We thank Paolo Bragan&#242; and Lisa Mathiasen, Ph.D. for their review of the assay protocol methodology. Dario Winterton, MD provided substantial help reviewing the manuscript for English language proficiency.

The protocol is conducted according to institutional guidelines relating to the handling of human biospecimens and following the current standard operative procedures of our clinical laboratory. The use of EA data and clinical information of patients being tested follows the guidelines of our institution&#8217;s human research ethics committee.
1. Laboratory Equipment and Assay Kit Contents
<ol>
	<li>Store the EA kit at 2&#8211;8 &#176;C when not in use.</li>
	<li>Each EA test consists of 5 different kinds of tubes; use each one for a different portion of the test (see section 2).
	<ol>
		<li>Use tube #1 (the &#8220;Control&#8221; tube) to measure the basal activity of the non-specific oxidative burst of patient&#8217;s neutrophils in the absence of a specific antibody.</li>
		<li>Use tube #2 (the &#8220;Sample&#8221; tube) to measure the oxidative burst in response to the LPS-antibody complex.</li>
		<li>Use tube #3 (the &#8220;Max&#8221; tube) to measure the maximal oxidative burst of patient&#8217;s neutrophils in response to an excess of endotoxin.</li>
		<li>Use tube #4 (the &#8220;LPS&#8221; tube) as a source of exogenous endotoxin.</li>
		<li>Use tube #5 (&#8220;Aliquot&#8221; tube) for blood storage. 
		NOTE: Duplicates of tubes #1, #2 and #3 are provided for a total of 8 tubes to be used for each blood sample being tested (the EA reagent bottle and quality control test can be used for all the tests contained in a pouch).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Collect patient blood samples in sterile tubes containing EDTA anticoagulant. Store blood samples at room temperature before running the EA test.</li>
	<li>Before starting the test, turn on the chemiluminometer and incubator shaker. Warm the incubator to the temperature of 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Ideally, start processing the sample within 30 min from blood collection.</li>
</ol>
2. Endotoxin Activity Assay
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the EA test tubes for each patient&#8217;s blood sample you need to test. Put the tubes in tube racks. Then remove the caps.</li>
	<li>Using a combipipette, pipette a 1 mL volume of the EA reagent from the bottle into tubes #1 (Control tube), #2 (Sample tube) and #3 (Max tube), each one in duplicate. 
	NOTE: Pipette down the side of the tube to avoid solution splashing back up.</li>
	<li>Mix the patient blood sample by gently inverting the blood collection tube for 20 times. Then, pipette 0.5 mL of patient blood into tube #4 (LPS max tube) and tube #5 (Aliquot tube). Vortex tube #4 for 10 s.</li>
	<li>Put the tube racks with all the EA test tubes in the incubator shaker. Close the lid and incubate for 10 min at the temperature of 37&#176;C.</li>
	<li>Open the lid and remove the tube racks from the incubator shaker. Vortex tube #5 (Aliquot tube). Using a sterile tip, pipette 40 &#181;L of blood into tubes #1 and #2, in duplicate.</li>
	<li>Vortex tube #4 (LPS tube). Using the same pipette tip, pipette 40 &#181;L of blood from tube #4 into tube #3 (Max tube), in duplicate.</li>
	<li>Vortex the six final test tubes (#1, #2, #3, and respective duplicates), then place them back into their racks. 
	NOTE: Ensure that all the tubes are vortexed for the same amount of time.</li>
	<li>Put the tube racks back into the incubating shaker and close the lid. Set the incubating shaker at 100 rpm, then start the motion for 14 min.</li>
	<li>Insert the EA labeled chipcard in the chemiluminometer and press start. After the 14 min incubation, follow the instructions displayed on the chemiluminometer to read the EA tubes in the correct order.</li>
	<li>Gently vortex each tube for 10 s before placing it onto the sample holder of the chemiluminometer. Open the sample drawer and place tube #1 in the sample holder. Then, close the sample drawer and wait for the Relative Light Unit (RLU) reading.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 2.10 for tube 2 and tube 3.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 2.10 for duplicate tubes 1, 2, and 3. 
	NOTE: Try to vortex all tubes for the same amount of time during steps 2.10&#8211;2.12.</li>
