The authors thank Bryan T. Vinyard of the USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Biometrical Consulting Service, Beltsville, MD for statistical analyses. This work was supported in part by a grant to J.C.D. from the Deployed War Fighter Protection (DWFP) Research Program funded by the Department of Defense through the Armed Forces Pest Management Board (AFPMB).

1. Rearing Ae. aegypti adults
<ol>
	<li>Hatch eggs in approximately &#190; inch water in shallow tray. Overcrowding will reduce the size of adults.</li>
	<li>Rear larvae at 25 &#176;C (12-hL:12-hD) and feed with ground fish food. 
	NOTE: Overfeeding may reduce survival rates.</li>
	<li>Remove pupae individually by Pasteur pipette daily and transfer to plastic dishes (9 cm &#215; 5.5 cm) inside small containment buckets with fine mesh lids, thus establishing 24 hr&#160;age groupings.</li>
	<li>Feed adult m...

<ol>
	<li>Klun, J. A., Khrimian, A., Debboun, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Repellent+and+deterrent+effects+of+SS220,+picaridin,+and+DEET+suppress+human+blood+feeding+by+Aedes+aegypti,+Anopheles+stephensi,+and+Phlebotomus+papatasi.">Repellent and deterrent effects of SS220, picaridin, and DEET suppress human blood feeding by Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Phlebotomus papatasi.</a> J. Med. Entomol. 43 (1), 34-39 (2006).</li><li>Dickens, J. C., Bohbot, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mini+review:+Mode+of+action+of+mosquito+repellents.Pestic.">Mini review: Mode of action of mosquito repellents.Pestic.</a> Biochem. Physiol. 106 (3), 149-155 (2013).</li><li>Pitts, R. J., Rinker, D. C., Jones, P. L., Rokas, A., Zwiebel, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcriptome+profiling+of+chemosensory+appendages+in+the+malaria+vector+Anopheles+gambiae+reveals+tissue-+and+sex-specific+signatures+of+odor+coding.">Transcriptome profiling of chemosensory appendages in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae reveals tissue- and sex-specific signatures of odor coding.</a> BMC Genomics. 12 (271), (2011).</li><li>Zhou, X., Slone, J. D., Rokas, A., Berger, S. L., Liebig, , et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phylogenetic+and+transcriptomic+analysis+of+chemosensory+receptors+in+a+pair+of+divergent+ant+species+reveals+sex-specific+signatures+of+odor+coding.">Phylogenetic and transcriptomic analysis of chemosensory receptors in a pair of divergent ant species reveals sex-specific signatures of odor coding.</a> PLOS Genet. 8 (8), e1002930 (2012).</li><li>Shiao, M., Fan, W., Fang, S., Lu, M. J., Kondo, R., Li, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcriptional+profiling+of+adult+Drosophila+antenna+by+high-throughput+sequencing.">Transcriptional profiling of adult Drosophila antenna by high-throughput sequencing.</a> Zoological Studies. 52 (42), (2013).</li><li>Bohbot, J., Pitts, R. J., Kwon, H. W., R&#252;tzler, M., Robertson, H. M., Zwiebel, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+characterization+of+the+Aedes+aegypti+odorant+receptor+gene+family.">Molecular characterization of the Aedes aegypti odorant receptor gene family.</a> Insect Mol. Biol. 16 (5), 525-537 (2007).</li><li>Kain, P., Boyle, S. M., Tharadra, S. K., Guda, T., Pham, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Odour+receptors+and+neurons+for+DEET+and+new+insect+repellents.">Odour receptors and neurons for DEET and new insect repellents.</a> Nature. 502 (7472), 507-512 (2013).</li><li>Hodgson, E. S., Lettvin, J. Y., Roeder, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+physiology+of+a+primary+chemoreceptor+unit.">The physiology of a primary chemoreceptor unit.</a> Science. 122 (3166), 417-418 (1955).</li><li>Robinson, A. P., Duursma, R. A., Marshall, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+regression-based+equivalence+test+for+model+validation:+shifting+the+burden+of+proof.">A regression-based equivalence test for model validation: shifting the burden of proof.</a> Tree Physiol. 25 (7), 903-913 (2005).</li><li>Mortazavi, A., Williams, B. A., McCue, K., Schaeffer, L., Wold, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+and+quantifying+mammalian+transcriptomes+by+RNA-seq.">Mapping and quantifying mammalian transcriptomes by RNA-seq.</a> Nat. Methods. 5 (7), 621-628 (2008).</li><li>Trapnell, C., Williams, B. A., Pertea, G., Mortazavi, A., Kwan, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcript+assembly+and+quantification+by+RNA-seq+reveals+unannotated+transcripts+and+isoform+switching+during+cell+differentiation.">Transcript assembly and quantification by RNA-seq reveals unannotated transcripts and isoform switching during cell differentiation.</a> Nat. Biotechnol. 28 (5), 511-515 (2010).</li><li>Sanford, J. L., Shields, V. D. C., Dickens, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gustatory+receptor+neuron+responds+to+DEET+and+other+insect+repellents+in+the+yellow-fever+mosquito,+Aedes+aegypti.">Gustatory receptor neuron responds to DEET and other insect repellents in the yellow-fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti.</a> Naturwiss. 100 (3), 269-273 (2013).</li><li>Sparks, J. T., Vinyard, B. T., Dickens, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gustatory+receptor+expression+in+the+labella+and+tarsi+of+Aedes+aegypti.">Gustatory receptor expression in the labella and tarsi of Aedes aegypti.</a> Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 43 (12), 1161-1171 (2013).</li><li>Kent, L. B., Walden, K. K. O., Robertson, H. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Gr+family+of+candidate+gustatory+and+olfactory+receptors+in+the+yellow-fever+mosquito+Aedes+aegypti.">The Gr family of candidate gustatory and olfactory receptors in the yellow-fever mosquito Aedes aegypti.</a> Chem. Senses. 33 (1), 79-93 (2008).</li><li>Ramsk&#246;ld, D., Wang, E. T., Burge, C. B., Sandberg, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+abundance+of+ubiquitously+expressed+genes+revealed+by+tissue+transcriptome+sequence+data.">An abundance of ubiquitously expressed genes revealed by tissue transcriptome sequence data.</a> PLoS Comput. Biol. 5 (12), e1000598 (2009).</li><li>Wagner, G. P., Kin, K., Lynch, V. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+model+based+criterion+for+gene+expression+calls+using+RNA-seq+data.">A model based criterion for gene expression calls using RNA-seq data.</a> Theory Biosci. 132 (3), 159-164 (2013).</li><li>Hart, T., Komori, H. K., LaMere, S., Podshivalova, K., Salomon, D. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Finding+active+genes+in+deep+RNA-seq+gene+expression+studies.">Finding active genes in deep RNA-seq gene expression studies.</a> BMC Genomics. 14 (778), (2013).</li><li>Isono, K., Morita, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+and+cellular+designs+of+insect+taste+receptor+system.">Molecular and cellular designs of insect taste receptor system.</a> Front. Cellu. Neurosci. 4 (20), 1-16 (2010).</li></ol>

