defect area was intraoperatively standardized using a pre-marked oral probe. Micro-CT and histopathological staining results showed progressive healing over 6 weeks, with thickened periosteum and new trabecular bone formation, followed by dense...

Fractured and defective bone often results from trauma, tumors, inflammation, and congenital malformations1,2. Although bone tissue in young healthy individuals typically possesses robust regenerative abilities3, defects exceeding a critical size or healing impediments due to systemic diseases (e.g., diabetes, osteoporosis, and infections) may still lead to complications such as bone discontinuity or impaired healing4. To address this clinical challenge, bone grafting or biomaterials are commonly used to replace severely defective bone or to reconstruct large bone segments. However, these treatments have limitations. For instance, although considered the gold standard, autologous bone grafting suffers from restricted donor supply and potential donor site complications5,6. Allografts also present certain risks, such as immune-mediated rejection, potential transmission of diseases, and negative impacts on the biomechanical and biological properties of the graft7.
Recent years have witnessed a surge in research focusing on bone defect healing mechanisms. The use of alternative biomaterials and advancements in tissue engineering have emerged as prominent topics within the domain of bone regeneration8. Before these biomaterials can be applied to human therapy, they must be tested in vitro and in vivo to ensure their efficacy and safety. However, the reduced complexity of in vitro environments and the absence of immune and inflammatory responses limit the evaluation of various biomaterials in vitro. Consequently, the establishment of animal models for various types of bone tissue defects is needed9. Animal models allow the evaluation of biomaterials under different loading conditions, facilitate understanding of species-specific bone characteristics, and provide insight into the similarity between animal models and human clinical situations. These advantages are essential for studying bone-scaffold interactions and translating research findings into clinical practice9,10.
Currently, mechanical bone defect animal models are widely used to validate the performance of biomaterials, with cranial bone defect models and segmental bone defect models being the most commonly applied methods11. Segmental bone defect models, often utilized to mimic severe long bone or tibial trauma ending in bone nonunion, are advantageous due to their uniform dimensions and defined anatomical positions, simplifying radiological or histological evaluations of new bone formation and revascularization. However, these models require metal implants to stabilize bilateral fracture segments and necessitate a complex healing process involving both endochondral and intramembranous ossification12. On the other hand, calvarial bone defect models have become a primary screening tool for evaluating biomaterials due to their standardized defect diameters, convenient surgical access, and the supportive function of dura mater and soft tissue13. Although they are widely used for modeling intramembranous bone formation in clinically relevant scenarios, they are unsuitable for evaluating bone healing under biomechanical loading conditions due to their non-load-bearing nature during the healing process14.
To address these limitations, we established a box-cavity cortical bone defect model in the femoral diaphysis tissue of rats. Utilizing micro-computed tomography (CT) three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction, and histopathological staining (Hematoxylin and eosin [HE] and Masson), we analyzed the healing process of this model under hemostasis conditions. We aim to offer fresh insights for evaluating biomaterial performance under biomechanical loading conditions and for studying the bioengineering and mechanism of bone regeneration vis-&#224;-vis intramembranous ossification.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.2 mm slow speed ball drill</td>
			<td>Dreybird Medical Equipment Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>RA3-012</td>
			<td>For preparation of box cavity defects</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3.0 suture</td>
			<td>Chengdu Shifeng Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>For suturing wounds</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4% paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Biosharp</td>
			<td>BL539A</td>
			<td>For fix the femoral specimens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cotton balls</td>
			<td>Haishi Hainuo Group Co.,&#160; Ltd.</td>
			<td>20120047</td>
			<td>For skin sterilization and cleaning of surgical field</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cotton sticks</td>
			<td>Lakong Medical Devices Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>M6500R</td>
			<td>For skin disinfection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dental technician grinding machine</td>
			<td>Marathon</td>
			<td>N3-140232</td>
			<td>For preparation of box cavity defects</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable scalpel</td>
			<td>Hangzhou Huawei Medical Supplies Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>20100227</td>
			<td>For creating skin incisions as well as to sharply separate muscle tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electric shaver</td>
			<td>JASE</td>
			<td>BM320210</td>
			<td>Removal of hair tissue from the surgical area</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin and Eosin Stain kit</td>
			<td>Biosharp</td>
			<td>C1005</td>
			<td>For the histological analysis of the specimens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Masson&#8217;s Trichrome Stain Kit</td>
			<td>Solarbio</td>
			<td>G1340</td>
			<td>For the histological analysis of the specimens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro CT</td>
			<td>Scanco medical ag</td>
			<td>&#181;CT 45</td>
			<td>For analyzing the healing of defects in femoral samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle holder</td>
			<td>Chengdu Shifeng Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>For suture-holding needles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Olympus Research Grade Whole Slide Scanning System VS200</td>
			<td>Chengdu Knowledge Technology Co.</td>
			<td>VS200</td>
			<td>For analyzing the results of HE staining and Masson staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic forceps</td>
			<td>Chengdu Shifeng Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>For clamping skin, muscle tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic scissors</td>
			<td>Chengdu Shifeng Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>For forming a skin incision approach</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oral low-speed handpiece</td>
			<td>Marathon</td>
			<td>Y221101003</td>
			<td>For preparation of box cavity defects</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oral probe</td>
			<td>Shanghai Sangda Medical Insurance Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>20000143</td>
			<td>For measuring the diameter of defects</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Periosteal separator</td>
			<td>Chengdu Shifeng Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>For blunt separation of muscle tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sprague&#8211;Dawley rats</td>
			<td>Byrness Weil Biotech Ltd</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>For the establishment of femoral bone boxy cavitary defect</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue scissors</td>
			<td>Chengdu Shifeng Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>For forming a skin incision approach</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

