This work was supported by a fellowship of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and National Science Foundation to R.G, and funds awarded to S.M. by the National Institutes of Health (Grant R01-HL98416) and the American Heart Association (Grant 09BGIA2450014).

1. Culturing a Cell Monolayer in Transwell Inserts
<ol>
	<li>In a sterile, biosafety level 2 cell culture hood, place 0.8 mm&#160;pore PET transwell inserts into a 24-well plate (4 wells per condition, for statistical significance) with forceps. All materials entering the hood should be sterilized with ethanol.</li>
</ol>
Note: The pore size of the filter needs to be selected in accord to the mean size of the NC used, to allow transport across the membrane. Also, for statistically significant results, each experimental condition requires a minimum of four repeats (wells) within the same experiment, and a minimum of 3 independent experiments.
<ol start="2">
	<li>Prepare cell culture medium containing DMEM medium supplemented with 4.5 g/L glucose, 15% fetal bovine serum, and 1% Pen Strep, and heat to 37 &#176;C in a water bath.</li>
	<li>Dilute human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells in cell medium and place 200-400 &#956;l of the cell solution into the upper (apical) chamber of the transwell insert, at a density of 1.5 x 105 cells/cm2. Fill the lower (basolateral) chamber with 700 - 900 &#956;l of cell medium.</li>
	<li>Culture cells at 37 &#176;C, 5% CO2, and 95% humidity for 16-21 days, replacing the medium in the upper and lower chamber every 3-4 days, using the volumes indicated in step 1.3. Replace medium in the following order to maintain the pressure above (rather than below) the cell monolayer: aspirate the medium from the lower chamber, aspirate the medium from the upper chamber, fill the upper chamber with fresh medium, and fill the lower chamber with fresh medium.</li>
</ol>
2. Validation of the GI Epithelial Permeability Barrier Using Transepithelial Electrical Resistance (TEER) and Immunostaining of Tight Junctions
<ol>
	<li>For short-term storage (less than 2 weeks), submerge STX100 electrodes in an electrolyte solution (0.1-0.15 M KCl or NaCl). Connect the electrode cable to the electrode port on the EVOM volt-ohm meter so that the system is internally short-circuited and electrode symmetry is maintained. For long-term storage, rinse with dH2O and store in a dry, dark condition.</li>
	<li>To sterilize the electrodes, immerse in ethanol for 15 min and allow to air dry for 15 sec. Alternatively, the electrodes can be stored in a UV hood. Rinse the electrodes in a sterile electrolyte solution (phosphate buffer saline, PBS) or 0.1-0.15 M KCl or NaCl solution, before each resistance measurement.</li>
	<li>With the volt-ohm meter set to the resistance setting, vertically place electrodes in a well containing the transwell insert, with the short electrode in the upper chamber and the long electrode in the lower chamber touching the bottom of the well. Once the EVOM reading stabilizes, record the resistance value (given in ohms; &#937;) for each well.</li>
	<li>Calculate resistivity (resistance normalized to area; &#937;&#215;cm2) of samples by subtracting background resistance (TEER of transwell inserts without cells) and multiplying by membrane surface area. Resistivity values are most often reported in the literature. (See Discussion)</li>
	<li>Repeat measurements every 1-2 days until TEER values rise to a maximum and plateau, indicating formation of a permeability barrier, which typically takes 2-3 weeks from the moment of cell platting. Plateau TEER values and time necessary to achieve barrier integrity may vary according to cell passage number.</li>
	<li>To verify the presence of tight junctions in cell monolayers with high TEER (equal to or above the threshold value for barrier formation), fix cells by incubation with cold 2% paraformaldehyde for 15 min. Then, wash cells with PBS and incubate them for 30 min at room temperature with 1 &#956;g/ml anti-occludin. Wash cells again with PBS and incubate them for 30 min at room temperature with 7.5 &#956;g/ml fluorescently-labeled secondary antibodies. Use wells with low TEER as a negative control for barrier formation.</li>
</ol>
Note: As a substitute for anti-occludin, antibodies to alternative tight junction proteins may be used.
<ol start="7">
	<li>Carefully excise the filter membrane on which the fixed monolayer is attached, and mount onto slides for imaging using epifluorescence or confocal microscopy.</li>
</ol>
3. Evaluating Transepithelial Transport of Targeted Carriers
<ol>
	<li>Label the targeting antibody (mouse monoclonal antibody against ICAM-1, anti-ICAM, in this example) with 125I, as previously described7. Use Bradford assay to estimate protein concentration and a gamma counter to determine 125I content on the antibody, then calculate the specific activity in counts per minute (CPM)/mg of labeled antibody.</li>
</ol>
Note: To control for specificity, repeat the procedure by labeling mouse IgG, which will be used to prepare non-targeted coated NCs. To study transport of a therapeutic cargo, repeat the procedure labeling the cargo, e.g, alpha-Galactosidase (&#945;-Gal) in this example. Alternatives may be used for the targeting agent, non-specific control, or therapeutic cargo. Alternative methods may also be used to label compounds and estimate the concentration of the labeled counterparts.
<ol start="2">
	<li>Couple the labeled targeting antibody (anti-ICAM in our example) to the surface of NCs. In this example, incubate polystyrene nanobeads (100-nm diameter) for 1 hr at room temperature with 125I-anti-ICAM to allow surface adsorption, as described7.</li>
</ol>
Note: For the non-specific control use 125I-IgG. To trace transport of a cargo, use a combination of targeting antibody and 125I-labeled cargo (&#945;-Gal in our example).
<ol start="3">