The most challenging aspect of recording action potentials from gustatory sensilla is deciding which responses are &#8220;normal.&#8221; When employing single gustatory sensillum tip recording the first time for a given insect species, the total number and sensitivities of the gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) are likely unknown. Many preliminary recordings are first required to decide the range and concentrations of chemicals to test. In this instance, we began with the observation that a single GRN responded to low con...

Compounds like DEET, Picaridin, Citronellal and IR3535 have been shown to effectively repel mosquitoes, including the important disease vector Aedes aegypti1,2. We record action potentials from sensory neurons associated with specific gustatory sensilla to determine the cells involved with mosquito repellency. Coupled with downstream sequencing of expressed genes in these tissues, we may identify the genes most likely mediating the responses of these cells in order to screen new compounds for improved repellency capabilities.
RNA-seq is a powerful tool, quickly becoming standard for tracking temporal and spatial changes in gene expression. RNA-seq analyses of insect chemosensory appendages and organs have been used to uncover molecular receptors in several insect species3-5, greatly improving on conventional PCR-based searches gene by gene6. Insects represent the most diverse animal class, presenting many opportunities to study the connection between genes and unique phenotypes. RNA-seq technology can be employed on any living insect tissue. Likewise, electrophysiological recording from sensory cells within uniporous gustatory sensilla can be achieved in many different insect species. The pairing of these two techniques allows researchers to narrow the set genes involved in an observed chemosensory phenotype. Different species will present specific challenges, but may inform the connection between chemosensory receptor genes and a chemosensory adaptation. The size and morphology of chemosensory sensilla is variable and may require extensive troubleshooting when recording action potentials to reduce noise and identify repeatable signals. Dissections of chemosensory organs may be trivial or delicate and time consuming, depending on morphology and size of the insect. Recovery of high-quality RNA may require some troubleshooting as well, such as avoiding certain pigments during tissue collection.
While demonstrating the effects of repellent compounds through behavioral trials is direct and informative, this approach is time intensive and broad with respect to mechanism of action. Electrophysiology coupled with RNA-seq allows for more specific analyses of what drives avoidance behaviors in insects. Once the &#8220;toolkit&#8221; of chemical discrimination has been identified in an insect species, more specific attempts to improve on known repellents are possible. Receptors and associated proteins in sensory cells responsible for these behaviors may be expressed heterologously for direct chemical screening. Furthermore, molecular modeling can predict which chemicals will elicit strong responses from these receptors7.
The snapshot of all active genes in a narrow set of chemosensory tissues may also be useful in identifying similar genes in other species. Using sequence homology and expression similarities, researchers may form sets of molecular receptors most likely mediating responses to repellents that are broadly effective on insects. We present the following protocol to aid researchers in deconstructing insect chemosensory pathways and to persuade more to delve into the neuroethology of non-model and economically important insects.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1272">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Glass capillary</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">A-M Systems</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">628000</td>
			<td>Standard, 1.5mm X 0.86mm, 4&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Silver wire</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">A-M Systems</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">7875</td>
			<td>.015&#34; bare</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Tungsten wire</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Alfa Products</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">369</td>
			<td>0.127mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Fine forceps</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">11252</td>
			<td>#5SF Inox</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Refridgerated stage</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">BioQuip Products</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">1429</td>
			<td>Chill Table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Preamplifier</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Syntech</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Taste Probe</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">preamplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Software for electrophysiology</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Syntech</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Autospike</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">software for electrophysiology</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;">TetraMin fish food</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Tetra</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Tropical fish food granules</td>