creating a box-cavity defect model in the cortical bone of rat femora

Severe bone defects or complex fractures can result in serious complications such as nonunion or insufficient bone healing. Tissue engineering, which involves the application of cells, scaffolds, and cytokines, is considered a promising solution for bone regeneration. Consequently, various animal models that simulate bone defects play a crucial role in exploring the therapeutic potential of tissue engineering for bone healing. In this study, we established a box-shaped cortical bone defect model in the mid-femur of rats, which could serve as an ideal model for assessing the function of biomaterials in promoting bone healing. This box-shaped cortical bone defect was drilled using an oral low-speed handpiece and shaped by a lathe needle. Post-operative micro-CT analysis was immediately conducted to confirm the successful establishment of the box-cavity cortical bone defect. The femurs on the operated side of the rats were then harvested at multiple time points post-surgery (0 days, 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 6 weeks). The healing process of each sample&#39;s defect area was evaluated using micro-CT, hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) staining, and Masson trichrome staining. These results demonstrated a healing pattern consistent with intramembranous ossification, with healing essentially complete by 6 weeks. The categorization of this animal model&#39;s healing process provides an effective in vivo method for investigating novel biomaterials and drugs that target intramembranous ossification during bone tissue defect healing.

In this protocol, we successfully establish a rat femoral box-cavity defect model with dimensions of 4.5 mm x 1.5 mm by drilling. In order to analyze the healing process, we collected the femoral tissue on the operated side at 0 days, 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 6 weeks after surgery, which are the key time points of endochondral ossification, intramembranous ossification, and bone remodeling during the healing process of femoral trauma in rats2. On post-operative day 0,...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Creating a Box-Cavity Defect Model in the Cortical Bone of Rat Femora at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: The Box-Cavity Cortical Approach for Enhanced Evaluation of Biomaterials and Bone Regeneration

Here, we present a protocol for creating a box-cavity defect in rat femoral diaphysis tissue. This model can assess biomaterial performance under biomechanical stress and explore mechanisms of bone regeneration related to intramembranous osteogenesis.

Creating a Box-Cavity Defect Model in the Cortical Bone of Rat Femora

Severe bone defects or complex fractures can result in serious complications such as nonunion or insufficient bone healing. Tissue engineering, which ...