	<li>After all the tubes have been processed, note that the EA results will be calculated and printed automatically. Levels are expressed as EA units and represent the mean of duplicate determinations from the same samples.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 2.2 to 2.13 for every blood sample that needs to be tested.</li>
	<li>Once the assay has been completed, store the remaining test tubes and EA reagents at 2&#8211;8 &#176;C for up to 30 days.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Akira, S., Takeda, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toll-like+receptor+signalling.">Toll-like receptor signalling.</a> Nature Reviews Immunology. 4 (7), 499-511 (2004).</li><li>Takeda, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolution+and+integration+of+innate+immune+recognition+systems:+the+Toll-like+receptors.">Evolution and integration of innate immune recognition systems: the Toll-like receptors.</a> Journal of Endotoxin Research. 11 (1), 51-55 (2005).</li><li>Ulevitch, R. J., Tobias, P. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recognition+of+gram-negative+bacteria+and+endotoxin+by+the+innate+immune+system.">Recognition of gram-negative bacteria and endotoxin by the innate immune system.</a> Current Opinion in Immunology. 11 (1), 19-22 (1999).</li><li>Natanson, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endotoxin+and+tumor+necrosis+factor+challenges+in+dogs+simulate+the+cardiovascular+profile+of+human+septic+shock.">Endotoxin and tumor necrosis factor challenges in dogs simulate the cardiovascular profile of human septic shock.</a> The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 169 (3), 823-832 (1989).</li><li>Suffredini, A. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cardiovascular+response+of+normal+humans+to+the+administration+of+endotoxin.">The cardiovascular response of normal humans to the administration of endotoxin.</a> The New England Journal of Medicine. 321 (5), 280-287 (1989).</li><li>Singer, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Third+International+Consensus+Definitions+for+Sepsis+and+Septic+Shock+(Sepsis-3).">The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3).</a> JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 315 (8), 801-810 (2016).</li><li>Gupta, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Culture-Negative+Severe+Sepsis:+Nationwide+Trends+and+Outcomes.">Culture-Negative Severe Sepsis: Nationwide Trends and Outcomes.</a> Chest. 150 (6), 1251-1259 (2016).</li><li>Ikeda, T., Ikeda, K., Suda, S., Ueno, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Usefulness+of+the+endotoxin+activity+assay+as+a+biomarker+to+assess+the+severity+of+endotoxemia+in+critically+ill+patients.">Usefulness of the endotoxin activity assay as a biomarker to assess the severity of endotoxemia in critically ill patients.</a> Innate Immunity. 20 (8), 881-887 (2014).</li><li>Dellinger, R. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Targeted+Polymyxin+B+Hemoperfusion+on+28-Day+Mortality+in+Patients+With+Septic+Shock+and+Elevated+Endotoxin+Level.">Effect of Targeted Polymyxin B Hemoperfusion on 28-Day Mortality in Patients With Septic Shock and Elevated Endotoxin Level.</a> The EUPHRATES Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 320 (14), 1455-1463 (2018).</li><li>Marshall, J. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diagnostic+and+prognostic+implications+of+endotoxemia+in+critical+illness:+results+of+the+MEDIC+study.">Diagnostic and prognostic implications of endotoxemia in critical illness: results of the MEDIC study.</a> The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 190 (3), 527-534 (2004).</li><li>Levin, J., Bang, F. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clottable+protein+in+Limulus;+its+localization+and+kinetics+of+its+coagulation+by+endotoxin.">Clottable protein in Limulus; its localization and kinetics of its coagulation by endotoxin.</a> Thrombosis et Diathesis Haemorrhagica. 19 (1), 186-197 (1968).</li><li>Marshall, J. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+endotoxin+activity+in+critically+ill+patients+using+whole+blood+neutrophil+dependent+chemiluminescence.">Measurement of endotoxin activity in critically ill patients using whole blood neutrophil dependent chemiluminescence.</a> Critical Care. 6 (4), 342-348 (2002).</li><li>Grimaldi, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+Level+of+Endotoxemia+Following+Out-of-Hospital+Cardiac+Arrest+Is+Associated+With+Severity+and+Duration+of+Postcardiac+Arrest+Shock.">High Level of Endotoxemia Following Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Is Associated With Severity and Duration of Postcardiac Arrest Shock.