			<td>fish food ground to fine powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TRIzol</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15596-026</td>
			<td>RNA isolation reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RNeasy Plus Mini Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">74136</td>
			<td style="width:467px;">includes gDNA eliminator and RNeasy spin columns</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Nanodrop spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Nano Drop Products</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">ND-1000</td>
			<td>tabletop spectrometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:251px;">R statistics</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">freeware (created by Robert Gentleman and Ross Ihaka)</td>
			<td>www.r-project.org</td>
			<td>Use the lm function of the stats package and the equiv.boot function of the equivalence package in the R computing environment.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">1.5ml tube rack</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Evergreen</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">240-6388-030</td>
			<td>Pour liquid nitrogen into a few empty wells to freeze and grind tissue.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">1.5mL collection tubes with pestle</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Grainger</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">6HAX6</td>
			<td>RNase free</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">11178160</td>
			<td>Spin down frozen tissue to keep at bottom of 1.5 mL tube.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Primer-BLAST Primer Designing tool</td>
			<td style="width:367px;">NCBI</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

physiological recordings and rna sequencing of the gustatory appendages of the yellow-fever mosquito aedes aegypti

Electrophysiological recording of action potentials from sensory neurons of mosquitoes provides investigators a glimpse into the chemical perception of these disease vectors. We have recently identified a bitter sensing neuron in the labellum of female Aedes aegypti that responds to DEET and other repellents, as well as bitter quinine, through direct electrophysiological investigation. These gustatory receptor neuron responses prompted our sequencing of total mRNA from both male and female labella and tarsi samples to elucidate the putative chemoreception genes expressed in these contact chemoreception tissues. Samples of tarsi were divided into pro-, meso- and metathoracic subtypes for both sexes. We then validated our dataset by conducting qRT-PCR on the same tissue samples and used statistical methods to compare results between the two methods. Studies addressing molecular function may now target specific genes to determine those involved in repellent perception by mosquitoes. These receptor pathways may be used to screen novel repellents towards disruption of host-seeking behavior to curb the spread of harmful viruses.

The trace recordings of action potentials from Ae. aegypti gustatory sensilla (Figure 1) demonstrate the effectiveness of direct stimulation with a range of chemicals. This technique can be used to quantify responses to any stimulating chemical by counting spikes of a given amplitude and duration over a reasonable time range (generally less than 500 ms). Trace recordings must be readily reproducible under a given set of experimental conditions. Otherwise, the observed physiological responses may...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti at JoVE.com

Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Using two methods to estimate gene expression in the major gustatory appendages of Aedes aegypti, we have identified the set of genes putatively underlying the neuronal responses to bitter and repulsive compounds, as determined by electrophysiological examination.

Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Electrophysiological recording of action potentials from sensory neurons of mosquitoes provides investigators a glimpse into the chemical perception of ...

physiological-recordings-rna-sequencing-gustatory-appendages-yellow

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

8.0K ビュー.  United States Department of Agriculture. 電気生理学的検査によって決定されるようネッタイシマカの主要な味覚付属における遺伝子発現を評価するために2つの方法を使用して、我々は、推定される苦味反発化合物に神経細胞応答の根底にある遺伝子のセットを同定した。 

ビデオ: Physiological Recordings and RNA Sequencing of the Gustatory Appendages of the Yellow-fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Using two methods to estimate gene expression in the major gustatory appendages of Aedes aegypti, we have identified the set of genes putatively underlying the neuronal responses to bitter and repulsive compounds, as determined by electrophysiological...

a protocol for collecting and staining hemocytes from the yellow fever mosquito aedes aegypti

A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

A simplified yet accurate method to collect and stain mosquito hemocytes is described. Our method combines the simplicity of perfusion with the accuracy of high injection techniques to isolate clean preparations of hemocytes in Aedes mosquitoes. This method facilitates studies requiring knowledge of the types of hemocytes and their...