Various animal models with bone defects are applied in exploring the therapeutic potential of tissue engineering for bone healing. However, most of them are unable to generate standard defects under biomechanical loading conditions, which is important in evaluating the bone healing effect of bio materials. Compared to traditional bone defect models, the recent box cavity cortical bone defect model offers significant advancements.It not only provides a standardized bone defect size for more accurate quantification of bone healing, but also allows for the assessment of bio materials under biomechanical loading conditions without the need for additional fixation. Our protocol provides a comprehensive and generalizable approach for investigating intramembranous bone formation within in vivo study of bone regeneration models. This is particularly beneficial for the field of bone tissue engineering.

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583 Views.  West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University. Various animal models with bone defects are applied in exploring the therapeutic potential of tissue engineering for bone healing. However, most of them are unable to generate standard defects under biomechanical loading conditions, which is important in evaluating the bone healing effect of bio materials. Compared to traditional bone defect models, the recent box cavity cortical bone defect model offers significant advancements.It not only provides a standardized bone defect size for ...

Video: Author Spotlight: The Box-Cavity Cortical Approach for Enhanced Evaluation of Biomaterials and Bone Regeneration

Multi-modal Imaging of Angiogenesis in a Nude Rat Model of Breast Cancer Bone Metastasis Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Volumetric Computed Tomography and Ultrasound

Angiogenesis is an essential feature of cancer growth and metastasis formation. In bone metastasis, angiogenic factors are pivotal for tumor cell proliferation in the bone marrow cavity as well as for interaction of tumor and bone cells resulting in local bone destruction. Our aim was to develop a model of experimental bone metastasis that allows in vivo assessment of angiogenesis in skeletal lesions using non-invasive imaging techniques.
For this purpose, we injected 105 MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells into the superficial epigastric artery, which precludes the growth of metastases in body areas other than the respective hind leg1. Following 25-30 days after tumor cell inoculation, site-specific bone metastases develop, restricted to the distal femur, proximal tibia and proximal fibula1. Morphological and functional aspects of angiogenesis can be investigated longitudinally in bone metastases using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), volumetric computed tomography (VCT) and ultrasound (US).
MRI displays morphologic information on the soft tissue part of bone metastases that is initially confined to the bone marrow cavity and subsequently exceeds cortical bone while progressing. Using dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) functional data including regional blood volume, perfusion and vessel permeability can be obtained and quantified2-4. Bone destruction is captured in high resolution using morphological VCT imaging. Complementary to MRI findings, osteolytic lesions can be located adjacent to sites of intramedullary tumor growth. After contrast agent application, VCT angiography reveals the macrovessel architecture in bone metastases in high resolution, and DCE-VCT enables insight in the microcirculation of these lesions5,6. US is applicable to assess morphological and functional features from skeletal lesions due to local osteolysis of cortical bone. Using B-mode and Doppler techniques, structure and perfusion of the soft tissue metastases can be evaluated, respectively. DCE-US allows for real-time imaging of vascularization in bone metastases after injection of microbubbles7.
In conclusion, in a model of site-specific breast cancer bone metastases multi-modal imaging techniques including MRI, VCT and US offer complementary information on morphology and functional parameters of angiogenesis in these skeletal lesions.

In the pathogenesis of bone metastasis, angiogenesis is a crucial process and therefore represents a target for imaging and therapy. Here, we present a rat model of site-specific breast cancer bone metastasis and describe strategies to non-invasively image angiogenesis in vivo using magnetic resonance imaging, volumetric computed tomography and ultrasound.

Angiogenesis is an essential feature of cancer growth and metastasis formation. In bone metastasis, angiogenic factors are pivotal for tumor cell ...

A Model of Chronic Nutrient Infusion in the Rat

Chronic exposure to excessive levels of nutrients is postulated to affect the function of several organs and tissues and to contribute to the development of the many complications associated with obesity and the metabolic syndrome, including type 2 diabetes. To study the mechanisms by which excessive levels of glucose and fatty acids affect the pancreatic beta-cell and the secretion of insulin, we have established a chronic nutrient infusion model in the rat. The procedure consists of catheterizing the right jugular vein and left carotid artery under general anesthesia; allowing a 7-day recuperation period; connecting the catheters to the pumps using a swivel and counterweight system that enables the animal to move freely in the cage; and infusing glucose and/or Intralipid (a soybean oil emulsion which generates a mixture of approximately 80% unsaturated/20% saturated fatty acids when infused with heparin) for 72 hr. This model offers several advantages, including the possibility to finely modulate the target levels of circulating glucose and fatty acids; the option to co-infuse pharmacological compounds; and the relatively short time frame as opposed to dietary models. It can be used to examine the mechanisms of nutrient-induced dysfunction in a variety of organs and to test the effectiveness of drugs in this context.

