This work was supported by grants from the Swiss National Science Foundation and by the State of Geneva.

Once the SCBA is assembled, the growth of embryos is monitored over several days. Therefore, before the seed dissection procedure and assembly of the SCBA, one needs to sterilize seeds to avoid future contaminations that could prevent proper assessment of the effect of seed coat material on embryonic growth.
1. Seed Sterilization
<ol>
	<li>Pour 50-60 &#956;l of mature and dry Arabidopsis seeds in a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube and prepare a 70% ethanol solution.</li>
	<li>Add 1 ml of 70% ethanol solution to the microcentrifuge tube containing the seeds and shake at room temperature for 10 min at 1,200 rpm in a vortexer.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge microcentrifuge tube for 3 sec at 4,000 x g to concentrate seeds at the bottom of the tube.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the 70% ethanol solution using a vacuum suction tip&#160;carefully leaving the seeds at the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Add 1 ml of sterile distilled water to the microcentrifuge tube still containing the seeds.</li>
	<li>Shake at room temperature for 10 min at 1,200 rpm.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge microcentrifuge tube for 3 sec at 4,000 x g to concentrate seeds at the bottom of the tube. Aspirate water supernatant using a vacuum suction tip carefully leaving the seeds at the bottom of the tube.</li>
	<li>Add 1 ml of sterile water distilled water to the microcentrifuge tube still containing the seeds. Ensure that the flow of water homogenously suspends the seeds inside the tube. The goal here is to avoid further shaking so as to preserve the integrity of the seeds.</li>
	<li>Let the seeds settle down by gravity at the bottom of the tube by leaving the tube still for 30 sec. Aspirate water supernatant using a vacuum suction tip carefully leaving the seeds at the bottom of the tube.</li>
	<li>Repeat four times steps 1.8 - 1.9. Overall the sterilization procedure takes about 30 min.</li>
</ol>
2. Seed Plating
All subsequent steps are performed inside a laminar flow cabinet to preserve sterile conditions.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a Petri dish plate (100 mm diameter, 20 mm height) containing 30 ml of germination medium prepared by autoclaving a solution containing 4.3 g/L Murashige and Skoog medium in 2.5 mM 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES-KOH; pH 5.7) and 0.8 g/L agar. Let the solution cool down in a 50 &#176;C water bath before pouring it on the Petri dish plate.</li>
	<li>Add 200 &#956;l of sterile distilled water to the tube containing the seeds. Resuspend the seeds and transfer them on the surface of the germination medium using a standard pipette with a 1 ml tip.</li>
	<li>Remove the water surrounding the seeds on the surface of the germination medium using a vacuum suction tip.</li>
	<li>Leave the Petri dish containing the seeds without its lid inside the laminar flow cabinet for 2 hr for further drying. Close the Petri dish with the lid and let it stand under the laminar flow cabinet for about 90 min so that about 4 hr have passed since the initiation of the seed sterilization procedure (step 1.2).</li>
</ol>
3. Seed Dissection
The following steps necessitate working with a stereomicroscope placed inside the laminar flow hood cabinet. A Dumont forceps #5 with truncated (i.e. blunt) tips greatly facilitates the handling of the seeds (Figure 1A).
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a new Petri dish plate containing 30 ml of germination medium. Place on the surface of the medium two juxtaposed rectangular sterile Whatman 3MM papers (1.5 cm x 1.0 cm; Figure 1B, step 1). Whatman 3MM paper is sterilized in an autoclave.</li>
	<li>Transfer seeds on the Whatman 3MM papers using sterile forceps (Figure 1B, step 2).</li>
	<li>Hold an individual seed against the Whatman 3MM paper by gently pressing the seed using the juxtaposed blunt tips of the truncated forceps (Figure 1B, step 3).</li>
	<li>Cut the seed coat (testa and endosperm) of the seed using a syringe needle (e.g. U100 insulin syringe + 1 ml syringe, 0.33 mm (29 G) x 12.7 mm) (Figure 1B, step 4). The shape of Arabidopsis seed is ellipsoidal and it is recommended to cut the seed coat along the longest semi-principal axis as close as possible to the place where the cotyledons are joined to the radicle (i.e. away from the radical tip). This helps the safe release of the embryo in the next step of the dissection procedure.</li>
	<li>Push the seed against the Whatman 3MM paper using the juxtaposed blunt tips of the truncated forceps (Figure 1B, step 5). This step releases the embryo out the seed coat through the opening created in step 3.4 (Figure 1B, step 6). It is recommended to apply the push on the seed where the tip of the cotyledons are in closest to the tip of the radicle (i.e. away from the opening).</li>
</ol>
4. Assembly of the Seed Coat Bedding Assay (SCBA)
See discussion for the proper choice of the number of seed coats and embryos.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a new Petri dish plate containing 30 ml of germination medium. Place on the surface of the medium a sterile rectangular piece (3.5 cm x 5.0 cm) of Nylon mesh&#160;(Figure 2, step 1).</li>
	<li>To avoid damage, embryos and seed coats can be moved to the surface of the metallic edges of the forceps by gently pushing them using the syringe needle (Figure 2, step 2). Transfer embryos and seed coats on the Nylon mesh (Figure 2, step 3).</li>
	<li>Assemble a circular and single layer of seed coats using the blunted forceps and the needle making sure that seeds coats are in as much closer proximity as possible (Figure 2, step 4). Try to expose as much as possible the seed coat opening generated by the needle upwards. This step was not systematically tested. However, it could increase the efficiency of the SCBA since diffusible substances inhibiting the growth of the embryo are expected to directly diffuse out towards the embryo rather than away from it.</li>