	<li>Centrifuge at 13,000 x g for 3 min and remove the non-coated counterparts in the supernatant by aspiration. Resuspend the pellet containing coated NCs using 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in PBS by pipetting, and sonicate at low power to disrupt potential particle aggregates (20-30 brief pulses).</li>
	<li>For NC characterization, measure size, polydispersity, and &#950;-potential of coated particles using dynamic light scattering (following vendor instructions), and quantify the number of 125I-labeled targeting antibody molecules (e.g.&#160;anti-ICAM) on the particle surface using a gamma counter.</li>
</ol>
Note: These methods can be repeated for non-specific and therapeutic counterparts. The size of coated particles ranges around 200&#160;nm.
<ol start="5">
	<li>Add 125I-antibody NCs, (e.g.&#160;125I-anti-ICAM NCs; 56 nCi/ml) to the upper chamber above confluent Caco-2 monolayers with TEER &#8805;350 &#937;&#215;cm2 (see Discussion) over background (16-21 days post-seeding). Incubate at 37 &#176;C for one or more desired time intervals. Measure TEER (Section 2.3) before and after incubation to assess the effects of NCs on the permeability barrier.</li>
</ol>
Note: This procedure can be repeated for non-specific and therapeutic counterparts.
<ol start="6">
	<li>Collect medium from the upper and lower chambers and wash them once with 0.5 ml DMEM at 37 &#176;C (upper chamber) or 1 ml dH2O (lower chamber). Collect the washes for measurement of total radioisotope content using a gamma counter.</li>
	<li>For measurement of the cell fraction, excise the permeable filter, e.g.&#160;using a razor blade to cut around the edges, and incubate in a gamma counter tube with 1% Triton X-100 for 10 min (to release cell contents), before measuring cell-associated total radioactivity.</li>
	<li>To measure 125I released from NCs during transport or due to potential degradation, first mix 300 &#956;l of sample (from the upper, lower, or cell fractions) with 700 &#956;l of 3% BSA in PBS and 200 &#956;l trichloroacetic acid (TCA). Incubate at room temperature for 15 min. Meanwhile this time, measure the total radioactivity of this sample in a gamma counter.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge TCA samples at 3,000 x g for 5 min to separate intact protein (pellet) from the degraded protein or 125I fraction (supernatant). Quantify the radioactivity of the free125I fraction and subtract this value from total radioactivity measured before centrifugation. This will provide the amount of labeled-protein that is not degraded.</li>
</ol>
4. Mechanism of Transepithelial Transport of Targeted Nanocarriers
<ol>
	<li>Label albumin with 125I as described in Section 3.1 and previously reported7.</li>
</ol>
Note: Albumin is a 66.5 kDa protein and, hence, a relatively large substance. Although a valid control for passive transport of larger objects (e.g.&#160;200&#160;nm NCs used here), it should be substituted with smaller inert tracer molecules when studying transport of smaller drug carriers (see Discussion).
<ol start="2">
	<li>To assess paracellular transport using albumin paracellular leakage, culture Caco-2 monolayers on transwell inserts as described above.</li>
	<li>To the upper chamber medium above the cell monolayer, add either 125I-albumin alone (negative control showing the basal level of leakage), or 125I-albumin and non-radiolabeled antibody-targeted NCs (as described in Section 3.5). Incubate at 37 &#176;C for the selected time interval(s), which should match those examined when testing NC transport. Measure TEER (Section 2.3) before, during, and after incubation, then collect all fractions for total 125I and free 125I measurements as indicated in Section 3. Note: Concomitant addition of 125I-albumin and non-radiolabeled control IgG NCs may be used as a control.</li>
	<li>As a positive control for opening intercellular junctions, add cell media containing 5 mM H2O2 to the upper and lower chambers of the transwell insert, and incubate at 37 &#176;C for 30 min. Then, measure TEER (Section 2.3) and add 125I-albumin to the upper chamber for the selected time intervals. Measure TEER at various time points throughout the incubation to identify TEER value decay caused by H2O2-induced opening of the cell junctions.</li>
	<li>In parallel experiments, evaluate transcellular transport, also called transcytosis, of 125I-targeted NCs by incubating confluent Caco-2 monolayers with either 50 &#956;M monodansylcadaverine (MDC; inhibitor of clathrin-mediated endocytosis), 1 &#956;g/ml filipin (inhibitor of caveolar-mediated endocytosis), 0.5 &#956;M wortmannin (inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase [PI3K], involved in macropinocytosis), or 20 &#956;M [5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl) amiloride] (EIPA, inhibitor of macropinocytosis and CAM-mediated endocytosis15).</li>
</ol>
Note: 125I-IgG NCs and 125I-albumin may be used as negative controls for the effect of these inhibitors, and other methods (e.g.&#160;siRNA techniques) may provide more selective inhibition.
<ol start="6">
	<li>Measure TEER (Section 2.3) before, during, and after incubation of cells with inhibitors and radiolabeled materials, as an additional control for the effect of the inhibitors on the monolayer permeability.</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Using the methods discussed above, a cell model for studying transport of targeted NCs across cellular barriers can be established, such as the example provided for Caco-2 epithelial cells, which is relevant to evaluating transport from the GI lumen into the blood in the case of oral drug delivery systems. Culturing of GI epithelial cell monolayers in transwell inserts enabled measurement of TEER and fluorescence immunostaining of tight junctions to confirm formation of a cell permeability barrier. Subsequently, radiolab...