A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

propagation of the microsporidian parasite edhazardia aedis in aedes aegypti mosquitoes

Propagation of the Microsporidian Parasite Edhazardia aedis in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

A protocol to culture the microsporidian parasite Edhazardia aedis. The parasite is passaged from one generation of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes to the next via horizontal transfer at the larval stage followed by vertical transmission at the adult stage. Live sporoplasms survive long-term in infected...

Propagation of the Microsporidian Parasite Edhazardia aedis in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

indel detection following crispr/cas9 mutagenesis using high-resolution melt analysis in the mosquito aedes aegypti

Indel Detection following CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis using High-resolution Melt Analysis in the Mosquito Aedes aegypti

This article details a protocol for rapid identification of indels induced by CRISPR/Cas9 and selection of mutant lines in the mosquito Aedes aegypti using high-resolution melt analysis.

Indel Detection following CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis using High-resolution Melt Analysis in the Mosquito Aedes aegypti

an experimental and bioinformatics protocol for rna-seq analyses of photoperiodic diapause in the asian tiger mosquito, aedes albopictus

An Experimental and Bioinformatics Protocol for RNA-seq Analyses of Photoperiodic Diapause in the Asian Tiger Mosquito, Aedes albopictus

RNA-Seq analyses are becoming increasingly important for identifying the molecular underpinnings of adaptive traits in non-model organisms. Here, a protocol to identify differentially expressed genes between diapause and non-diapause Aedes albopictus mosquitoes is described, from mosquito rearing, to RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analyses of RNA-Seq data.

An Experimental and Bioinformatics Protocol for RNA-seq Analyses of Photoperiodic Diapause in the Asian Tiger Mosquito, Aedes albopictus

building a better mosquito: identifying the genes enabling malaria and dengue fever resistance in a. gambiae and a. aegypti mosquitoes

Building a Better Mosquito: Identifying the Genes Enabling Malaria and Dengue Fever Resistance in A. gambiae and A. aegypti Mosquitoes

In this interview, George Dimopoulos focuses on the physiological mechanisms used by mosquitoes to combat Plasmodium falciparum and dengue virus infections.   Explanation is given for how key refractory genes, those genes conferring resistance to vector pathogens, are identified in the mosquito and how this knowledge can be used to generate transgenic mosquitoes that are unable to carry the malaria parasite or dengue...

a calcium bioluminescence assay for functional analysis of mosquito (aedes aegypti) and tick (rhipicephalus microplus) g protein-coupled receptors

A Calcium Bioluminescence Assay for Functional Analysis of Mosquito Aedes aegypti and Tick Rhipicephalus microplus G Protein-coupled Receptors

This protocol provides instructions for clonal-cell line selection and a calcium bioluminescence assay to analyze the structure-activity relationships of synthesized arthropod neuropeptides on their cognate GPCRs. This assay can be used for receptor deorphanization and structure-activity relationship studies for synthetic analog design and peptide/drug-lead...

A Calcium Bioluminescence Assay for Functional Analysis of Mosquito (Aedes aegypti) and Tick (Rhipicephalus microplus) G Protein-coupled Receptors

heterologous expression and functional analysis of aedes aegypti odorant receptors to human odors in xenopus oocytes

Heterologous Expression and Functional Analysis of Aedes aegypti Odorant Receptors to Human Odors in Xenopus Oocytes

A protocol is presented that functionally characterizes mosquito ORs in response to human odors using a Xenopus oocyte expression system coupled with a two-electrode voltage clamp, providing a powerful new technique for exploring the responses of mosquitoes ORs to exposure to human...

Heterologous Expression and Functional Analysis of Aedes aegypti Odorant Receptors to Human Odors in Xenopus Oocytes

hybridization chain reaction rna whole-mount fluorescence in situ hybridization of chemosensory genes in mosquito olfactory appendages

Author Spotlight: Visualizing Olfactory Receptor Expression in Mosquitoes 

The article describes the methods and reagents necessary to perform hybridization chain reaction RNA whole-mount fluorescence in situ hybridization (HCR RNA WM-FISH) to reveal insights into the spatial and cellular resolution of chemosensory receptor genes in the mosquito antenna and maxillary palp.