A protocol for chronic infusions of glucose and Intralipid in rats is described. This model can be used to study the impact of nutrient excess on organ function and physiological parameters.

Chronic exposure to excessive levels of nutrients is postulated to  affect the function of several organs and tissues and to contribute to the  ...

Adjustable Stiffness, External Fixator for the Rat Femur Osteotomy and Segmental Bone Defect Models

The mechanical environment around the healing of broken bone is very important as it determines the way the fracture will heal. Over the past decade there has been great clinical interest in improving bone healing by altering the mechanical environment through the fixation stability around the lesion. One constraint of preclinical animal research in this area is the lack of experimental control over the local mechanical environment within a large segmental defect as well as osteotomies as they heal. In this paper we report on the design and use of an external fixator to study the healing of large segmental bone defects or osteotomies. This device not only allows for controlled axial stiffness on the bone lesion as it heals, but it also enables the change of stiffness during the healing process in vivo. The conducted experiments have shown that the fixators were able to maintain a 5 mm femoral defect gap in rats in vivo during unrestricted cage activity for at least 8 weeks. Likewise, we observed no distortion or infections, including pin infections during the entire healing period. These results demonstrate that our newly developed external fixator was able to achieve reproducible and standardized stabilization, and the alteration of the mechanical environment of in vivo rat large bone defects and various size osteotomies. This confirms that the external fixation device is well suited for preclinical research investigations using a rat model in the field of bone regeneration and repair.

One constraint of preclinical research in the field of bone repair is the lack of experimental control over the local mechanical environment within a healing bone lesion. We report the design and use of an external fixator for bone repair with the ability to change fixator stiffness in vivo.

The mechanical environment around the healing of broken bone is very important as it determines the way the fracture will heal. Over the past decade there ...

A Simple Critical-sized Femoral Defect Model in Mice

While bone has a remarkable capacity for regeneration, serious bone trauma often results in damage that does not properly heal. In fact, one tenth of all limb bone fractures fail to heal completely due to the extent of the trauma, disease, or age of the patient. Our ability to improve bone regenerative strategies is critically dependent on the ability to mimic serious bone trauma in test animals, but the generation and stabilization of large bone lesions is technically challenging. In most cases, serious long bone trauma is mimicked experimentally by establishing a defect that will not naturally heal. This is achieved by complete removal of a bone segment that is larger than 1.5 times the diameter of the bone cross-section. The bone is then stabilized with a metal implant to maintain proper orientation of the fracture edges and allow for mobility. 
Due to their small size and the fragility of their long bones, establishment of such lesions in mice are beyond the capabilities of most research groups. As such, long bone defect models are confined to rats and larger animals. Nevertheless, mice afford significant research advantages in that they can be genetically modified and bred as immune-compromised strains that do not reject human cells and tissue.
Herein, we demonstrate a technique that facilitates the generation of a segmental defect in mouse femora using standard laboratory and veterinary equipment. With practice, fabrication of the fixation device and surgical implantation is feasible for the majority of trained veterinarians and animal research personnel. Using example data, we also provide methodologies for the quantitative analysis of bone healing for the model.

Animal models are frequently employed to mimic serious bone injury in biomedical research. Due to their small size, establishment of stabilized bone lesions in mice are beyond the capabilities of most research groups. Herein, we describe a simple method for establishing and analyzing experimental femoral defects in mice.

While bone has a remarkable capacity for regeneration, serious bone trauma often results in damage that does not properly heal. In fact, one tenth of all ...