</a> Critical Care Medicine. 43 (12), 2597-2604 (2015).</li><li>Klein, D. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+EUPHRATES+trial+(Evaluating+the+Use+of+Polymyxin+B+Hemoperfusion+in+a+Randomized+controlled+trial+of+Adults+Treated+for+Endotoxemia+and+Septic+shock):+study+protocol+for+a+randomized+controlled+trial.">The EUPHRATES trial (Evaluating the Use of Polymyxin B Hemoperfusion in a Randomized controlled trial of Adults Treated for Endotoxemia and Septic shock): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.</a> Trials. 15, 218 (2014).</li><li>Bottiroli, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prevalence+and+clinical+significance+of+early+high+Endotoxin+Activity+in+septic+shock:+An+observational+study.">Prevalence and clinical significance of early high Endotoxin Activity in septic shock: An observational study.</a> Journal of Critical Care. 41, 124-129 (2017).</li><li>Kaukonen, K. M., Bailey, M., Suzuki, S., Pilcher, D., Bellomo, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mortality+related+to+severe+sepsis+and+septic+shock+among+critically+ill+patients+in+Australia+and+New+Zealand.">Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand.</a> JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 311 (13), 1308-1316 (2014).</li><li>Biagioni, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endotoxin+activity+levels+as+a+prediction+tool+for+risk+of+deterioration+in+patients+with+sepsis+not+admitted+to+the+intensive+care+unit:+a+pilot+observational+study.">Endotoxin activity levels as a prediction tool for risk of deterioration in patients with sepsis not admitted to the intensive care unit: a pilot observational study.</a> Journal of Critical Care. 28 (5), 612-617 (2013).</li><li>Roth, R. I., Levin, F. C., Levin, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimization+of+detection+of+bacterial+endotoxin+in+plasma+with+the+Limulus+test.">Optimization of detection of bacterial endotoxin in plasma with the Limulus test.</a> The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 116 (2), 153-161 (1990).</li><li>Yaguchi, A., Yuzawa, J., Klein, D. J., Takeda, M., Harada, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combining+intermediate+levels+of+the+Endotoxin+Activity+Assay+(EA)+with+other+biomarkers+in+the+assessment+of+patients+with+sepsis:+results+of+an+observational+study.">Combining intermediate levels of the Endotoxin Activity Assay (EA) with other biomarkers in the assessment of patients with sepsis: results of an observational study.</a> Critical Care. 16 (3), (2012).</li><li>Earley, Z. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Burn+Injury+Alters+the+Intestinal+Microbiome+and+Increases+Gut+Permeability+and+Bacterial+Translocation.">Burn Injury Alters the Intestinal Microbiome and Increases Gut Permeability and Bacterial Translocation.</a> PLoS One. 10 (7), (2015).</li><li>Munster, A. M., Smith-Meek, M., Dickerson, C., Translocation Winchurch, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Incidental+phenomenon+or+true+pathology?.">Incidental phenomenon or true pathology?.</a> Annals of Surgery. 218 (3), 321 (1993).</li><li>Clementi, A., Virz&#236;, G. M., Brocca, A., Ronco, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Role+of+Endotoxin+in+the+Setting+of+Cardiorenal+Syndrome+Type+5.">The Role of Endotoxin in the Setting of Cardiorenal Syndrome Type 5.</a> Cardiorenal Medicine. 7 (4), 276-283 (2017).</li><li>Virz&#236;, G. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiorenal+Syndrome+Type+5+in+Sepsis:+Role+of+Endotoxin.">Cardiorenal Syndrome Type 5 in Sepsis: Role of Endotoxin.</a> in Cell Death Pathways and Inflammation. Kidney and Blood Pressure Research. 41 (6), 1008-1015 (2016).</li><li>Mignon, F., Piagnerelli, M., Van Nuffelen, M., Vincent, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+empiric+antibiotic+treatment+on+plasma+endotoxin+activity+in+septic+patients.">Effect of empiric antibiotic treatment on plasma endotoxin activity in septic patients.</a> Infection. 42 (3), 521-528 (2014).</li><li>Klein, D. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Daily+variation+in+endotoxin+levels+is+associated+with+increased+organ+failure+in+critically+ill+patients.">Daily variation in endotoxin levels is associated with increased organ failure in critically ill patients.</a> Shock. 28 (5), 524-529 (2007).</li></ol>