Cellular barriers in the body act as a gateway between the external environment and internal compartments. This is the case for the epithelial lining separating the externally-exposed surface of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the bloodstream1-3. Cellular barriers also represent the interface between the bloodstream and the parenchyma and cellular components of tissues and organs. This is the case for the inner endothelial lining in blood vessels, such as the blood-lung barrier, the blood-brain barrier, etc.1&#160;The ability to traverse these cellular barriers in the body is crucial for efficient delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents into the circulation and tissues/organs where intervention is needed.
To improve delivery of therapeutic or diagnostic agents, these compounds can be loaded into sub-micrometer nanocarriers (NCs). These drug delivery vehicles can be formulated with a variety of chemistries and structures to optimize drug solubility, protection, pharmacokinetics, release, and metabolism4,5. NCs can also be functionalized with affinity or targeting moieties (e.g.&#160;antibodies, peptides sugars, aptamers, etc.) to facilitate adhesion to areas of the body where the therapeutic action is required2,6. Targeting of NCs to determinants expressed on the surface of cellular barriers can further facilitate transport into and/or across these linings2,6.
The role of selectively transporting substances between two environments requires certain unique features among cell layers. One such feature is cell polarity, whereby the apical membrane facing the lumen of cavities varies from the basolateral membrane oriented towards the tissue interstitium, with respect to membrane morphology and composition of lipids, transporters, and receptors2. Another feature involves intercellular junctions connecting adjacent cells. Regulation of the proteins that form tight junctions, particularly junctional adhesion molecules (JAMs), occludins, and claudins, modulate the barrier function to selectively allow or not transport of substances between cells, known as paracellular transport, allowing passage of materials from the lumen to the basolateral space3. Binding of many natural and synthetic elements (leukocytes, molecules, particles, and drug delivery systems) to cellular barriers in the body can induce cell-junction opening, which may be transient and relatively innocuous or more prolonged and, therefore, unsafe with access of undesired substances across the barrier2,5,7-9. Consequently, this pathway can be assessed by measuring the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and passive paracellular diffusion of molecules (herein called paracellular leakage), whereby decreased resistance to an electrical current or increased paracellular leakage of an inert compound into the basolateral space indicate opening of cell junctions, respectively5,10,11. To complement these methods, any of the tight junction proteins listed above can be stained to assess their integrity, where staining should appear concentrated at the cell-cell borders all around the cell periphery5,10,12.
Alternatively, drug delivery systems that target specific cell surface determinants, such as those associated to clathrin-coated pits or flask-shaped membrane invaginations called caveolae, may trigger vesicular uptake into cells by endocytosis, providing an avenue for drug delivery to intracellular compartments5,13. In addition, endocytosis may lead to trafficking of vesicles across the cell body for release at the basolateral side, a phenomenon known as transyctosis, or transcellular transport14. Therefore, knowledge of the kinetics and mechanism of endocytosis may be used to exploit intracellular and transcellular drug delivery, which offers a relatively safe and controlled mode of delivery compared to the paracellular route. The mechanism of endocytosis may be evaluated with modulators of classical pathways (clathrin- and caveolin-mediated endocytosis, and macropinocytosis) or non-classical routes (such as the case of cell adhesion molecule (CAM)-mediated endocytosis)5,13,15.
Whereas intracellular trafficking is often studied in standard wells or coverslips, the absence of a basolateral compartment precludes cell polarization and the ability to study transport across cell layers. To overcome this obstacle, transport across cell monolayers has been long studied using transwell inserts10,11,16,17, which consist of an upper (apical) chamber, a porous permeable membrane where cells attach and form a tight monolayer, and a lower (basolateral) chamber (Figure 1). In this configuration, transport can be measured in the apical-to-basolateral direction by administering a treatment into the upper chamber, following transport through the cell monolayer and the underlying porous membrane, and finally collecting the medium in the lower chamber for quantification of transported material. Transport in the basolateral-to-apical direction can also be measured by initial administration to the lower chamber and subsequent collection from the upper chamber5,10,12,16. Various techniques exist to verify the formation of permeability barrier on transwells, including TEER and paracellular transport assays, as described above. In addition, the permeable filter on which cells are cultured can be removed for imaging analysis (e.g.&#160;by fluorescence, confocal, electron microscopy), as further validation of the cell monolayer model as well as the mechanism of transport. Selection of the membrane type, which is available in different pore sizes, materials, and surface areas, depends on various factors such as the size of substances or objects to be transported, cell type, and imaging method16,18-20. Transwell inserts also facilitate controlled and accurate quantification of transport compared to complex mammalian systems, as volumes of the chambers and cell surface area are known constants. While many factors involved in in vivo delivery are eliminated, including the presence of intestinal mucus, shear stress, digestive enzymes, immune cells, etc., this small scale in vitro model provides useful preliminary information regarding transport.