Hybridization Chain Reaction RNA Whole-Mount Fluorescence In situ Hybridization of Chemosensory Genes in Mosquito Olfactory Appendages

maintaining aedes aegypti mosquitoes infected with wolbachia

Maintaining Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes Infected with Wolbachia

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes infected with Wolbachia are being released into natural populations to suppress the transmission of arboviruses. We describe methods to rear Ae. aegypti with Wolbachia infections in the laboratory for experiments and field release, taking precautions to minimize laboratory adaptation and...

Maintaining Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes Infected with Wolbachia

quantifying fitness costs in transgenic aedes aegypti mosquitoes

Quantifying Fitness Costs in Transgenic Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

The present protocol describes how to measure common life parameter data in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, including fecundity, wing size, fertility, sex ratio, viability, development times, male contribution, and adult longevity. These measurements can be used to assess the fitness of transgenic...

Quantifying Fitness Costs in Transgenic Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

control of aedes albopictus mosquito larvae with carpesium abrotanoides l.

Control of Aedes albopictus Mosquito Larvae with Carpesium abrotanoides L.

Using the Carpesium abrotanoides L. plant for mosquito larvae control can effectively reduce the Aedes albopictus mosquito population and provide a foundation for designing plant-derived...

Control of Aedes albopictus Mosquito Larvae with Carpesium abrotanoides L.

preparing irradiated and marked male aedes aegypti mosquitoes for release in an operational sterile insect technique program

Preparing Irradiated and Marked Male Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes for Release in an Operational Sterile Insect Technique Program

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is used to control specific, medically important mosquito populations that may be resistant to chemical controls. Here, we describe a method of mass rearing and preparation of sterile male mosquitoes for release in an operational SIT program targeting the Aedes aegypti...

Preparing Irradiated and Marked Male Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes for Release in an Operational Sterile Insect Technique Program

rnai-mediated gene knockdown and in vivo diuresis assay in adult female aedes aegypti mosquitoes

RNAi-mediated Gene Knockdown and In Vivo Diuresis Assay in Adult Female Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

In this protocol we combine RNAi-mediated gene silencing with an in vivo diuresis assay to study the effects knockdown of genes of interest has on mosquito fluid...

RNAi-mediated Gene Knockdown and In Vivo Diuresis Assay in Adult Female Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

feeding and quantifying animal-derived blood and artificial meals in aedes aegypti mosquitoes

Feeding and Quantifying Animal-Derived Blood and Artificial Meals in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

The goal of this protocol is to deliver animal-derived and artificial blood meals to Aedes aegypti mosquitoes through an artificial membrane feeder and precisely quantify the volume of meal...

Feeding and Quantifying Animal-Derived Blood and Artificial Meals in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

vector competence analyses on aedes aegypti mosquitoes using zika virus

Vector Competence Analyses on Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes using Zika Virus

The presented protocol can determine the vector competence of Aedes aegypti mosquito populations for a given virus, such as Zika, in a containment...

Vector Competence Analyses on Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes using Zika Virus

fat body organ culture system in aedes aegypti, a vector of zika virus

Fat Body Organ Culture System in Aedes Aegypti, a Vector of Zika Virus

The fat body is the central metabolic organ in insects. We present a live organ culture system that enables the user to study the responses of isolated fat body tissue to various...

Fat Body Organ Culture System in Aedes Aegypti, a Vector of Zika Virus

using the fluorescent dye, rhodamine b, to study mating competitiveness in male aedes aegypti mosquitoes

Using the Fluorescent Dye, Rhodamine B, to Study Mating Competitiveness in Male Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

Here, we present a protocol for studying mating competitiveness of male Aedes aegypti using fluorescent dye as a marker. Female mosquitoes are exposed to both marked and unmarked males for copulation. Post mating, their spermathecae are examined under a fluorescence microscope to determine their mating partner.

Using the Fluorescent Dye, Rhodamine B, to Study Mating Competitiveness in Male Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

mass production of genetically modified aedes aegypti for field releases in brazil

Mass Production of Genetically Modified Aedes aegypti for Field Releases in Brazil

To achieve population suppression of Aedes aegypti using the RIDL&#174; (Release of Insects carrying a Dominant Lethal) system, large numbers of male mosquitoes need to be released. This requires the use of mass rearing techniques and technology to provide reliable systems to obtain the maximum number of high quality male...

Mass Production of Genetically Modified Aedes aegypti for Field Releases in Brazil

In this interview, George Dimopoulos focuses on the physiological mechanisms used by mosquitoes to combat Plasmodium falciparum and dengue virus infections.   Explanation is given for how key refractory genes, those genes conferring resistance to vector pathogens, are identified in the mosquito and how this knowledge can be used to generate transgenic mosquitoes that are unable to carry the malaria parasite or dengue virus.