Estor SpA covered the cost of the journal&#8217;s publication and video production fee. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Septic shock is still nowadays associated with a mortality as high as 40%, although this rate varies according to the considered reports16. The need for novel and better biomarkers is advocated by most experts in the fields in order to aid clinicians in early diagnosis, better management, and prognostication of patients with septic shock6.
Performing an EA test does not require previous technical knowledge or sophisticated laboratory equipment, a...

The Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), also known as endotoxin, is a key component of the membrane structure of Gram-negative (GN) bacteria. It makes up about 10% of the cell wall, being vital for the outer membrane integrity and homeostasis. Moreover, it is a potent activator of the host innate immune system1,2.
In vitro exposure of innate immune system cells to LPS leads to changes in the expression of multiple genes3. Administration of very small quantities of LPS in healthy human volunteers triggers the cascade of acute systemic inflammation, whereas sepsis and septic shock may arise with higher endotoxin concentrations4,5.
Sepsis is a life-threatening condition which, if not promptly recognized, can lead to multi-organ failure and death. Septic patients must be treated in a timely manner, with aggressive resuscitation, adequate antibiotic therapy, optimal source control, and prompt organ support strategies. The diagnosis of the etiology of sepsis is primarily based on clinical recognition and culture-based pathogen detection6. However, results of microbial cultures may take up to 48 h and are inconclusive in up to 30% of cases7. Early identification and intervention may lead to better patient outcomes. In patients in whom sepsis is suspected, decisions are often made on the basis of physiological and biochemical parameters, without a clear sign of endotoxemia.
The measurement of the Endotoxin Activity (EA) can be obtained by means of a commercial assay (see Table of Materials) in whole blood. It can be used as a biomarker of systemic endotoxemia for the early stratification of disease severity, particularly in patients at risk for developing septic shock8. The assay was used to guide Polymyxin B hemoperfusion therapy in a recently published double-blind randomized-controlled clinical trial in patients with septic shock9. In critically ill patients, the MEDIC study showed increased EA levels to be associated with multiple organ dysfunction, intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay, and mortality10.
Different assays have been developed to detect endotoxin. The Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay, either as a gel-clot, turbidimetric, or chromogenic test, has been so far the most frequently adopted for the estimation of serum endotoxin. It is based on the ability of endotoxin to induce coagulation of the hemolymph of the horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus. However, this assay has some limitations in terms of specificity. In particular, it can also be activated by microbial products other than endotoxin, such as components of the fungal cell wall, and it can be inhibited by various human plasma proteins11.
During the last decade the measurement of EA has been developed and validated as a biomarker of circulating endotoxemia. Compared to the LAL test, EA is quicker and easier to implement in the clinical setting. Moreover, it has been shown to be more accurate than LAL in whole blood, with increased sensitivity and specificity, both in vitro and in vivo12.
Despite its initial implementation as an early diagnostic tool for the rapid identification of GN bacteria as sepsis causative agents, the EA level has also been studied as a biomarker of disease severity. In this context, it has been shown to be particularly useful to assess the hypoperfusion state due to ongoing critical illness, such as septic shock or post-cardiac arrest syndrome13. More recently, since the development of hemopurification systems, a positive EA result has also been proposed as a screening tool to accurately identify potential candidates for such therapy14. We recently conducted an observational retrospective study on the prevalence and clinical significance of early high levels of EA in 107 patients with septic shock. In line with other recent results, we found that EA is a promising marker of disease severity in patients with septic shock15.
The aim of the present manuscript is to describe the method to perform the EA assay, either at the bedside or in the laboratory, and to describe its potential use in a representative scenario of septic shock. This technique can detect LPS activity by measuring the enhanced oxidative burst in neutrophils following their priming by complexes of an anti-endotoxin antibody and LPS. The increased respiratory burst is detected by a chemiluminometer and the amount of light emitted is considered proportional to the amount of endotoxin in the blood sample. The assay requires few reagents, takes about 30 min to perform and uses as little as 40 &#181;L of whole blood12.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:727px;" width="726">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:184px;">EAA kit</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">Spectral Medical Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:133px;">EAAST-20</td>
			<td style="width:268px;">Package with 20 tests + 1 quality control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:184px;">Smart Line TL</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">Berthold</td>
			<td style="width:133px;">EAASL</td>
			<td>Luminometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:184px;">Incubator shaker</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">GRANT</td>
			<td style="width:133px;">ES-20</td>
			<td>Mini-incubator shaker</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:184px;">Vortexer</td>
			<td style="width:141px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:133px;">444-2790</td>
			<td>Vortex instrument</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

endotoxin activity assay for the detection of whole blood endotoxemia in critically ill patients

Lipopolysaccharide, also known as endotoxin, is a fundamental component of gram-negative bacteria and plays a crucial role in the development of sepsis and septic shock. The early identification of an infectious process that is rapidly evolving to a critical illness might prompt a quicker and more intensive treatment, thereby potentially leading to better patient outcomes. The Endotoxin Activity (EA) assay can be used at the bedside as a reliable biomarker of systemic endotoxemia. The detection of elevated endotoxin activity levels has been repeatedly shown to be associated with an increased disease severity in patients with sepsis and septic shock. The assay is quick and easy to perform. Briefly, after sampling, an aliquot of whole blood is mixed with an anti-endotoxin antibody and with added LPS. Endotoxin activity is measured as the relative oxidative burst of primed neutrophils as detected by chemioluminescence. The assay&#39;s output is expressed on a scale from 0 (absent) to 1 (maximal) and categorized as &#8220;low&#8221; (&#60;0.4 units), &#8220;intermediate&#8221; (0.4&#8211;0.59 units), or &#8220;high&#8221; (&#8805;0.6 units). The detailed methodology and rationale for the implementation of the EA assay are reported in this manuscript.

A 72 year-old man was admitted to the Emergency Department (ED) of an academic urban hospital. A few days earlier he had presented to his primary care physician complaining of burning on urination. A short-course therapy with oral phosphomycin was recommended. His medical history included hypertension, uncomplicated type-2 diabetes and benign prostatic hyperplasia. His medications included enalapril, atorvastatin, tamsulosin and metformin.
<p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.with...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Endotoxin Activity Assay for the Detection of Whole Blood Endotoxemia in Critically Ill Patients at JoVE.com

Endotoxin Activity Assay for the Detection of Whole Blood Endotoxemia in Critically Ill Patients

We hereby present a protocol to measure at the bedside the endotoxin activity of human whole blood samples. The Endotoxin Activity assay is a simple test to perform and may be a useful biomarker in critically ill patients with sepsis.

Lipopolysaccharide, also known as endotoxin, is a fundamental component of gram-negative bacteria and plays a crucial role in the development of sepsis ...

endotoxin-activity-assay-for-detection-whole-blood-endotoxemia

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

9.2K Views.  Niguarda Hospital. We hereby present a protocol to measure at the bedside the endotoxin activity of human whole blood samples. The Endotoxin Activity assay is a simple test to perform and may be a useful biomarker in critically ill patients with sepsis.