As an example to illustrate the adaptation of these methods to study NC transport across cellular barriers10,11,16,17, we describe here a case where the potential for NC transport across the GI epithelium was modeled by assessing passage of a model drug delivery system through a monolayer of human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells. For this purpose, cells were cultured in transwell inserts, on a 0.8 &#956;m&#160;pore polyethylene terephthalate (PET) filter (6.4 mm&#160;diameter), which is transparent and can be used for microscopy imaging. The status of the permeability barrier is validated by measuring TEER, apical-to-basolateral transport of a control substance, albumin, and fluorescence microscopy visualization of an element of the tight junctions, occludin protein. A model of targeted polymer NC is used, consisting of 100&#160;nm, nonbiodegradable polystyrene nanoparticles. NCs are coated by surface adsorption with a targeting antibody alone or a combination of a targeting antibody and a therapeutic cargo, where either component can be labeled with 125I for radioisotope tracing. In the selected example, the antibody recognizes intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), a protein expressed on the surface of GI epithelial (and other) cells, which has been shown to facilitate intracellular and transcellular transport of drug carriers and their cargoes21. The cargo is alpha-Galactosidase (&#945;-Gal), a therapeutic enzyme used for treatment of Fabry disease, a genetic lysosomal storage disorder22.
The coated NCs, of about 200&#160;nm in size, are added to the apical chamber over the cell monolayer and incubated at 37 &#176;C for varying periods of time, after which 125I on NCs can be detected associated to the cell monolayer and/or transported to the basolateral chamber below the cells. Additional determination of free 125I allows subtraction of the degraded fraction and estimation of coated NC transport. The mechanism of transport is further assessed by examining changes in the permeability barrier pertaining to the paracellular route, through the parameters described above, while transcellular transport is determined by examining changes in transport when modulating pathways of endocytosis and transcytosis.
These methods provide valuable information regarding cellular barrier models, the extent and rate of transport of a drug delivery system, and the mechanism of such transport, altogether allowing evaluation of the potential for drug delivery across cellular barriers.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Transwell inserts</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>353095</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM), 1x</td>
			<td>Cellgro</td>
			<td>10-013-CM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Cellgro</td>
			<td>35-015-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pen Strep</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>HTB-37TM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>125Iodine</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>NEZ033H002MC</td>
			<td>Radioactive hazard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>14190-235</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Equitech Bio</td>
			<td>BAH-66</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde (16%)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse Immunoglobulin G (IgG)</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>015-000-003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse monoclonal antibodies to human ICAM-1 (anti-ICAM)</td>
			<td>Marlin 1987</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#945;-Galactosidase, from green coffee beans</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G8507-25UN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FITC latex beads, 100 nm</td>
			<td>Polysciences, Inc.</td>
			<td>17150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>234729-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trichloroacetic acid (TCA)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>SA433-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Occludin antibody (Y-12), goat polyclonal anti-human</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>Sc-27151</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monodansylcadaverine (MDC)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D4008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filipin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F9765</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl) amiloride (EIPA)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A3085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wortmannin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>W1628</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gamma counter</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>Wizard2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Volt-ohm meter</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>EVOM2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TEER electrodes</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>STX100</td>
			<td>Electrodes available for different well-plates</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)</td>
			<td>Malvern</td>
			<td>Nano-ZS90</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