Establishment of a Segmental Femoral Critical-size Defect Model in Mice Stabilized by Plate Osteosynthesis

The use of tissue-engineered bone constructs is an appealing strategy to overcome drawbacks of autografts for the treatment of massive bone defects. As a model organism, the mouse has already been widely used in bone-related research. Large diaphyseal bone defect models in mice, however, are sparse and often use bone fixation which fills the bone marrow cavity and does not provide optimal mechanical stability. The objectives of the current study were to develop a critical-size, segmental, femoral defect in nude mice. A 3.5-mm mid-diaphyseal femoral ostectomy (approximately 25% of the femur length) was performed using a dedicated jig, and was stabilized with an anterior located locking plate and 4 locking screws. The bone defect was subsequently either left empty or filled with a bone substitute (syngenic bone graft or coralline scaffold). Bone healing was monitored noninvasively using radiography and in vivo micro-computed-tomography and was subsequently assessed by ex vivo micro-computed-tomography and undecalcified histology after animal sacrifice, 10 weeks postoperatively. The recovery of all mice was excellent, a full-weight-bearing was observed within one day following the surgical procedure. Furthermore, stable bone fixation and consistent fixation of the implanted materials were achieved in all animals tested throughout the study. When the bone defects were left empty, non-union was consistently obtained. In contrast, when the bone defects were filled with syngenic bone grafts, bone union was always observed. When the bone defects were filled with coralline scaffolds, newly-formed bone was observed in the interface between bone resection edges and the scaffold, as well as within a short distance within the scaffold. 
The present model describes a reproducible critical-size femoral defect stabilized by plate osteosynthesis with low morbidity in mice. The new load-bearing segmental bone defect model could be useful for studying the underlying mechanisms in bone regeneration pertinent to orthopaedic applications.

Although mouse models are invaluable tools for bone tissue engineering, models of long bone defects are sparse. This need motivated development of the present protocol which uses a locking plate with four screws and a dedicated jig to perform and stabilize a reproducible, femoral, critical-size defect with low morbidity.

The use of tissue-engineered bone constructs is an appealing strategy to overcome drawbacks of autografts for the treatment of massive bone defects. As a ...

Isometric Contractility Measurement of the Mouse Mesenteric Artery Using Wire Myography

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and drugs. It is widely used in many studies on the physiological functions of vascular smooth muscle, the pathogenesis of vascular diseases such as hypertension, and the development of smooth muscle relaxant drugs. The mouse is a widely used model animal with a large pool of disease models and genetically modified strains. We introduced this method to measure the isometric contraction of mouse mesenteric artery in detail. A 1.4-mm segment of mouse mesenteric resistance artery was isolated and mounted on a myograph chamber by passing two steel wires through its lumen. After equilibration and normalization steps, the vessel segment was potentiated by a high-K+ solution twice prior to the contraction assay. As an example of the application of this method in drug development, we measured the relaxant effect of a novel natural substance, neoliensinine, isolated from a Chinese herb, embryos of the lotus seed (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) on mouse mesenteric arteries. The vessel segments mounted on the myograph chamber were stimulated with a high-K+ solution. When the force tension reached a stable sustained phase, cumulative doses of neoliensinine were added to the chamber. We found that neoliensinine had a dose-dependent relaxant effect on smooth muscle contraction, thus suggesting that it bears potential activity against hypertension. In addition, as the vessel segment can survive at least 4 hours after mounting and maintain contractility induced by the high-K+ solution for many times, we suggest that the wire myograph system may be used for the time-consuming process of drug screening.

The wire myograph technique is used to investigate vascular smooth muscle functions and screen new drugs. We report a detailed protocol for measuring the isometric contractility of the mouse mesenteric artery and for screening new relaxants of vascular smooth muscle.

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and ...