In this interview, George Dimopoulos focuses on the physiological mechanisms used by mosquitoes to combat Plasmodium falciparum and dengue virus infections. Explanation is given for how key refractory genes, those genes conferring resistance to vector pathogens, are identified in the mosquito and how this knowledge can be used to generate transgenic mosquitoes that are unable to carry the malaria parasite or dengue virus.

In this interview, George Dimopoulos focuses on the physiological mechanisms used by mosquitoes to combat Plasmodium falciparum and dengue virus ...

This video protocol demonstrates an effective technique to knockdown a particular gene in an insect and conduct a novel bioassay to measure excretion rate. This method can be used to obtain a better understanding of the process of diuresis in insects and is especially useful in the study of diuresis in blood-feeding arthropods that are able to take up huge amounts of liquid in a single blood meal. 
This RNAi-mediated gene knockdown combined with an in vivo diuresis assay was developed by the Hansen lab to study the effects of RNAi-mediated knockdown of aquaporin genes on Aedes aegypti mosquito diuresis1. 
The protocol is setup in two parts: the first demonstration illustrates how to construct a simple mosquito injection device and how to prepare and inject dsRNA into the thorax of mosquitoes for RNAi-mediated gene knockdown. The second demonstration illustrates how to determine excretion rates in mosquitoes using an in vivo bioassay.

In this protocol we combine RNAi-mediated gene silencing with an in vivo diuresis assay to study the effects knockdown of genes of interest has on mosquito fluid excretion.

This video protocol demonstrates an effective technique to knockdown a particular gene in an insect and conduct a novel bioassay to measure excretion ...

Depletion of Ribosomal RNA for Mosquito Gut Metagenomic RNA-seq

The mosquito gut accommodates dynamic microbial communities across different stages of the insect's life cycle. Characterization of the genetic capacity and functionality of the gut community will provide insight into the effects of gut microbiota on mosquito life traits. Metagenomic RNA-Seq has become an important tool to analyze transcriptomes from various microbes present in a microbial community. Messenger RNA usually comprises only 1-3% of total RNA, while rRNA constitutes approximately 90%. It is challenging to enrich messenger RNA from a metagenomic microbial RNA sample because most prokaryotic mRNA species lack stable poly(A) tails. This prevents oligo d(T) mediated mRNA isolation. Here, we describe a protocol that employs sample derived rRNA capture probes to remove rRNA from a metagenomic total RNA sample. To begin, both mosquito and microbial small and large subunit rRNA fragments are amplified from a metagenomic community DNA sample. Then, the community specific biotinylated antisense ribosomal RNA probes are synthesized in vitro using T7 RNA polymerase. The biotinylated rRNA probes are hybridized to the total RNA. The hybrids are captured by streptavidin-coated beads and removed from the total RNA. This subtraction-based protocol efficiently removes both mosquito and microbial rRNA from the total RNA sample. The mRNA enriched sample is further processed for RNA amplification and RNA-Seq.

A ribosomal RNA (rRNA) depletion protocol was developed to enrich messenger RNA (mRNA) for RNA-seq of the mosquito gut metatranscriptome. Sample specific rRNA probes, which were used to remove rRNA via subtraction, were created from the mosquito and its gut microbes. Performance of the protocol can result in the removal of approximately 90-99% of rRNA.

The mosquito gut accommodates dynamic microbial communities across different stages of the insect's life cycle. Characterization of the genetic capacity ...

Next-generation Sequencing of 16S Ribosomal RNA Gene Amplicons

One of the major questions in microbial ecology is &#8220;who is there?&#8221; This question can be answered using various tools, but one of the long-lasting gold standards is to sequence 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene amplicons generated by domain-level PCR reactions amplifying from genomic DNA. Traditionally, this was performed by cloning and Sanger (capillary electrophoresis) sequencing of PCR amplicons. The advent of next-generation sequencing has tremendously simplified and increased the sequencing depth for 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The introduction of benchtop sequencers now allows small labs to perform their 16S rRNA sequencing in-house in a matter of days. Here, an approach for 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing using a benchtop next-generation sequencer is detailed. The environmental DNA is first amplified by PCR using primers that contain sequencing adapters and barcodes. They are then coupled to spherical particles via emulsion PCR. The particles are loaded on a disposable chip and the chip is inserted in the sequencing machine after which the sequencing is performed. The sequences are retrieved in fastq format, filtered and the barcodes are used to establish the sample membership of the reads. The filtered and binned reads are then further analyzed using publically available tools. An example analysis where the reads were classified with a taxonomy-finding algorithm within the software package Mothur is given. The method outlined here is simple, inexpensive and straightforward and should help smaller labs to take advantage from the ongoing genomic revolution.