models and methods to evaluate transport of drug delivery systems across cellular barriers

Sub-micrometer carriers (nanocarriers; NCs) enhance efficacy of drugs by improving solubility, stability, circulation time, targeting, and release. Additionally, traversing cellular barriers in the body is crucial for both oral delivery of therapeutic NCs into the circulation and transport from the blood into tissues, where intervention is needed. NC transport across cellular barriers is achieved by: (i) the paracellular route, via transient disruption of the junctions that interlock adjacent cells, or (ii) the transcellular route, where materials are internalized by endocytosis, transported across the cell body, and secreted at the opposite cell surface (transyctosis). Delivery across cellular barriers can be facilitated by coupling therapeutics or their carriers with targeting agents that bind specifically to cell-surface markers involved in transport. Here, we provide methods to measure the extent and mechanism of NC transport across a model cell barrier, which consists of a monolayer of gastrointestinal (GI) epithelial cells grown on a porous membrane located in a transwell insert. Formation of a permeability barrier is confirmed by measuring transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), transepithelial transport of a control substance, and immunostaining of tight junctions. As an example, ~200&#160;nm polymer NCs are used, which carry a therapeutic cargo and are coated with an antibody that targets a cell-surface determinant. The antibody or therapeutic cargo is labeled with 125I for radioisotope tracing and labeled NCs are added to the upper chamber over the cell monolayer for varying periods of time. NCs associated to the cells and/or transported to the underlying chamber can be detected. Measurement of free 125I allows subtraction of the degraded fraction. The paracellular route is assessed by determining potential changes caused by NC transport to the barrier parameters described above. Transcellular transport is determined by addressing the effect of modulating endocytosis and transcytosis pathways.

As validation of our cell model to study transepithelial transport of targeted NCs, Figure 2 shows that Caco-2 cell monolayers plated at a density of 1.5 &#215; 105 cells/cm2 reached confluence ~Day 12 and maintained monolayer integrity up to Day 18, indicated by TEER (Figure 2A). This was validated by the presence of occludin-positive tight junctions (Figure 2B) in monolayers with high TEER (390 &#937;&#215;cm2, Day 14), compared to poor...

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Models and Methods to Evaluate Transport of Drug Delivery Systems Across Cellular Barriers

Many therapeutic applications require safe and efficient transport of drug carriers and their cargoes across cellular barriers in the body. This article describes an adaptation of established methods to evaluate the rate and mechanism of transport of drug nanocarriers (NCs) across cellular barriers, such as the gastrointestinal (GI) epithelium.

Sub-micrometer carriers (nanocarriers; NCs) enhance efficacy of drugs by improving solubility, stability, circulation time, targeting, and release. ...

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46.0K Views.  University of Maryland. Many therapeutic applications require safe and efficient transport of drug carriers and their cargoes across cellular barriers in the body. This article describes an adaptation of established methods to evaluate the rate and mechanism of transport of drug nanocarriers (NCs) across cellular barriers, such as the gastrointestinal (GI) epithelium.

Video: Models and Methods to Evaluate Transport of Drug Delivery Systems Across Cellular Barriers

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

Self-reporting Scaffolds for 3-Dimensional Cell Culture

Culturing cells in 3D on appropriate scaffolds is thought to better mimic the in vivo microenvironment and increase cell-cell interactions. The resulting 3D cellular construct can often be more relevant to studying the molecular events and cell-cell interactions than similar experiments studied in 2D. To create effective 3D cultures with high cell viability throughout the scaffold the culture conditions such as oxygen and pH need to be carefully controlled as gradients in analyte concentration can exist throughout the 3D construct. Here we describe the methods of preparing biocompatible pH responsive sol-gel nanosensors and their incorporation into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) electrospun scaffolds along with their subsequent preparation for the culture of mammalian cells. The pH responsive scaffolds can be used as tools to determine microenvironmental pH within a 3D cellular construct. Furthermore, we detail the delivery of pH responsive nanosensors to the intracellular environment of mammalian cells whose growth was supported by electrospun PLGA scaffolds. The cytoplasmic location of the pH responsive nanosensors can be utilized to monitor intracellular pH (pHi) during ongoing experimentation.