Video: Endotoxin Activity Assay for the Detection of Whole Blood Endotoxemia in Critically Ill Patients

Manual Muscle Testing:  A Method of Measuring Extremity Muscle Strength Applied to Critically Ill Patients

Survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and other causes of critical illness often have generalized weakness, reduced exercise tolerance, and persistent nerve and muscle impairments after hospital discharge.1-6 Using an explicit protocol with a structured approach to training and quality assurance of research staff, manual muscle testing (MMT) is a highly reliable method for assessing strength, using a standardized clinical examination, for patients following ARDS, and can be completed with mechanically ventilated patients who can tolerate sitting upright in bed and are able to follow two-step commands. 7, 8 
This video demonstrates a protocol for MMT, which has been taught to &ge;43 research staff who have performed &gt;800 assessments on &gt;280 ARDS survivors. Modifications for the bedridden patient are included. Each muscle is tested with specific techniques for positioning, stabilization, resistance, and palpation for each score of the 6-point ordinal Medical Research Council scale.7,9-11 Three upper and three lower extremity muscles are graded in this protocol: shoulder abduction, elbow flexion, wrist extension, hip flexion, knee extension, and ankle dorsiflexion. These muscles were chosen based on the standard approach for evaluating patients for ICU-acquired weakness used in prior publications. 1,2.

Survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and critical illness frequently develop long-lasting muscle weakness. Manual muscle testing (MMT) is a standardized clinical examination commonly used to measure strength of peripheral skeletal muscle groups. This video demonstrates MMT using the 6-point Medical Research Council scale.

Survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and other causes of critical illness often have generalized weakness, reduced exercise tolerance, ...

Accurate and Simple Measurement of the Pro-inflammatory Cytokine IL-1&beta; using a Whole Blood Stimulation Assay

Inflammatory processes resulting from the secretion of soluble mediators by immune cells, lead to various manifestations in skin, joints and other tissues as well as altered cytokine homeostasis. The innate immune system plays a crucial role in recognizing pathogens and other endogenous danger stimuli. One of the major cytokines released by innate immune cells is Interleukin (IL)-1. Therefore, we utilize a whole blood stimulation assay in order to measure the secretion of inflammatory cytokines and specifically of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1&beta; 1, 2, 3.
Patients with genetic dysfunctions of the innate immune system causing autoinflammatory syndromes show an exaggerated release of mature IL-1&beta; upon stimulation with LPS alone. In order to evaluate the innate immune component of patients who present with inflammatory-associated pathologies, we use a specific immunoassay to detect cellular immune responses to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), such as the gram-negative bacterial endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). These PAMPs are recognized by pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on the cells of the innate immune system 4, 5, 6, 7. A primary signal, LPS, in conjunction with a secondary signal, ATP, is necessary for the activation of the inflammasome, a multiprotein complex that processes pro-IL-1&beta; to its mature, bioactive form 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10.
The whole blood assay requires minimal sample manipulation to assess cytokine production when compared to other methods that require labor intensive isolation and culturing of specific cell populations. This method differs from other whole blood stimulation assays; rather than diluting samples with a ratio of RPMI media, we perform a white blood cell count directly from diluted whole blood and therefore, stimulate a known number of white blood cells in culture 2. The results of this particular whole blood assay demonstrate a novel technique useful in elucidating patient cohorts presenting with autoinflammatory pathophysiologies.

Accurate and Simple Measurement of the Pro-inflammatory Cytokine IL-1&#946; using a Whole Blood Stimulation Assay

We describe a simple immunoassay to measure the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1 beta production, in patients presenting with autoinflammatory phenotypes. By activating cells in whole blood cultures with pathogen-associated molecular patterns, specifically with lipopolysaccharide, cytokine secretion can be conveniently evaluated in whole blood supernatants.

Inflammatory processes resulting from the secretion of soluble mediators by immune cells, lead to various manifestations in skin, joints and other tissues ...

Sequencing of Bacterial Microflora in Peripheral Blood: our Experience with HIV-infected Patients

The healthy gastrointestinal tract is physiologically colonized by a large variety of commensal microbes that influence the development 
	of the humoral and cellular mucosal immune system1,2. 
 Microbiota is shielded from the immune system via a strong mucosal barrier. Infections and antibiotics are known to alter both the normal 
	gastrointestinal tract barrier and the composition of resident bacteria, which may result in possible immune abnormalities3.
HIV causes a breach in the gastrointestinal barrier with progressive failure of mucosal immunity and leakage into the systemic circulation of bacterial bioproducts, such as lipopolysaccharide and 
	bacterial DNA fragments, which contribute to systemic immune activation4-7. Microbial translocation is implicated in HIV/AIDS immunopathogenesis and response to therapy 4,8.
We aimed to characterise the composition of bacteria translocating in peripheral blood of HIV-infected patients. To pursue our aim we set up a PCR reaction for the panbacteric 16S ribosomial gene 
	followed by a sequencing analysis.
Briefly, whole blood from both HIV-infected and healthy subjects is used. Given that healthy individuals present normal intestinal homeostasis no translocation of microflora is expected in 
	these patients. Following whole blood collection by venipuncture and plasma separation, DNA is extracted from plasma and used to perform a broad range PCR reaction for the panbacteric 
	16S ribosomial gene9. Following PCR product purification, cloning and sequencing analyses are performed.