Characterizing microbial community has been a longstanding goal in environmental microbiology. Next-generation sequencing methods now allow for the characterization of microbial communities at an unprecedented depth with minimal cost and labor. We detail here our approach to sequence bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA genes using a benchtop sequencer.

One of the major questions in microbial ecology is &#8220;who is there?&#8221; This question can be answered using various tools, but one of the ...

Photoperiodic diapause is an important adaptation that allows individuals to escape harsh seasonal environments via a series of physiological changes, most notably developmental arrest and reduced metabolism. Global gene expression profiling via RNA-Seq can provide important insights into the transcriptional mechanisms of photoperiodic diapause. The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, is an outstanding organism for studying the transcriptional bases of diapause due to its ease of rearing, easily induced diapause, and the genomic resources available. This manuscript presents a general experimental workflow for identifying diapause-induced transcriptional differences in A. albopictus. Rearing techniques, conditions necessary to induce diapause and non-diapause development, methods to estimate percent diapause in a population, and RNA extraction and integrity assessment for mosquitoes are documented. A workflow to process RNA-Seq data from Illumina sequencers culminates in a list of differentially expressed genes. The representative results demonstrate that this protocol can be used to effectively identify genes differentially regulated at the transcriptional level in A. albopictus due to photoperiodic differences. With modest adjustments, this workflow can be readily adapted to study the transcriptional bases of diapause or other important life history traits in other mosquitoes.

RNA-Seq analyses are becoming increasingly important for identifying the molecular underpinnings of adaptive traits in non-model organisms. Here, a protocol to identify differentially expressed genes between diapause and non-diapause Aedes albopictus mosquitoes is described, from mosquito rearing, to RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analyses of RNA-Seq data.

Photoperiodic diapause is an important adaptation that allows individuals to escape harsh seasonal environments via a series of physiological changes, ...

Identification of Key Factors Regulating Self-renewal and Differentiation in EML Hematopoietic Precursor Cells by RNA-sequencing Analysis

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are used clinically for transplantation treatment to rebuild a patient&#39;s hematopoietic system in many diseases such as leukemia and lymphoma. Elucidating the mechanisms controlling HSCs self-renewal and differentiation is important for application of HSCs for research and clinical uses. However, it is not possible to obtain large quantity of HSCs due to their inability to proliferate in vitro. To overcome this hurdle, we used a mouse bone marrow derived cell line, the EML (Erythroid, Myeloid, and Lymphocytic) cell line, as a model system for this study.
RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) has been increasingly used to replace microarray for gene expression studies. We report here a detailed method of using RNA-Seq technology to investigate the potential key factors in regulation of EML cell self-renewal and differentiation. The protocol provided in this paper is divided into three parts. The first part explains how to culture EML cells and separate Lin-CD34+ and Lin-CD34- cells. The second part of the protocol offers detailed procedures for total RNA preparation and the subsequent library construction for high-throughput sequencing. The last part describes the method for RNA-Seq data analysis and explains how to use the data to identify differentially expressed transcription factors between Lin-CD34+ and Lin-CD34- cells. The most significantly differentially expressed transcription factors were identified to be the potential key regulators controlling EML cell self-renewal and differentiation. In the discussion section of this paper, we highlight the key steps for successful performance of this experiment.
In summary, this paper offers a method of using RNA-Seq technology to identify potential regulators of self-renewal and differentiation in EML cells. The key factors identified are subjected to downstream functional analysis in vitro and in vivo.

RNA-sequencing and bioinformatics analyses were used to identify significantly and differentially expressed transcription factors in Lin-CD34+ and Lin-CD34- subpopulations of mouse EMLcells. These transcription factors might play important roles in determining the switch between self-renewing Lin-CD34+ and partially differentiated Lin-CD34- cells.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are used clinically for transplantation treatment to rebuild a patient&#39;s hematopoietic system in many diseases such as ...

Targeted RNA Sequencing Assay to Characterize Gene Expression and Genomic Alterations

RNA sequencing (RNAseq) is a versatile method that can be utilized to detect and characterize gene expression, mutations, gene fusions, and noncoding RNAs. Standard RNAseq requires 30 - 100 million sequencing reads and can include multiple RNA products such as mRNA and noncoding RNAs. We demonstrate how targeted RNAseq (capture) permits a focused study on selected RNA products using a desktop sequencer. RNAseq capture can characterize unannotated, low, or transiently expressed transcripts that may otherwise be missed using traditional RNAseq methods. Here we describe the extraction of RNA from cell lines, ribosomal RNA depletion, cDNA synthesis, preparation of barcoded libraries, hybridization and capture of targeted transcripts and multiplex sequencing on a desktop sequencer. We also outline the computational analysis pipeline, which includes quality control assessment, alignment, fusion detection, gene expression quantification and identification of single nucleotide variants. This assay allows for targeted transcript sequencing to characterize gene expression, gene fusions, and mutations.

