The authors thank Bryan T. Vinyard of the USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Biometrical Consulting Service, Beltsville, MD for statistical analyses. This work was supported in part by a grant to J.C.D. from the Deployed War Fighter Protection (DWFP) Research Program funded by the Department of Defense through the Armed Forces Pest Management Board (AFPMB).

1. Rearing Ae. aegypti adults
<ol>
	<li>Hatch eggs in approximately &#190; inch water in shallow tray. Overcrowding will reduce the size of adults.</li>
	<li>Rear larvae at 25 &#176;C (12-hL:12-hD) and feed with ground fish food. 
	NOTE: Overfeeding may reduce survival rates.</li>
	<li>Remove pupae individually by Pasteur pipette daily and transfer to plastic dishes (9 cm &#215; 5.5 cm) inside small containment buckets with fine mesh lids, thus establishing 24 hr&#160;age groupings.</li>
	<li>Feed adult mosquitoes 10% sucrose solution by cotton ball placed on the screen walls of a cage housing the mosquitoes in an environmental chamber at 27 &#176;C and 70% relative humidity under the same photoperiod as larvae.</li>
	<li>For electrophysiology, use 5-10 day old animals. In general, larger animals will produce better results. For RNA isolation, use animals that are within a single 24 hr&#160;age grouping in the 5-10 day old range.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Chemicals
<ol>
	<li>Determine a suitable concentration of electrolyte (e.g. 1-10 mM) that elicits minimal activity from selected sensory neurons. 10 mM NaCl or 1mM KCl are reasonable electrolytes to test baseline activity when beginning an experiment.</li>
	<li>Dissolve each experimental chemical in appropriate solvent (if not water, use ethanol or DMSO) that has little or no effect on spike activity when compared to electrolyte alone. Final concentrations of 10% ethanol or 1% DMSO are reasonable starting concentrations.</li>
	<li>Select appropriate (e.g. quinine for bitter or sucrose for sweet) control chemicals that are well-described feeding deterrents or stimulants in insects.</li>
</ol>
3. Electrophysiology (tip recording8; Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Form glass electrodes by mechanically pulling glass capillaries. Optimize heat and pull settings to pull glass to form appropriately shaped recording electrodes. Carefully break off end of glass electrode using forceps under a dissecting microscope to create electrode tip opening that is wide enough to envelope target sensillum, but small enough to avoid contact with neighboring structures.</li>
	<li>Under a microscope, visually identify by morphology and position the target sensilla/sensillum to ensure repeatability of tip recording. Prep animals to allow free access to sensilla from angle of electrode entry.</li>
	<li>Cold anesthetize adult insects in freezer at -20 &#176;C. Avoid damage to peripheral neurons by overexposure to cold temperatures. Cut narrow strips of cellophane tape with razor blade on glass slide. Immobilize whole insect on a glass slide using narrow strips.</li>
	<li>Insert a chemically sharpened tungsten wire into the dorsal thorax or eye to serve as the indifferent (ground) electrode.</li>
	<li>Fill glass electrode made in step 3.1 with a stimulating solution of interest. Using an inserted syringe, fill capillary from pulled end to blunt end. Flick out all air bubbles, holding pulled end down. Insert a silver wire (chloriding optional) into the glass electrode made in step 3.1 to serve as recording and stimulating electrode.</li>
	<li>Connect electrodes to a preamplifier that is designed for recordings from contact chemoreceptive sensilla in insects. This preamplifier (300 Hz-3 kHz bandpass filter) will reduce the settling time to capture neuronal activity as close to stimulus introduction as possible. Collect, store and analyze electrical signals using a microcomputer equipped with spike recording software. 
	NOTE: Grounding the recording setup properly may drastically improve signal-to-noise ratio.</li>
	<li>Stimulate sensilla with a control solution (electrolyte only) to ensure functionality. Count spikes starting 200 msec following the stimulus artifact for all preparations.</li>
	<li>Randomize the order of test chemicals for all experiments, except dose&#8211;response studies, to eliminate bias. For dose&#8211;response studies, expose sensilla to increasing concentrations of the experimental chemical. Allow a minimum of 3 min&#160;between stimulations to ensure adequate recovery. 
	NOTE: This requirement may vary depending on insect and sensilla. Threshold is defined as that concentration for which standard error does not overlap with the standard error for the lowest concentration tested.</li>