Using a Knee Arthrometer to Evaluate Tissue-specific Contributions to Knee Flexion Contracture in the Rat

Normal knee range of motion (ROM) is critical to well-being and allows one to perform basic activities such as walking, climbing stairs and sitting. Lost ROM is called a joint contracture and results in increased morbidity. Due to the difficulty of reversing established knee contractures, early detection is important, and hence, knowing risk factors for their development is essential. The rat represents a good model with which the effect of an intervention can be studied due to the similarity of rat knee anatomy to that of humans, the rat's ability to tolerate long durations of knee immobilization in flexion, and because mechanical data can be correlated with histologic and biochemical analysis of knee tissue.
Using an automated arthrometer, we demonstrate a validated, precise, reproducible, user-independent method of measuring the extension ROM of the rat knee joint at specific torques. This arthrometer can be used to determine the effects of interventions on knee joint ROM in the rat.

The goal of the protocol is to measure the extension range of motion of the rat knee. The effects of various diseases that increase the stiffness of the knee joint and the effectiveness of treatments can be quantified.

Normal knee range of motion (ROM) is critical to well-being and allows one to perform basic activities such as walking, climbing stairs and sitting. Lost ...

The Generation of Closed Femoral Fractures in Mice: A Model to Study Bone Healing

Bone fractures impose a tremendous socio-economic burden on patients, in addition to significantly affecting their quality of life. Therapeutic strategies that promote efficient bone healing are non-existent and in high demand. Effective and reproducible animal models of fractures healing are needed to understand the complex biological processes associated with bone regeneration. Many animal models of fracture healing have been generated over the years; however, murine fracture models have recently emerged as powerful tools to study bone healing. A variety of open and closed models have been developed, but the closed femoral fracture model stands out as a simple method for generating rapid and reproducible results in a physiologically relevant manner. The goal of this surgical protocol is to generate unilateral closed femoral fractures in mice and facilitate a post-fracture stabilization of the femur by inserting an intramedullary steel rod. Although devices such as a nail or a screw offer greater axial and rotational stability, the use of an intramedullary rod provides a sufficient stabilization for consistent healing outcomes without producing new defects in the bone tissue or damaging nearby soft tissue. Radiographic imaging is used to monitor the progression of callus formation, bony union, and subsequent remodeling of the bony callus. Bone healing outcomes are typically associated with the strength of the healed bone and measured with torsional testing. Still, understanding the early cellular and molecular events associated with fracture repair is critical in the study of bone tissue regeneration. The closed femoral fracture model in mice with intramedullary fixation serves as an attractive platform to study bone fracture healing and evaluate therapeutic strategies to accelerate healing.

The murine closed femoral fracture model is a powerful platform to study fracture healing and novel therapeutic strategies to accelerate bone regeneration. The goal of this surgical protocol is to generate unilateral closed femoral fractures in mice using an intramedullary steel rod to stabilize the femur.

Bone fractures impose a tremendous socio-economic burden on patients, in addition to significantly affecting their quality of life. Therapeutic strategies ...

Acupuncture in a Rat Model of Asthma

A high platform can fix rats without restriction and completely expose the acupoints on the back during acupuncture manipulation. This article describes methods for the fabrication of the high platform, establishes a rat model of asthma and measures changes in respiratory function using a noninvasive and real-time whole-body plethysmography (WBP) system.

A high platform can fix rats without restriction and completely expose the acupoints on the back during acupuncture manipulation. This article describes ...

Retinal Pathophysiological Evaluation in a Rat Model

A posterior segment eye disease like diabetic retinopathy alters the physiology of the retina. Diabetic retinopathy is characterized by a retinal detachment, breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB), and retinal angiogenesis. An in vivo rat model is a valuable experimental tool to examine the changes in the structure and function of the retina. We propose three different experimental techniques in the rat model to identify morphological changes of retinal cells, retinal vasculature, and compromised BRB. Retinal histology is used to study the morphology of various retinal cells. Also, quantitative measurement is performed by retinal cell count and thickness measurement of different retinal layers. A BRB breakdown assay is used to determine the leakage of extraocular proteins from the plasma to vitreous tissue due to the breakdown of BRB. Fluorescence angiography is used to study angiogenesis and leakage of blood vessels by visualizing retinal vasculature using FITC-dextran dye.

Diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of blindness. Histology, blood-retinal barrier breakdown assay, and fluorescence angiography are valuable techniques to understand the pathophysiology of the retina, which could further enhance the efficient drug screening against diabetic retinopathy.