We describe a targeted RNA sequencing-based method that includes preparation of indexed cDNA libraries, hybridization and capture with custom probes and data analysis to interrogate selected transcripts for gene expression, mutations, and gene fusions. Targeted RNAseq permits cost-effective, rapid evaluation of selected transcripts on a desktop sequencer.

RNA sequencing (RNAseq) is a versatile method that can be utilized to detect and characterize gene expression, mutations, gene fusions, and noncoding ...

The insect fat body plays a central role in insect metabolism and nutrient storage, mirroring functions of the liver and fat tissue in vertebrates. Insect fat body tissue is usually distributed throughout the insect body. However, it is often concentrated in the abdomen and attached to the abdominal body wall.
The mosquito fat body is the sole source of yolk proteins, which are critical for egg production. Therefore, the in vitro culture of mosquito fat body tissues represents an important system for the study of mosquito physiology, metabolism, and, ultimately, egg production. The fat body culture process begins with the preparation of solutions and reagents, including amino acid stock solutions, Aedes physiological saline salt stock solution (APS), calcium stock solution, and fat body culture medium. The process continues with fat body dissection, followed by an experimental treatment. After treatment, a variety of different analyses can be performed, including RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq), qPCR, Western blots, proteomics, and metabolomics.
In our example experiment, we demonstrate the protocol through the excision and culture of fat bodies from the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, a principal vector of arboviruses including dengue, chikungunya, and Zika. RNA from fat bodies cultured under a physiological condition known to upregulate yolk proteins versus the control were subject to RNA-Seq analysis to demonstrate the potential utility of this procedure for investigations of gene expression.

The fat body is the central metabolic organ in insects. We present a live organ culture system that enables the user to study the responses of isolated fat body tissue to various stimuli.

The insect fat body plays a central role in insect metabolism and nutrient storage, mirroring functions of the liver and fat tissue in vertebrates. Insect ...

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes experimentally infected with Wolbachia are being utilized in programs to control the spread of arboviruses such as dengue, chikungunya and Zika. Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes can be released into the field to either reduce population sizes through incompatible matings or to transform populations with mosquitoes that are refractory to virus transmission. For these strategies to succeed, the mosquitoes released into the field from the laboratory must be competitive with native mosquitoes. However, maintaining mosquitoes in the laboratory can result in inbreeding, genetic drift and laboratory adaptation which can reduce their fitness in the field and may confound the results of experiments. To test the suitability of different Wolbachia infections for deployment in the field, it is necessary to maintain mosquitoes in a controlled laboratory environment across multiple generations. We describe a simple protocol for maintaining Ae. aegypti mosquitoes in the laboratory, which is suitable for both Wolbachia-infected and wild-type mosquitoes. The methods minimize laboratory adaptation and implement outcrossing to increase the relevance of experiments to field mosquitoes. Additionally, colonies are maintained under optimal conditions to maximize their fitness for open field releases.

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes infected with Wolbachia are being released into natural populations to suppress the transmission of arboviruses. We describe methods to rear Ae. aegypti with Wolbachia infections in the laboratory for experiments and field release, taking precautions to minimize laboratory adaptation and selection.

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes experimentally infected with Wolbachia are being utilized in programs to control the spread of arboviruses such as dengue, ...

Improved Fecundity and Fertility Assay for Aedes aegypti using 24 Well Tissue Culture Plates (EAgaL Plates)

Mosquitoes represent a significant public health problem as vectors of various pathogens. For those studies that require an assessment of mosquito fitness parameters, in particular egg production and hatch rates at the individual level, conventional methods have put a substantial burden on investigators due to high labor intensity and laboratory space requirements. Described is a simple method using 24 well tissue culture plate with agarose in each well and digital imaging of each well to determine egg numbers and hatch rates at an individual level with substantially reduced time and space requirements.

Improved Fecundity and Fertility Assay for Aedes aegypti using 24 Well Tissue Culture Plates EAgaL Plates

Described is a time and space-saving method to count eggs and determine hatch rates of individual mosquitoes using 24 well tissue culture plates, which can substantially increase the scale and speed of fecundity and fertility assays.

Mosquitoes represent a significant public health problem as vectors of various pathogens. For those studies that require an assessment of mosquito fitness ...