	<li>Place the embryos as a circular single layer on the center of the seed coat bed assembled in step 4.3 (Figure 2, step 5). Ensure that the embryos are in as much closer proximity as possible.</li>
	<li>Incubate the SCBAs under continuous light (40 &#956;mol/m2sec) at 20-21 &#176;C. In the case where a FR pulse is used to arrest germination, assemble the SCBA under normal light, apply the FR pulse as described9 and leave Petri dish in darkness.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Debeaujon, I., Leon-Kloosterziel, K. M., Koornneef, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+the+testa+on+seed+dormancy,+germination,+and+longevity+in+Arabidopsis.">Influence of the testa on seed dormancy, germination, and longevity in Arabidopsis.</a> Plant Physiol. 122, 403-414 (2000).</li><li>Baroux, C., Spillane, C., Grossniklaus, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolutionary+origins+of+the+endosperm+in+flowering+plants.">Evolutionary origins of the endosperm in flowering plants.</a> Genome Biol. 3, reviews1026 (2002).</li><li>Debeaujon, I., Lepiniec, L., Pourcel, L., Routaboul, J. -. M., Bradford, K., Nonogaki, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Seed development, dormancy and germination. , 25-43 (2007).</li><li>Finch-Savage, W. E., Leubner-Metzger, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seed+dormancy+and+the+control+of+germination.">Seed dormancy and the control of germination.</a> New Phytol. 171, 501-523 (2006).</li><li>Bethke, P. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Arabidopsis+aleurone+layer+responds+to+nitric+oxide,+gibberellin,+and+abscisic+acid+and+is+sufficient+and+necessary+for+seed+dormancy.">The Arabidopsis aleurone layer responds to nitric oxide, gibberellin, and abscisic acid and is sufficient and necessary for seed dormancy.</a> Plant Physiol. 143, 1173-1188 (2007).</li><li>Lee, K. P., Piskurewicz, U., Tureckova, V., Strnad, M., Lopez-Molina, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+seed+coat+bedding+assay+shows+that+RGL2-dependent+release+of+abscisic+acid+by+the+endosperm+controls+embryo+growth+in+Arabidopsis+dormant+seeds.">A seed coat bedding assay shows that RGL2-dependent release of abscisic acid by the endosperm controls embryo growth in Arabidopsis dormant seeds.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 19108-19113 (2010).</li><li>Reed, J. W., Nagatani, A., Elich, T. D., Fagan, M., Chory, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phytochrome+A+and+Phytochrome+B+Have+Overlapping+but+Distinct+Functions+in+Arabidopsis+Development.">Phytochrome A and Phytochrome B Have Overlapping but Distinct Functions in Arabidopsis Development.</a> Plant Physiol. 104, 1139-1149 (1994).</li><li>Shinomura, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Action+spectra+for+phytochrome+A-+and+B-specific+photoinduction+of+seed+germination+in+Arabidopsis+thaliana.">Action spectra for phytochrome A- and B-specific photoinduction of seed germination in Arabidopsis thaliana.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93, 8129-8133 (1996).</li><li>Lee, K. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatially+and+genetically+distinct+control+of+seed+germination+by+phytochromes+A+and+B.">Spatially and genetically distinct control of seed germination by phytochromes A and B.</a> Genes Dev. 26, 1984-1996 (2012).</li><li>Lee, K. P., Lopez-Molina, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+seed+germination+in+the+shade.">Control of seed germination in the shade.</a> Cell Cycle. 11, 4489-4490 (2012).</li><li>Piskurewicz, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+gibberellic+acid+signaling+repressor+RGL2+inhibits+Arabidopsis+seed+germination+by+stimulating+abscisic+acid+synthesis+and+ABI5+activity.">The gibberellic acid signaling repressor RGL2 inhibits Arabidopsis seed germination by stimulating abscisic acid synthesis and ABI5 activity.</a> Plant Cell. 20, 2729-2745 (2008).</li><li>Piskurewicz, U., Tureckova, V., Lacombe, E., Lopez-Molina, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Far-red+light+inhibits+germination+through+DELLA-dependent+stimulation+of+ABA+synthesis+and+ABI3+activity.">Far-red light inhibits germination through DELLA-dependent stimulation of ABA synthesis and ABI3 activity.</a> EMBO J. 28, 2259-2271 (2009).</li><li>Debeaujon, I., Koornneef, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gibberellin+requirement+for+Arabidopsis+seed+germination+is+determined+both+by+testa+characteristics+and+embryonic+abscisic+acid.">Gibberellin requirement for Arabidopsis seed germination is determined both by testa characteristics and embryonic abscisic acid.</a> Plant Physiol. 122, 415-424 (2000).</li><li>Sun, T. P., Kamiya, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Arabidopsis+GA1+locus+encodes+the+cyclase+ent-kaurene+synthetase+A+of+gibberellin+biosynthesis.">The Arabidopsis GA1 locus encodes the cyclase ent-kaurene synthetase A of gibberellin biosynthesis.</a> Plant Cell. 6, 1509-1518 (1994).</li><li>Alonso, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-wide+insertional+mutagenesis+of+Arabidopsis+thaliana.">Genome-wide insertional mutagenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana.</a> Science. 301, 653-657 (2003).</li><li>Rook, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impaired+sucrose-induction+mutants+reveal+the+modulation+of+sugar-induced+starch+biosynthetic+gene+expression+by+abscisic+acid+signalling.">Impaired sucrose-induction mutants reveal the modulation of sugar-induced starch biosynthetic gene expression by abscisic acid signalling.</a> Plant J. 26, 421-433 (2001).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The seed coat bedding assay (SCBA) procedure described here is in principle applicable to any circumstance where Arabidopsis seed germination is blocked (or delayed) and where the endosperm is suspected to implement this arrest. The latter can be evidenced by removing the seed coat (testa and endosperm) and observing that embryonic growth proceeds faster relative to that observed when embryos are surrounded by the seed coat. Germination may be blocked in response to particular environmental physical parameters (...