</ol>
4. RNA Isolation and Sequencing (Figure 2)
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the tightly fitting RNAse-free pestles by cooling them on dry ice before tissue disruption.Prepare accompanying RNase-free pestles that fit snap cap tubes tightly. Keep collection tubes closed unless actively dissecting to avoid excess condensation.</li>
	<li>Using filtered aspirator, place 30 to 40 cold-anesthetized mosquitoes (15 sec&#160;in -20 &#176;C freezer) on cold stage and sort by sex. Place animals dorsal side down, grasping wings to not damage taste appendages.</li>
	<li>Using two pairs of fine forceps, dissect paired labella or tarsi from males or females under a dissecting microscope and limit inclusion of adjacent tissues. 
	NOTE: 500 paired labella yields approximately 800-1,000 nanograms of total mRNA. 400 individual tarsi (5 segments each) yield 1,200-1,800 nanograms of total mRNA.</li>
	<li>With one pair of gasping-forceps, lightly grasp mosquito proboscis just proximal to labella exposing inner stylets. Using other pair of collection-forceps, remove labella and add tissue to side of cold collection tube.</li>
	<li>With one pair of forceps, lightly grasp mosquito leg at junction of tibia and first tarsal segment. Using other pair of forceps, remove tarsi and add tissue to side of cold collection tube. 
	NOTE: Take into account the cell types at the interface of wanted and unwanted tissue. While it is important to limit the inclusion of neighboring tissue, it is equally important to not omit portions of desired tissue. The final sample must accurately represent the entire organ of interest. Create a precise boundary with the grasping forceps such that collection forceps can precisely liberate by scraping or grabbing only the desired tissue.</li>
	<li>Periodically, spin down collection tube briefly in 0 &#176;C centrifuge at 9,000 x g&#160;to keep tissue at bottom of tube. If moisture accumulates in collection tubes during dissection, add 50uL of cold Trizol reagent to cover collected tissue.</li>
	<li>Using anti-smudge lab marker, clearly label one RNase-free 1.5 ml&#160;snap cap tube for each tissue type for collection. Using 1.5 ml&#160;tube rack and liquid nitrogen, freeze then grind tissue into fine powder (fine pieces if in Trizol). Repeat once. Bring total volume of Trizol to 1 ml&#160;and resuspend ground tissue by vortexing.</li>
	<li>Add 200 ul&#160;of chloroform and mix thoroughly. After 5 min&#160;at room temperature, spin down in centrifuge at 4 &#176;C and 11,000 x g&#160;for 15 min. Carefully add aqueous layer directly to a genomic DNA filter column. Spin down at 11,000 x g&#160;for 5 min. Add equal volume of RNase-free 70% ethanol to flow-through and mix by pipet. Transfer liquid to an RNA collection column and continue RNA extraction per the instructions provided.</li>
	<li>Quantify and assess the purity of total RNA on a precision spectrophotometer and proceed with any standard RNA sequencing method.</li>
</ol>
5. Quantitative RT-PCR Validation of RNA Sequencing (Figure 3)
<ol>
	<li>Select as many genes as possible to compare relative gene expression levels over a dynamic range, both in predicted sequence abundance and presumed chemosensory gene function.</li>
	<li>Design primer pairs for each target gene to amplify a specific 100-180 basepair PCR product. Exclude non-specific gDNA amplification by ensuring at least one primer per set spans an intron boundary. Alternatively, use DNase treatment to reduce genomic contamination.</li>
	<li>Collect insect tissue as described in previous section. Calculate how much tissue is required to provide enough RNA to complete all qRT-PCR reactions. 
	NOTE: Biological triplicate and technical triplicate reactions will provide maximum confidence in results.</li>
	<li>Calculate relative gene quantification as Xtarget-(Ct[target]-Ct[reference]) for each target gene and average for each replicate, both biological and technical. Use housekeeping gene(s) to normalize Ct values between biological replicates and to root the Y-axis scale in comparisons of relative expression.</li>
	<li>Assess the similarity of RNA-seq and qRT-PCR datasets using the regression-based, bootstrap equivalence procedure9, iteratively applied, to the data from each tissue. 
	NOTE: This procedure identifies the smallest &#8220;region of similarity&#8221; that can be constructed around the observed RNA-seq and qRT-PCR data, and allow the relative gene expression as measured by qRT-PCR to be considered statistically equivalent to the measurement of relative gene expression by RNA-seq.</li>
</ol>