Biocompatible pH responsive sol-gel nanosensors can be incorporated into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) electrospun scaffolds. The produced self-reporting scaffolds can be used for in&#160;situ monitoring of microenvironmental conditions whilst culturing cells upon the scaffold. This is beneficial as the 3D cellular construct can be monitored in real-time without disturbing the experiment.

Culturing cells in 3D on appropriate scaffolds is thought to better mimic the in vivo microenvironment and increase cell-cell interactions. The resulting ...

In Vitro Permeation of FITC-loaded Ferritins Across a Rat Blood-brain Barrier: a Model to Study the Delivery of Nanoformulated Molecules

Brain microvascular endothelial cells, supported by pericytes and astrocytes endfeet, are responsible for the low permeation of large hydrosoluble drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB), causing difficulties for effective pharmacological therapies. In recent years, different strategies for promoting brain targeting have aimed to improve drug delivery and activity at this site, including innovative nanosystems for drug delivery across the BBB. In this context, an in vitro approach based on a simplified cellular model of the BBB provides a useful tool to investigate the effect of nanoformulations on the trans-BBB permeation of molecules. This study describes the development of a double-layer BBB, consisting of co-cultured commercially available primary rat brain microvascular endothelial cells and astrocytes. A multiparametric approach for the validation of the model, based on the measurement of the transendothelial electrical resistance and the apparent permeability of a high molecular weight dextran, is also described. As proof of concept for the employment of this BBB model to study the effect of different nanoformulations on the translocation of fluorescent molecules across the barrier, we describe the use of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), loaded into ferritin nanoparticles. The ability of ferritins to improve the trans-BBB permeation of FITC was demonstrated by flux measurements and confocal microscopy analyses. The results suggest this is a useful system for validating nanosystems for delivery of drugs across the BBB.

In Vitro Permeation of FITC-loaded Ferritins Across a Rat Blood-brain Barrier: a Model to Study the Delivery of Nanoformulated Molecules

A method to establish an in vitro model of blood-brain barrier based on a co-culture of rat brain microvascular endothelial cells and astrocytes is described and validated. This system proved to be a valid tool to study the effect of nanoformulation on the trans-barrier permeation of fluorescent molecules.

Brain microvascular endothelial cells, supported by pericytes and astrocytes endfeet, are responsible for the low permeation of large hydrosoluble drugs ...

Manufacture and Drug Delivery Applications of Silk Nanoparticles

Silk is a promising biopolymer for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications due to its outstanding mechanical properties, biocompatibility and biodegradability, as well its ability to protect and subsequently release its payload in response to a trigger. While silk can be formulated into various material formats, silk nanoparticles are emerging as promising drug delivery systems. Therefore, this article covers the procedures for reverse engineering silk cocoons to yield a regenerated silk solution that can be used to generate stable silk nanoparticles. These nanoparticles are subsequently characterized, drug loaded and explored as a potential anticancer drug delivery system. Briefly, silk cocoons are reverse engineered first by degumming the cocoons, followed by silk dissolution and clean up, to yield an aqueous silk solution. Next, the regenerated silk solution is subjected to nanoprecipitation to yield silk nanoparticles &#8211; a simple but powerful method that generates uniform nanoparticles. The silk nanoparticles are characterized according to their size, zeta potential, morphology and stability in aqueous media, as well as their ability to entrap a chemotherapeutic payload and kill human breast cancer cells. Overall, the described methodology yields uniform silk nanoparticles that can be readily explored for a myriad of applications, including their use as a potential nanomedicine.

Nanoparticles are emerging as promising drug delivery systems for a broad range of indications. Here, we describe a simple yet powerful method to manufacture silk nanoparticles using reverse engineered Bombyx mori silk. These silk nanoparticles can be readily loaded with a therapeutic payload and subsequently explored for drug delivery applications.

Silk is a promising biopolymer for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications due to its outstanding mechanical properties, biocompatibility and ...

An Experimental and Finite Element Protocol to Investigate the Transport of Neutral and Charged Solutes across Articular Cartilage

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a debilitating disease that is associated with degeneration of articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Degeneration of articular cartilage impairs its load-bearing function substantially as it experiences tremendous chemical degradation, i.e. proteoglycan loss and collagen fibril disruption. One promising way to investigate chemical damage mechanisms during OA is to expose the cartilage specimens to an external solute and monitor the diffusion of the molecules. The degree of cartilage damage (i.e. concentration and configuration of essential macromolecules) is associated with collisional energy loss of external solutes while moving across articular cartilage creates different diffusion characteristics compared to healthy cartilage. In this study, we introduce a protocol, which consists of several steps and is based on previously developed experimental micro-Computed Tomography (micro-CT) and finite element modeling. The transport of charged and uncharged iodinated molecules is first recorded using micro-CT, which is followed by applying biphasic-solute and multiphasic finite element models to obtain diffusion coefficients and fixed charge densities across cartilage zones.