In Arabidopsis mature seeds, the seed coat is composed of the testa, an external layer of dead tissue of maternal origin, and the endosperm, a single cell layer of live tissue directly surrounding the embryo1. The endosperm and the embryo are derived from separate fertilization events: the endosperm is a triploid tissue with two maternal and one paternal genome whereas the embryo is a diploid tissue with one maternal and one paternal genome2.
The main function traditionally assigned to the endosperm is that of a nutritive tissue. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that the endosperm also plays a central role to control seed germination. This notion became first apparent in the case of dormancy, a trait exhibited by newly produced seeds. Dormant seeds fail to germinate despite the presence of favorable germination conditions. Seeds lose their dormancy after a ripening period and become nondormant, i.e. they will germinate when exposed to favorable germination conditions. In many plant species, including the model plant Arabidopsis, the seed coat is absolutely required to prevent the germination of dormant seeds since seed coat removal triggers embryonic growth and greening3,4. In Arabidopsis, Bethke et al. observed that germination remained repressed after removing the testa while maintaining the endosperm surrounding the endosperm5. These observations strongly indicated that the endosperm is the tissue within the seed coat exerting a repressive activity on the embryo. However, seed coat removal experiments do not necessarily help clarifying the nature of the germination repressive activity provided by the seed coat nor identifying the genes that implement it.
We recently introduced a seed coat bedding assay (SCBA) where seed coats and embryos are physically separated but kept in close proximity so that the germination repressive activity provided by the endosperm is maintained6. The SCBA allows the combinatorial use of dormant, nondormant, and genetically modified seed coat and embryonic materials. As a result, the genetic pathways controlling germination and specifically operating in the endosperm and embryo can be dissected. The SCBA was used in the context of dormancy to show that the endosperm releases the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) towards the embryo to repress its growth6. Furthermore we could use the SCBA to identify the signaling pathways operating in endosperm and embryonic tissues to promote dormancy.
The role of the endosperm to control germination was further strengthened by considering the case of nondormant seeds exposed to a pulse of far red (FR) light. Early upon seed imbibition a FR light pulse is known to inhibit germination7,8. When seed coats were removed from seeds a pulse of FR light was unable to inhibit germination, strongly suggesting that the endosperm can also repress the germination of nondormant seeds 9. Remarkably, the SCBA could also be used to recapitulate FR-dependent inhibition of germination. This allowed to show that that FR-dependent inhibition of seed germination is also a process involving ABA release from the endosperm9. Furthermore, the SCBA allowed identifying the different light-signaling pathways operating in the endosperm and the embryo to control nondormant seed germination in response to light cues9,10.
The SCBA appears therefore to be a reliable technique to explore the function of the endosperm in the context of the control of seed germination. It is also a powerful tool to assess in vitro whether genes suspected to control germination operate in the endosperm, the embryo or both tissues. Here we detail the various steps required to assemble a SCBA.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>To refer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer Comfort</td>
			<td>Eppendorf AG</td>
			<td>5355 000.011</td>
			<td>Eppendorf AG, Hamburg, Germany</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacusafe Comfort</td>
			<td>INTEGRA Biosciences AG</td>
			<td>158 310</td>
			<td>Integra Biosciences AG, Zizers, Switzerland</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish plate (100 mm x 20 mm)</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio-One GmbH</td>
			<td>664 102</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio-One GmbH, Frickenhausen, Germany</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Murashige and Skoog</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M5524</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M3671</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar (plant agar)</td>
			<td>Duchefa Biochemie B.V.</td>
			<td>P1001</td>
			<td>Duchefa Biochemie, Haarlem, Netherlands</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont forceps #5</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools GmbH</td>
			<td>11251-10</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools GmbH, Heidelberg Germany</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe needle</td>
			<td>BD Micro-Fine</td>
			<td>324827</td>
			<td>BD, Franklin Lakes, NJ USA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon mesh (SEFAR NYTEX)</td>
			<td>SEFAR AG</td>
			<td>03-50/31</td>
			<td>Sefar AG, Heiden, Switzerland</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Growth chamber</td>
			<td>CLF Plant Climatics</td>
			<td>Percival I-30BLLX</td>
			<td>CLF plant Climatics, Wertingen, Germany</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paclobutrazol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>46046</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a seed coat bedding assay to genetically explore in vitro how the endosperm controls seed germination in arabidopsis thaliana