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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcriptome+profiling+of+chemosensory+appendages+in+the+malaria+vector+Anopheles+gambiae+reveals+tissue-+and+sex-specific+signatures+of+odor+coding.">Transcriptome profiling of chemosensory appendages in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae reveals tissue- and sex-specific signatures of odor coding.</a> BMC Genomics. 12 (271), (2011).</li><li>Zhou, X., Slone, J. D., Rokas, A., Berger, S. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The most challenging aspect of recording action potentials from gustatory sensilla is deciding which responses are &#8220;normal.&#8221; When employing single gustatory sensillum tip recording the first time for a given insect species, the total number and sensitivities of the gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) are likely unknown. Many preliminary recordings are first required to decide the range and concentrations of chemicals to test. In this instance, we began with the observation that a single GRN responded to low con...

Compounds like DEET, Picaridin, Citronellal and IR3535 have been shown to effectively repel mosquitoes, including the important disease vector Aedes aegypti1,2. We record action potentials from sensory neurons associated with specific gustatory sensilla to determine the cells involved with mosquito repellency. Coupled with downstream sequencing of expressed genes in these tissues, we may identify the genes most likely mediating the responses of these cells in order to screen new compounds for improved repellency capabilities.
RNA-seq is a powerful tool, quickly becoming standard for tracking temporal and spatial changes in gene expression. RNA-seq analyses of insect chemosensory appendages and organs have been used to uncover molecular receptors in several insect species3-5, greatly improving on conventional PCR-based searches gene by gene6. Insects represent the most diverse animal class, presenting many opportunities to study the connection between genes and unique phenotypes. RNA-seq technology can be employed on any living insect tissue. Likewise, electrophysiological recording from sensory cells within uniporous gustatory sensilla can be achieved in many different insect species. The pairing of these two techniques allows researchers to narrow the set genes involved in an observed chemosensory phenotype. Different species will present specific challenges, but may inform the connection between chemosensory receptor genes and a chemosensory adaptation. The size and morphology of chemosensory sensilla is variable and may require extensive troubleshooting when recording action potentials to reduce noise and identify repeatable signals. Dissections of chemosensory organs may be trivial or delicate and time consuming, depending on morphology and size of the insect. Recovery of high-quality RNA may require some troubleshooting as well, such as avoiding certain pigments during tissue collection.
While demonstrating the effects of repellent compounds through behavioral trials is direct and informative, this approach is time intensive and broad with respect to mechanism of action. Electrophysiology coupled with RNA-seq allows for more specific analyses of what drives avoidance behaviors in insects. Once the &#8220;toolkit&#8221; of chemical discrimination has been identified in an insect species, more specific attempts to improve on known repellents are possible. Receptors and associated proteins in sensory cells responsible for these behaviors may be expressed heterologously for direct chemical screening. Furthermore, molecular modeling can predict which chemicals will elicit strong responses from these receptors7.
The snapshot of all active genes in a narrow set of chemosensory tissues may also be useful in identifying similar genes in other species. Using sequence homology and expression similarities, researchers may form sets of molecular receptors most likely mediating responses to repellents that are broadly effective on insects. We present the following protocol to aid researchers in deconstructing insect chemosensory pathways and to persuade more to delve into the neuroethology of non-model and economically important insects.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1272">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Glass capillary</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">A-M Systems</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">628000</td>
			<td>Standard, 1.5mm X 0.86mm, 4&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Silver wire</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">A-M Systems</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">7875</td>
			<td>.015&#34; bare</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Tungsten wire</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Alfa Products</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">369</td>
			<td>0.127mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Fine forceps</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">11252</td>
			<td>#5SF Inox</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Refridgerated stage</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">BioQuip Products</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">1429</td>
			<td>Chill Table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Preamplifier</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Syntech</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Taste Probe</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">preamplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Software for electrophysiology</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Syntech</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Autospike</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">software for electrophysiology</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;">TetraMin fish food</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Tetra</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Tropical fish food granules</td>
			<td>fish food ground to fine powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TRIzol</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15596-026</td>
			<td>RNA isolation reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RNeasy Plus Mini Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">74136</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">includes gDNA eliminator and RNeasy spin columns</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Nanodrop spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Nano Drop Products</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ND-1000</td>
			<td>tabletop spectrometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:251px;">R statistics</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">freeware (created by Robert Gentleman and Ross Ihaka)</td>
			<td>www.r-project.org</td>
			<td>Use the lm function of the stats package and the equiv.boot function of the equivalence package in the R computing environment.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">1.5ml tube rack</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Evergreen</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">240-6388-030</td>
			<td>Pour liquid nitrogen into a few empty wells to freeze and grind tissue.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">1.5mL collection tubes with pestle</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Grainger</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">6HAX6</td>
			<td>RNase free</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">11178160</td>
			<td>Spin down frozen tissue to keep at bottom of 1.5 mL tube.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Primer-BLAST Primer Designing tool</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">NCBI</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