We propose a protocol to investigate the transport of charged and uncharged molecules across articular cartilage with the aid of recently developed experimental and numerical methods.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a debilitating disease that is associated with degeneration of articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Degeneration of articular ...

Creating a Structurally Realistic Finite Element Geometric Model of a Cardiomyocyte to Study the Role of Cellular Architecture in Cardiomyocyte Systems Biology

With the advent of three-dimensional (3D) imaging technologies such as electron tomography, serial-block-face scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy, the scientific community has unprecedented access to large datasets at sub-micrometer resolution that characterize the architectural remodeling that accompanies changes in cardiomyocyte function in health and disease. However, these datasets have been under-utilized for&#160;investigating the role of cellular architecture remodeling in cardiomyocyte function. The purpose of this protocol is to outline how to create an accurate finite element model of a cardiomyocyte using high resolution electron microscopy and confocal microscopy images. A detailed and accurate model of cellular architecture has significant potential to provide new insights into cardiomyocyte biology, more than experiments alone can garner. The power of this method lies in its ability to computationally fuse information from two disparate imaging modalities of cardiomyocyte ultrastructure to develop one unified and detailed model of the cardiomyocyte. This protocol outlines steps to integrate electron tomography and confocal microscopy images of adult male Wistar (name for a specific breed of albino rat) rat cardiomyocytes to develop a half-sarcomere finite element model of the cardiomyocyte. The procedure generates a 3D finite element model that contains an accurate, high-resolution depiction (on the order of ~35 nm) of the distribution of mitochondria, myofibrils and ryanodine receptor clusters that release the necessary calcium for cardiomyocyte contraction from the sarcoplasmic reticular network (SR) into the myofibril and cytosolic compartment. The model generated here as an illustration does not incorporate details of the transverse-tubule architecture or the sarcoplasmic reticular network and is therefore a minimal model of the cardiomyocyte. Nevertheless, the model can already be applied in simulation-based investigations into the role of cell structure in calcium signaling and mitochondrial bioenergetics, which is illustrated and discussed using two case studies that are presented following the detailed protocol.

This protocol outlines a novel method to create a spatially detailed finite element model of the intracellular architecture of cardiomyocytes from electron microscopy and confocal microscopy images. The power of this spatially detailed model is demonstrated using case studies in calcium signaling and bioenergetics.

With the advent of three-dimensional (3D) imaging technologies such as electron tomography, serial-block-face scanning electron microscopy and confocal ...

Surface Functionalization of Hepatitis E Virus Nanoparticles Using Chemical Conjugation Methods

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have been used as nanocarriers to display foreign epitopes and/or deliver small molecules in the detection and treatment of various diseases. This application relies on genetic modification, self-assembly, and cysteine conjugation to fulfill the tumor-targeting application of recombinant VLPs. Compared with genetic modification alone, chemical conjugation of foreign peptides to VLPs offers a significant advantage because it allows a variety of entities, such as synthetic peptides or oligosaccharides, to be conjugated to the surface of VLPs in a modulated and flexible manner without alteration of the VLP assembly.
Here, we demonstrate how to use the hepatitis E virus nanoparticle (HEVNP), a modularized theranostic capsule, as a multifunctional delivery carrier. Functions of HEVNPs include tissue-targeting, imaging, and therapeutic delivery. Based on the well-established structural research of HEVNP, the structurally independent and surface-exposed residues were selected for cysteine replacement as conjugation sites for maleimide-linked chemical groups via thiol-selective linkages. One particular cysteine-modified HEVNP (a Cys replacement of the asparagine at 573 aa (HEVNP-573C)) was conjugated to a breast cancer cell-specific ligand, LXY30 and labeled with near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence dye (Cy5.5), rendering the tumor-targeted HEVNPs as effective diagnostic capsules (LXY30-HEVNP-Cy5.5). Similar engineering strategies can be employed with other macromolecular complexes with well-known atomic structures to explore potential applications in theranostic delivery.

We have engineered the capsid protein of hepatitis E virus as a theranostic nanoparticle (HEVNP). HEVNP self-assembles into a stable icosahedral cage in mucosal delivery. Here, we describe the modification of HEVNPs for tumor targeting by mutating surface-exposed residues to cysteines, which conjugate synthetic ligands that specifically bind tumor cells.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have been used as nanocarriers to display foreign epitopes and/or deliver small molecules in the detection and treatment of ...