The Arabidopsis endosperm consists of a single cell layer surrounding the mature embryo and playing an essential role to prevent the germination of dormant seeds or that of nondormant seeds irradiated by a far red (FR) light pulse. In order to further gain insight into the molecular genetic mechanisms underlying the germination repressive activity exerted by the endosperm, a &#34;seed coat bedding&#34; assay (SCBA) was devised. The SCBA is a dissection procedure physically separating seed coats and embryos from seeds, which allows monitoring the growth of embryos on an underlying layer of seed coats. Remarkably, the SCBA reconstitutes the germination repressive activities of the seed coat in the context of seed dormancy and FR-dependent control of seed germination. Since the SCBA allows the combinatorial use of dormant, nondormant and genetically modified seed coat and embryonic materials, the genetic pathways controlling germination and specifically operating in the endosperm and embryo can be dissected. Here we detail the procedure to assemble a SCBA.

Previous work showed that mutant seeds unable to synthesize GA were unable to germinate as a result of high ABA accumulation in seeds 11,12. However, inability to germinate requires the seed coat since its removal triggers embryonic growth13. This strongly indicated that the endosperm of seeds unable to synthesize GA is releasing ABA to block embryonic growth. We therefore expect seeds coats unable to synthesize GA to block the growth of embryos in a SCBA unlike seed coats unable to synthesize GA an...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Seed Coat Bedding Assay to Genetically Explore In Vitro How the Endosperm Controls Seed Germination in Arabidopsis thaliana at JoVE.com

A Seed Coat Bedding Assay to Genetically Explore In Vitro How the Endosperm Controls Seed Germination in Arabidopsis thaliana

We present the procedure to assemble a seed coat bedding assay (SCBA) from Arabidopsis thaliana seeds. The SCBA was shown to be a powerful tool to explore genetically and in vitro how the endosperm controls seed germination in dormant seeds and in response to light cues. The SCBA is in principle applicable under any situation where the endosperm is suspected to influence embryonic growth.