Our experiment will show how to perform a sequencing analysis of bacterial species translocating in peripheral blood of HIV positive patients.

The healthy gastrointestinal tract is physiologically colonized by a large variety of commensal microbes that influence the development 
	of the humoral ...

Rapid Point-of-Care Assay of Enoxaparin Anticoagulant Efficacy in Whole Blood

There is the need for a clinical assay to determine the extent to which a patient's blood is effectively anticoagulated by the low-molecular-weight-heparin (LMWH), enoxaparin. There are also urgent clinical situations where it would be important if this could be determined rapidly. The present assay is designed to accomplish this. We only assayed human blood samples that were spiked with known concentrations of enoxaparin. The essential feature of the present assay is the quantification of the efficacy of enoxaparin in a patient's blood sample by degrading it to complete inactivity with heparinase. Two blood samples were drawn into Vacutainer tubes (Becton-Dickenson; Franklin Lakes, NJ) that were spiked with enoxaparin; one sample was digested with heparinase for 5 min at 37 &deg;C, the other sample represented the patient's baseline anticoagulated status. The percent shortening of clotting time in the heparinase-treated sample, as compared to the baseline state, yielded the anticoagulant contribution of enoxaparin. We used the portable, battery operated Hemochron 801 apparatus for measurements of clotting times (International Technidyne Corp., Edison, NJ). The apparatus has 2 thermostatically controlled (37 &deg;C) assay tube wells. We conducted the assays in two types of assay cartridges that are available from the manufacturer of the instrument. One cartridge was modified to increase its sensitivity. We removed the kaolin from the FTK-ACT cartridge by extensive rinsing with distilled water, leaving only the glass surface of the tube, and perhaps the detection magnet, as activators. We called this our minimally activated assay (MAA). The use of a minimally activated assay has been studied by us and others. 2-4 The second cartridge that was studied was an activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) assay (A104). This was used as supplied from the manufacturer. The thermostated wells of the instrument were used for both the heparinase digestion and coagulation assays. The assay can be completed within 10 min. The MAA assay showed robust changes in clotting time after heparinase digestion of enoxaparin over a typical clinical concentration range. At 0.2 anti-Xa I.U. of enoxaparin per ml of blood sample, heparinase digestion caused an average decrease of 9.8% (20.4 sec) in clotting time; at 1.0 I.U. per ml of enoxaparin there was a 41.4% decrease (148.8 sec). This report only presents the experimental application of the assay; its value in a clinical setting must still be established.

Demonstration of a rapid quantitative assay of the inhibition of blood coagulation by the low-molecular-weight-heparin, enoxaparin. The contribution of enoxaparin is assessed by removing its influence through digestion with heparinase. A fuller description of the assay is detailed in our published paper.1 The assay still requires clinical confirmation.

There is the need for a clinical assay to determine the extent to which a patient's blood is effectively anticoagulated by the ...

Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI) for Cancer Therapy Monitoring

In molecular imaging, positron emission tomography (PET) and optical imaging (OI) are two of the most important and thus most widely used modalities1-3. PET is characterized by its excellent sensitivity and quantification ability while OI is notable for non-radiation, relative low cost, short scanning time, high throughput, and wide availability to basic researchers. However, both modalities have their shortcomings as well. PET suffers from poor spatial resolution and high cost, while OI is mostly limited to preclinical applications because of its limited tissue penetration along with prominent scattering optical signals through the thickness of living tissues.
 Recently a bridge between PET and OI has emerged with the discovery of Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI)4-6. CLI is a new imaging modality that harnesses Cerenkov Radiation (CR) to image radionuclides with OI instruments. Russian Nobel laureate Alekseyevich Cerenkov and his colleagues originally discovered CR in 1934. It is a form of electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle travels at a superluminal speed in a dielectric medium7,8. The charged particle, whether positron or electron, perturbs the electromagnetic field of the medium by displacing the electrons in its atoms. After passing of the disruption photons are emitted as the displaced electrons return to the ground state. For instance, one 18F decay was estimated to produce an average of 3 photons in water5. 
 Since its emergence, CLI has been investigated for its use in a variety of preclinical applications including in vivo tumor imaging, reporter gene imaging, radiotracer development, multimodality imaging, among others4,5,9,10,11. The most important reason why CLI has enjoyed much success so far is that this new technology takes advantage of the low cost and wide availability of OI to image radionuclides, which used to be imaged only by more expensive and less available nuclear imaging modalities such as PET.
 Here, we present the method of using CLI to monitor cancer drug therapy. Our group has recently investigated this new application and validated its feasibility by a proof-of-concept study12. We demonstrated that CLI and PET exhibited excellent correlations across different tumor xenografts and imaging probes. This is consistent with the overarching principle of CR that CLI essentially visualizes the same radionuclides as PET. We selected Bevacizumab (Avastin; Genentech/Roche) as our therapeutic agent because it is a well-known angiogenesis inhibitor13,14. Maturation of this technology in the near future can be envisioned to have a significant impact on preclinical drug development, screening, as well as therapy monitoring of patients receiving treatments.

Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging CLI for Cancer Therapy Monitoring

Use of Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI) for monitoring preclinical cancer treatment is described here. This method takes advantage of Cerenkov Radiation (CR) and optical imaging (OI) to visualize radiolabeled probes and thus provides an alternative to PET in preclinical therapeutic monitoring and drug screening.

In  molecular imaging, positron emission tomography (PET) and optical imaging (OI)  are two of the most important and thus most widely used modalities1-3. ...

Real-time Cytotoxicity Assays in Human Whole Blood

A live cell-based whole blood cytotoxicity assay (WCA) that allows access to temporal information of the overall cell cytotoxicity is developed with high-throughput cell positioning technology. The targeted tumor cell populations are first preprogrammed to immobilization into an array format, and labeled with green fluorescent cytosolic dyes. Following the cell array formation, antibody drugs are added in combination with human whole blood. Propidium iodide (PI) is then added to assess cell death. The cell array is analyzed with an automatic imaging system. While cytosolic dye labels the targeted tumor cell populations, PI labels the dead tumor cell populations. Thus, the percentage of target cancer cell killing can be quantified by calculating the number of surviving targeted cells to the number of dead targeted cells. With this method, researchers are able to access time-dependent and dose-dependent cell cytotoxicity information. Remarkably, no hazardous radiochemicals are used. The WCA presented here has been tested with lymphoma, leukemia, and solid tumor cell lines. Therefore, WCA allows researchers to assess drug efficacy in a highly relevant ex&#160;vivo condition.

The whole blood cytotoxicity assay (WCA) is a cytotoxicity assay developed by incorporating high-throughput cell positioning technology with fluorescence microscopy and automated image processing. Here, we describe how lymphoma cells treated with an anti-CD20 antibody can be analyzed real-time in human whole blood to provide quantitative cellular cytotoxicity analysis.

A live cell-based whole blood cytotoxicity assay (WCA) that allows access to temporal information of the overall cell cytotoxicity is developed with ...

Network Analysis of Foramen Ovale Electrode Recordings in Drug-resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Patients

Approximately 30% of epilepsy patients are refractory to antiepileptic drugs. In these cases, surgery is the only alternative to eliminate/control seizures. However, a significant minority of patients continues to exhibit post-operative seizures, even in those cases in which the suspected source of seizures has been correctly localized and resected. The protocol presented here combines a clinical procedure routinely employed during the pre-operative evaluation of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients with a novel technique for network analysis. The method allows for the evaluation of the temporal evolution of mesial network parameters. The bilateral insertion of foramen ovale electrodes (FOE) into the ambient cistern simultaneously records electrocortical activity at several mesial areas in the temporal lobe. Furthermore, network methodology applied to the recorded time series tracks the temporal evolution of the mesial networks both interictally and during the seizures. In this way, the presented protocol offers a unique way to visualize and quantify measures that considers the relationships between several mesial areas instead of a single area.

This protocol describes a procedure to track the evolution of mesial network measures in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients. It is based on the combination of intracranial recordings with a novel numerical technique for data analysis. Specifically, we present a protocol for network analyses of foramen ovale recordings.

Approximately 30% of epilepsy patients are refractory to antiepileptic drugs. In these cases, surgery is the only alternative to eliminate/control ...

Whole Genome Sequencing of Candida glabrata for Detection of Markers of Antifungal Drug Resistance

Candida glabrata can rapidly acquire mutations that result in drug resistance, especially to azoles and echinocandins. Identification of genetic mutations is essential, as resistance detected in vitro can often be correlated with clinical failure. We examined the feasibility of using whole genome sequencing (WGS) for genome-wide analysis of antifungal drug resistance in C. glabrata. The aim was torecognize enablers and barriers in the implementation WGS and measure its effectiveness. This paper outlines the key quality control checkpoints and essential components of WGS methodology to investigate genetic markers associated with reduced susceptibility to antifungal agents. It also estimates the accuracy of data analysis and turn-around-time of testing.
Phenotypic susceptibility of 12 clinical, and one ATCC strain of C. glabrata was determined through antifungal susceptibility testing. These included three isolate pairs, from three patients, that developed rise in drug minimum inhibitory concentrations. In two pairs, the second isolate of each pair developed resistance to echinocandins. The second isolate of the third pair developed resistance to 5-flucytosine. The remaining comprised of susceptible and azole resistant isolates. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes linked to echinocandin, azole and 5-flucytosine resistance were confirmed in resistant isolates through WGS using the next generation sequencing.&#160;Non-synonymous SNPs in antifungal resistance genes such as FKS1, FKS2, CgPDR1, CgCDR1 and FCY2 were identified. Overall, an average of 98% of the WGS reads of C. glabrata isolates mapped to the reference genome with about 75-fold read depth coverage. The turnaround time and cost were comparable to Sanger sequencing.
In conclusion, WGS of C. glabrata was feasible in revealing clinically significant gene mutations involved in resistance to different antifungal drug classes without the need for multiple PCR/DNA sequencing reactions. This represents a positive step towards establishing WGS capability in the clinical laboratory for simultaneous detection of antifungal resistance conferring substitutions.