Comprehensive Evaluation of the Effectiveness and Safety of Placenta-Targeted Drug Delivery Using Three Complementary Methods

No effective treatments currently exist for placenta-associated pregnancy complications, and developing strategies for the targeted delivery of drugs to the placenta while minimizing fetal and maternal side effects remains challenging. Targeted nanoparticle carriers provide new opportunities to treat placental disorders. We recently demonstrated that a synthetic placental chondroitin sulfate A binding peptide (plCSA-BP) could be used to guide nanoparticles to deliver drugs to the placenta. In this protocol, we describe in detail a system for assessing the efficiency of drug delivery to the placenta by plCSA-BP that employs three separate methods used in combination: in vivo imaging, high-frequency ultrasound (HFUS), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Using in vivo imaging, plCSA-BP-guided nanoparticles were visualized in the placentas of live animals, while HFUS and HPLC demonstrated that plCSA-BP-conjugated nanoparticles efficiently and specifically delivered methotrexate to the placenta. Thus, a combination of these methods can be used as an effective tool for the targeted delivery of drugs to the placenta and development of new treatment strategies for several pregnancy complications.

We describe a system that utilizes three methods to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of placenta-targeted drug delivery: in vivo imaging to monitor nanoparticle accumulation, high-frequency ultrasound to monitor placental and fetal development, and HPLC to quantify drug delivery to tissue.

No effective treatments currently exist for placenta-associated pregnancy complications, and developing strategies for the targeted delivery of drugs to ...

Repressing Gene Transcription by Redirecting Cellular Machinery with Chemical Epigenetic Modifiers

Regulation of chromatin compaction is an important process that governs gene expression in higher eukaryotes. Although chromatin compaction and gene expression regulation are commonly disrupted in many diseases, a locus-specific, endogenous, and reversible method to study and control these mechanisms of action has been lacking. To address this issue, we have developed and characterized novel gene-regulating bifunctional molecules. One component of the bifunctional molecule binds to a DNA-protein anchor so that it will be recruited to an allele-specific locus. The other component engages endogenous cellular chromatin-modifying machinery, recruiting these proteins to a gene of interest. These small molecules, called chemical epigenetic modifiers (CEMs), are capable of controlling gene expression and the chromatin environment in a dose-dependent and reversible manner. Here, we detail a CEM approach and its application to decrease gene expression and histone tail acetylation at a Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) reporter located at the Oct4 locus in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). We characterize the lead CEM (CEM23) using fluorescent microscopy, flow cytometry, and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), followed by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). While the power of this system is demonstrated at the Oct4 locus, conceptually, the CEM technology is modular and can be applied in other cell types and at other genomic loci.

Regulation of the chromatin environment is an essential process required for proper gene expression. Here, we describe a method for controlling gene expression through the recruitment of chromatin-modifying machinery in a gene-specific and reversible manner.

Regulation of chromatin compaction is an important process that governs gene expression in higher eukaryotes. Although chromatin compaction and gene ...

3D Analysis of Multi-cellular Responses to Chemoattractant Gradients

Various limitations of 2D cell culture systems have sparked interest in 3D cell culture and analysis platforms, which would better mimic the spatial and chemical complexity of living tissues and mimic in vivo tissue functions. Recent advances in microfabrication technologies have facilitated the development of 3D in vitro environments in which cells can be integrated into a well-defined extracellular matrix (ECM) and a defined set of soluble or matrix associated biomolecules. However, technological barriers have limited their widespread use in research laboratories. Here, we describe a method to construct simple devices for 3D culture and experimentation with cells and multicellular organoids in 3D microenvironments with a defined chemoattractant gradient. We illustrate the use of this platform for analysis of the response of epithelial cells and organoids to gradients of growth factors, such as epidermal growth factor (EGF). EGF gradients were stable in the devices for several days leading to directed branch formation in breast organoids. This analysis allowed us to conclude that collective gradient sensing by groups of cells is more sensitive vs. single cells. We also describe the fabrication method, which does not require photolithography facilities nor advanced soft lithography techniques. This method will be helpful to study 3D cellular behaviors in the context of the analysis of development and pathological states, including cancer.

We describe a method to construct devices for 3D culture and experimentation with cells and multicellular organoids. This device allows analysis of cellular responses to soluble signals in 3D microenvironments with defined chemoattractant gradients. Organoids are better than single cells at detection of weak noisy inputs.

Various limitations of 2D cell culture systems have sparked interest in 3D cell culture and analysis platforms, which would better mimic the spatial and ...