A Seed Coat Bedding Assay to Genetically Explore In Vitro How the Endosperm Controls Seed Germination in Arabidopsis thaliana

The Arabidopsis endosperm consists of a single cell layer surrounding the mature embryo and playing an essential role to prevent the germination of ...

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13.4K Views.  Université de Genève. We present the procedure to assemble a seed coat bedding assay (SCBA) from Arabidopsis thaliana seeds. The SCBA was shown to be a powerful tool to explore genetically and in vitro how the endosperm controls seed germination in dormant seeds and in response to light cues. The SCBA is in principle applicable under any situation where the endosperm is suspected to influence embryonic growth.

Video: A Seed Coat Bedding Assay to Genetically Explore In Vitro How the Endosperm Controls Seed Germination in Arabidopsis thaliana

Use of Arabidopsis eceriferum Mutants to Explore Plant Cuticle Biosynthesis

The plant cuticle is a waxy outer covering on plants that has a primary role in water conservation, but is also an important barrier against the entry of pathogenic microorganisms.  The cuticle is made up of a tough crosslinked polymer called "cutin" and a protective wax layer that seals the plant surface.  The waxy layer of the cuticle is obvious on many plants, appearing as a shiny film on the ivy leaf or as a dusty outer covering on the surface of a grape or a cabbage leaf thanks to light scattering crystals present in the wax.  Because the cuticle is an essential adaptation of plants to a terrestrial environment, understanding the genes involved in plant cuticle formation has applications in both agriculture and forestry. Today, we'll show the analysis of plant cuticle mutants identified by forward and reverse genetics approaches.


The plant cuticle is a waxy outer covering on plants that has a primary role in water conservation but is also an important barrier against the entry of pathogenic microorganisms. In this video, we demonstrate the analysis of plant cuticle mutants identified by forward and reverse genetics approaches.

The plant cuticle is a waxy outer covering on plants that has a primary role in water conservation, but is also an important barrier against the entry of ...

Floral-dip Transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana to Examine pTSO2::&beta;-glucuronidase Reporter Gene Expression

The ability to introduce foreign genes into an organism is the foundation for modern biology and biotechnology. In the model flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the floral-dip transformation method1-2 has replaced all previous methods because of its simplicity, efficiency, and low cost. Specifically, shoots of young flowering Arabidopsis plants are dipped in a solution of Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying specific plasmid constructs. After dipping, the plants are returned to normal growth and yield seeds, a small percentage of which are transformed with the foreign gene and can be selected for on medium containing antibiotics. This floral-dip method significantly facilitated Arabidopsis research and contributed greatly to our understanding of plant gene function. In this study, we use the floral-dip method to transform a reporter gene, &beta;-glucuronidase (GUS), under the control of TSO2 promoter. TSO2, coding for the Ribonucleotide Reductase (RNR) small subunit3, is a cell cycle regulated gene essential for dNDP biosynthesis in the S-phase of the cell cycle. Examination of GUS expression in transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings shows that TSO2 is expressed in actively dividing tissues. The reported experimental method and materials can be easily adapted not only for research but also for education at high school and college levels.

Floral-dip Transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana to Examine pTSO2::&amp;#946;-glucuronidase Reporter Gene Expression

This article illustrates the floral-dip method of Agrobacterium tumefaciens -mediated transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana. By introducing a cell-cycle regulated promoter-reporter, pTSO2::&beta;-glucuronidase (GUS), into Arabidopsis, we illustrates how one detects GUS reporter expression in transgenic seedlings.

The ability to introduce foreign genes into an organism is the foundation for modern biology and biotechnology. In the model flowering plant Arabidopsis ...

Determination of DNA Methylation of Imprinted Genes in Arabidopsis Endosperm

Arabidopsis thaliana is an excellent model organism for studying epigenetic mechanisms. One of the reasons is the loss-of-function null mutant of DNA methyltransferases is viable, thus providing a system to study how loss of DNA methylation in a genome affects growth and development. Imprinting refers to differential expression of maternal and paternal alleles and plays an important role in reproduction development in both mammal and plants. DNA methylation is critical for determining whether the maternal or paternal alleles of an imprinted gene is expressed or silenced. In flowering plants, there is a double fertilization event in reproduction: one sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell to form embryo and a second sperm fuses with the central cell to give rise to endosperm. Endosperm is the tissue where imprinting occurs in plants. MEDEA, a SET domain Polycomb group gene, and FWA, a transcription factor regulating flowering, are the first two genes shown to be imprinted in endosperm and their expression is controlled by DNA methylation and demethylation in plants. In order to determine imprinting status of a gene and methylation pattern in endosperm, we need to be able to isolate endosperm first. Since seed is tiny in Arabidopsis, it remains challenging to isolate Arabidopsis endosperm and examine its methylation. In this video protocol, we report how to conduct a genetic cross, to isolate endosperm tissue from seeds, and to determine the methylation status by bisulfite sequencing.