Whole Genome Sequencing of Candida glabrata for Detection of Markers of Antifungal Drug Resistance

This study implemented whole genome sequencing for analysis of mutations in genes conferring antifungal drug resistance in Candida glabrata. C. glabrata isolates resistant to echinocandins, azoles and 5-flucytosine, were sequenced to illustrate the methodology. Susceptibility profiles of the isolates correlated with presence or absence of specific mutation patterns in genes.

Candida glabrata can rapidly acquire mutations that result in drug resistance, especially to azoles and echinocandins. Identification of genetic mutations ...

Routine Screening Method for Microparticles in Platelet Transfusions

Platelet inventory management based on screening microparticle content in platelet concentrates is a new quality improvement initiative for hospital blood banks. Cells fragment off microparticles (MP) when they are stressed. Blood and blood components may contain cellular fragments from a variety of cells, most notably from activated platelets. When performing their roles as innate immune cells and major players in coagulation and hemostasis, platelets change shape and generate microparticles. With dynamic light scattering (DLS)-based microparticle detection, it is possible to differentiate activated (high microparticle) from non-activated (low microparticle) platelets in transfusions, and optimize the use of this scarce blood product. Previous research suggests that providing non-activated platelets for prophylactic use in hematology-oncology patients could reduce their risk of becoming refractory and improve patient care. The goal of this screening method is to routinely differentiate activated from non-activated platelets. The method described here outlines the steps to be performed for routine platelet inventory management in a hospital blood bank: obtaining a sample from a platelet transfusion, loading the sample into the capillary for DLS measurement, performing the DLS test to identify microparticles, and using the reported microparticle content to identify activated platelets.

Platelet inventory management based on screening microparticle content in platelet concentrates is a new quality improvement initiative in hospital blood banks. The goal is to differentiate activated from non-activated platelets to optimize the use of platelets. Providing non-activated platelets to hematology-oncology patients might reduce their high risk to become refractory.

Platelet inventory management based on screening microparticle content in platelet concentrates is a new quality improvement initiative for hospital blood ...

How to Administer Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Critically ill Neonates, Infants, and Children

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calculates regional tissue oxygenation (rSO2) using the different absorption spectra of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin molecules. A probe placed on the skin emits light that is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by the underlying tissue. Detectors in the probe sense the amount of reflected light: this reflects the organ-specific ratio of oxygen supply and consumption - independent of pulsatile flow. Modern devices enable the simultaneous monitoring at different body sites. A rise or dip in the rSO2 curve visualizes changes in oxygen supply or demand before vital signs indicate them. The evolution of rSO2 values in relation to the starting point is more important for interpretation than are absolute values.
A routine clinical application of NIRS is the surveillance of somatic and cerebral oxygenation during and after cardiac surgery. It is also administered in preterm infants at risk for necrotizing enterocolitis, newborns with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy and a potential risk of impaired tissue oxygenation. In the future, NIRS could be increasingly used in multimodal neuromonitoring, or applied to monitor patients with other conditions (e.g., after resuscitation or traumatic brain injury).

This protocol is designed to assist clinicians to measure regional tissue oxygenation at different body sites in infants and children. It can be used in situations where tissue oxygenation is potentially compromised, particularly during cardiopulmonary bypass, when using non-pulsatile cardiac-assist devices, and in critically ill neonates, infants and children.

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calculates regional tissue oxygenation (rSO2) using the different absorption spectra of oxygenated and deoxygenated ...

Endotoxin Activity Assay for the Detection of Whole Blood Endotoxemia in Critically Ill Patients

Podsumowanie

Przeglądaj więcej filmów

Rozdziały w tym wideo

Manual Muscle Testing: A Method of Measuring Extremity Muscle Strength Applied to Critically Ill Patients

Accurate and Simple Measurement of the Pro-inflammatory Cytokine IL-1β using a Whole Blood Stimulation Assay

Sequencing of Bacterial Microflora in Peripheral Blood: our Experience with HIV-infected Patients

Rapid Point-of-Care Assay of Enoxaparin Anticoagulant Efficacy in Whole Blood

Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI) for Cancer Therapy Monitoring

Real-time Cytotoxicity Assays in Human Whole Blood

Network Analysis of Foramen Ovale Electrode Recordings in Drug-resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Patients

Whole Genome Sequencing of Candida glabrata for Detection of Markers of Antifungal Drug Resistance

Routine Screening Method for Microparticles in Platelet Transfusions

How to Administer Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Critically ill Neonates, Infants, and Children