physiological recordings and rna sequencing of the gustatory appendages of the yellow-fever mosquito aedes aegypti

Electrophysiological recording of action potentials from sensory neurons of mosquitoes provides investigators a glimpse into the chemical perception of these disease vectors. We have recently identified a bitter sensing neuron in the labellum of female Aedes aegypti that responds to DEET and other repellents, as well as bitter quinine, through direct electrophysiological investigation. These gustatory receptor neuron responses prompted our sequencing of total mRNA from both male and female labella and tarsi samples to elucidate the putative chemoreception genes expressed in these contact chemoreception tissues. Samples of tarsi were divided into pro-, meso- and metathoracic subtypes for both sexes. We then validated our dataset by conducting qRT-PCR on the same tissue samples and used statistical methods to compare results between the two methods. Studies addressing molecular function may now target specific genes to determine those involved in repellent perception by mosquitoes. These receptor pathways may be used to screen novel repellents towards disruption of host-seeking behavior to curb the spread of harmful viruses.

The trace recordings of action potentials from Ae. aegypti gustatory sensilla (Figure 1) demonstrate the effectiveness of direct stimulation with a range of chemicals. This technique can be used to quantify responses to any stimulating chemical by counting spikes of a given amplitude and duration over a reasonable time range (generally less than 500 ms). Trace recordings must be readily reproducible under a given set of experimental conditions. Otherwise, the observed physiological responses may...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti at JoVE.com

Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Using two methods to estimate gene expression in the major gustatory appendages of Aedes aegypti, we have identified the set of genes putatively underlying the neuronal responses to bitter and repulsive compounds, as determined by electrophysiological examination.

Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Electrophysiological recording of action potentials from sensory neurons of mosquitoes provides investigators a glimpse into the chemical perception of ...

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8.0K Views.  United States Department of Agriculture. Using two methods to estimate gene expression in the major gustatory appendages of Aedes aegypti, we have identified the set of genes putatively underlying the neuronal responses to bitter and repulsive compounds, as determined by electrophysiological examination.