Determination of DNA Methylation of Imprinted Genes in Arabidopsis Endosperm

Imprinting is a phenomenon in plant and mammal reproduction. DNA methylation plays an important role in mechanisms of imprinting. Isolating endosperm and determining methylation status of imprinted genes in Arabidopsis can be difficult. In this protocol, we describe how to isolate endosperm and determine methylation by bisulfite sequencing.

Arabidopsis thaliana is an excellent model organism for studying epigenetic mechanisms. One of the reasons is the loss-of-function null mutant of DNA ...

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the messagefor review see 1. However, it's now widely accepted that synonymous codon usage is the primary cause of non-uniform translational elongation rates1. Synonymous codons are not used with identical frequency. A bias exists in the use of synonymous codons with some codons used more frequently than others2. Codon bias is organism as well as tissue specific2,3. Moreover, frequency of codon usage is directly proportional to the concentrations of cognate tRNAs4. Thus, a frequently used codon will have higher multitude of corresponding tRNAs, which further implies that a frequent codon will be translated faster than an infrequent one. Thus, regions on mRNA enriched in rare codons (potential pause sites) will as a rule slow down ribosome movement on the message and cause accumulation of nascent peptides of the respective sizes5-8. These pause sites can have functional impact on the protein expression, mRNA stability and protein foldingfor review see 9. Indeed, it was shown that alleviation of such pause sites can alter ribosome movement on mRNA and subsequently may affect the efficiency of co-translational (in vivo) protein folding1,7,10,11. To understand the process of protein folding in vivo, in the cell, that is ultimately coupled to the process of protein synthesis it is essential to gain comprehensive insights into the impact of codon usage/tRNA content on the movement of ribosomes along mRNA during translational elongation.
Here we describe a simple technique that can be used to locate major translation pause sites for a given mRNA translated in various cell-free systems6-8. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA. The rationale is that at low-frequency codons, the increase in the residence time of the ribosomes results in increased amounts of nascent peptides of the corresponding sizes. In vitro transcribed mRNA is used for in vitro translational reactions in the presence of radioactively labeled amino acids to allow the detection of the nascent chains. In order to isolate ribosome bound nascent polypeptide complexes the translation reaction is layered on top of 30% glycerol solution followed by centrifugation. Nascent polypeptides in polysomal pellet are further treated with ribonuclease A and resolved by SDS PAGE. This technique can be potentially used for any protein and allows analysis of ribosome movement along mRNA and the detection of the major pause sites. Additionally, this protocol can be adapted to study factors and conditions that can alter ribosome movement and thus potentially can also alter the function/conformation of the protein.

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

A technique to identify translational pause sites on mRNA is described. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA, followed by the size analysis of the nascent chains using a denaturing gel electrophoresis.

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the ...

A High-content Imaging Workflow to Study Grb2 Signaling Complexes by Expression Cloning

Signal transduction by growth factor receptors is essential for cells to maintain proliferation and differentiation and requires tight control. Signal transduction is initiated by binding of an external ligand to a transmembrane receptor and activation of downstream signaling cascades. A key regulator of mitogenic signaling is Grb2, a modular protein composed of an internal SH2 (Src Homology 2) domain flanked by two SH3 domains that lacks enzymatic activity. Grb2 is constitutively associated with the GTPase Son-Of-Sevenless (SOS) via its N-terminal SH3 domain. The SH2 domain of Grb2 binds to growth factor receptors at phosphorylated tyrosine residues thus coupling receptor activation to the SOS-Ras-MAP kinase signaling cascade. In addition, other roles for Grb2 as a positive or negative regulator of signaling and receptor endocytosis have been described. The modular composition of Grb2 suggests that it can dock to a variety of receptors and transduce signals along a multitude of different pathways1-3.
	Described here is a simple microscopy assay that monitors recruitment of Grb2 to the plasma membrane. It is adapted from an assay that measures changes in sub-cellular localization of green-fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged Grb2 in response to a stimulus4-6. Plasma membrane receptors that bind Grb2 such as activated Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) recruit GFP-Grb2 to the plasma membrane upon cDNA expression and subsequently relocate to endosomal compartments in the cell. In order to identify in vivo protein complexes of Grb2, this technique can be used to perform a genome-wide high-content screen based on changes in Grb2 sub-cellular localization. The preparation of cDNA expression clones, transfection and image acquisition are described in detail below. Compared to other genomic methods used to identify protein interaction partners, such as yeast-two-hybrid, this technique allows the visualization of protein complexes in mammalian cells at the sub-cellular site of interaction by a simple microscopy-based assay. Hence both qualitative features, such as patterns of localization can be assessed, as well as the quantitative strength of the interaction.

A high-content screening method for the identification of novel signaling competent transmembrane receptors is described. This method is amenable to large-scale automation and allows predictions about in vivo protein binding and the sub-cellular localization of protein complexes in mammalian cells.

Signal  transduction by growth factor receptors is essential for cells to maintain  proliferation and differentiation and requires tight control. Signal  ...

Histochemical Staining of Arabidopsis thaliana Secondary Cell Wall Elements

Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism commonly used to understand and manipulate various cellular processes in plants, and it has been used extensively in the study of secondary cell wall formation. Secondary cell wall deposition occurs after the primary cell wall is laid down, a process carried out exclusively by specialized cells such as those forming vessel and fiber tissues. Most secondary cell walls are composed of cellulose (40&#8211;50%), hemicellulose (25&#8211;30%), and lignin (20&#8211;30%). Several mutations affecting secondary cell wall biosynthesis have been isolated, and the corresponding mutants may or may not exhibit obvious biochemical composition changes or visual phenotypes since these mutations could be masked by compensatory responses. Staining procedures have historically been used to show differences on a cellular basis. These methods are exclusively visual means of analysis; nevertheless their role in rapid and critical analysis is of great importance. Congo red and calcofluor white are stains used to detect polysaccharides, whereas M&#228;ule and phloroglucinol are commonly used to determine differences in lignin, and toluidine blue O is used to differentially stain polysaccharides and lignin. The seemingly simple techniques of sectioning, staining, and imaging can be a challenge for beginners. Starting with sample preparation using the A. thaliana model, this study details the protocols of a variety of staining methodologies that can be easily implemented for observation of cell and tissue organization in secondary cell walls of plants.

Histochemical Staining of Arabidopsis thaliana Secondary Cell Wall Elements

Plant cell wall composition varies between tissue types and can include lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin. Various staining techniques have been developed to visualize differences at the cell-type level. This paper is a compilation of commonly used cell wall staining techniques.

Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism commonly used to understand and manipulate various cellular processes in plants, and it has been used extensively ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and silencing of genes mediate the response of plants to environmental signals and developmental cues. Therefore, insights into the mechanisms that control plant gene expression are essential to gain a deep understanding of how biological processes are regulated in plants. The chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) technique described here is a procedure to identify the DNA-binding sites of proteins in genes or genomic regions of the model species Arabidopsis thaliana. The interactions with DNA of proteins of interest such as transcription factors, chromatin proteins or posttranslationally modified versions of histones can be efficiently analyzed with the ChIP protocol. This method is based on the fixation of protein-DNA interactions in vivo, random fragmentation of chromatin, immunoprecipitation of protein-DNA complexes with specific antibodies, and quantification of the DNA associated with the protein of interest by PCR techniques. The use of this methodology in Arabidopsis has contributed significantly to unveil transcriptional regulatory mechanisms that control a variety of plant biological processes. This approach allowed the identification of the binding sites of the Arabidopsis chromatin protein EBS to regulatory regions of the master gene of flowering FT. The impact of this protein in the accumulation of particular histone marks in the genomic region of FT was also revealed through ChIP analysis.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Chromatin immunoprecipitation is a powerful technique for the identification of DNA binding sites of Arabidopsis proteins in vivo. This procedure includes chromatin cross-linking and fragmentation, immunoprecipitation with selective antibodies against the protein of interest, and qPCR analysis of bound DNA. We describe a simple ChIP assay optimized for Arabidopsis plants.

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and ...

Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Growth Behavior in Different Light Qualities

Plant biologists often need to observe the growth behavior of their chosen species. To this end, the plants need constant environmental and stable light conditions, which are preferably variable in quantity and quality so that studies under different setups can be conducted. These requirements are met by climatic chambers featuring light emitting diodes (LED) lights, which can &#8211; in contrast to fluorescent lights &#8211; be set to different wavelengths. LEDs are energy conserving and emit virtually no heat even at light intensities, which often constitutes a problem with other light sources. The presented protocol provides a step-by-step guidance of how to program a climatic chamber equipped with variable LED lights as well as describing several approaches for in depth analysis of growth phenotypes. Depending on the experimental set-up various characteristics of the growing plants can be observed and analyzed. Here we describe how to determine fresh weight, leaf area, photosynthetic activity, and stomatal density. We demonstrate that in order to obtain reliable data and draw valid conclusions it is mandatory to use a sufficient number of individuals for statistical evaluation. Taking too few plants for this kind of analysis results in high statistical errors and consequently in less clear interpretations of the data.

Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Growth Behavior in Different Light Qualities

Here, we present a protocol for studying plant growth behavior and especially phenotypes in a reproducible manner. We show how to provide variable and at the same time stable light conditions. Proper analyses depend on sufficient sample numbers and valid statistical evaluations.

Plant biologists often need to observe the growth behavior of their chosen species. To this end, the plants need constant environmental and stable light ...

A Labor-saving and Repeatable Touch-force Signaling Mutant Screen Protocol for the Study of Thigmomorphogenesis of a Model Plant Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants responding to both intracellular and extracellular mechanical stimulations (or force signals) and develop special morphological changes, a called thigmomorphogenesis. In past decades, several signaling components have been identified and reported for being involved in the mechanotransduction (e.g., calcium ion binding proteins and jasmonic acid biosynthesis enzymes). However, the relatively slow pace of research in the study of force signaling or thigmomorphogenesis is largely attributed to two reasons: the requirement for laborious human hand-manipulated touch induction of thigmomorphogenesis and the force strength errors associated with people&#8217;s hand-touch. To enhance the efficiency of external force loading on a plant organism, an automatic touch-force loading machine was built. This robotic arm-driven hair brush touches provide a labor-saving and easily repeatable touch-force simulation, unlimited rounds of touch repetition and adjustable touch strength. This hair touch-force loading machine can be used for both large scale screening of touch-force signaling mutants and the phenomics study of plant thigmomorphogenesis. In addition, touch materials such as human hair, can be replaced with other natural materials like animal hair, silk threads and cotton fibers. The automated moving arms on the machine may be equipped with water sprinkling nozzles and air blowers to mimic the natural forces of rain drops and wind, respectively. By using this automatic hair touch-force loading machine in combination with the hand-performed cotton swab touching, we have investigated the touch response of two force signaling mutants, MAP KINASE KINASE 1 (MKK1) and MKK2 plants. The phenomes of the touch-force loaded wild type plants and two mutants were evaluated statistically. They have exhibited significant differences in touch response.

A Labor-saving and Repeatable Touch-force Signaling Mutant Screen Protocol for the Study of Thigmomorphogenesis of a Model Plant Arabidopsis thaliana

A gentle touch-force loading machine is built from human hair brushes, robotic arms and a controller. The hair brushes are driven by robotic arms installed on the machine and move periodically to apply touch-force on plants. The strength of machine-driven hair touches is comparable to that of manually applied touches.

Plants responding to both intracellular and extracellular mechanical stimulations (or force signals) and develop special morphological changes, a called ...

A Simple Dry Sectioning Method for Obtaining Whole-Seed-Sized Resin Section and Its Applications

The morphology, size and quantity of cells, starch granules&#160;and protein bodies in seed determine the weight and quality of seed. They are significantly different among different regions of seed. In order to view the morphologies of cells, starch granules and protein bodies clearly, and quantitatively analyze their morphology parameters accurately, the whole-seed-sized section is needed. Though the whole-seed-sized paraffin section can investigate the accumulation of storage materials in seeds, it is very difficult to quantitatively analyze the morphology parameters of cells and storage materials due to the low resolution of the thick section. The thin resin section has high resolution, but the routine resin sectioning method is not suitable to prepare the whole-seed-sized section of mature seeds with a large volume and high starch content. In this study, we present a simple dry sectioning method for preparing the whole-seed-sized resin section. The technique can prepare the cross and longitudinal whole-seed-sized sections of developing, mature, germinated, and cooked seeds embedded in LR White resin, even for large seeds with high starch content. The whole-seed-sized section can be stained with fluorescent brightener 28, iodine, and Coomassie brilliant blue R250 to specifically exhibit the morphology of cells, starch granules, and protein bodies clearly, respectively. The image obtained can also be analyzed quantitatively to show the morphology parameters of cells, starch granules, and protein bodies in different regions of seed.

This technique allows for the fast and simple preparation of whole-seed-sized resin section for the observation and analysis of cells, starch granules, and protein bodies in different regions of the seed.