This research was supported the Intramural Research Program, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH.

1. Media Preparation
<ol>
	<li>For MOPS (3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid) media25, use 1/10 volume of 10x MOPS salts, 1/100 volume of 100x micronutrients solution, 3 mM sodium phosphate for overnight cultures or 0.2 mM sodium phosphate for uniform labeling with 32P, 0.2% glucose and 1 &#181;g/mL thiamin (vitamin B1). Add amino acids at 40 &#181;g/mL if required.
	<ol>
		<li>For MOPS salts, use 400 mM MOPS, 40 mM Tricine, 0.1 mM FeSO4, 95 mM NH4Cl, 2.6 mM K2SO4, 5 &#181;M CaCl2, 10.56 mM MgCl2, and 500 mM NaCl. Add the different components in the order written to avoid precipitation. Adjust to pH 7.4 with KOH and sterilize by filtration.</li>
		<li>For 100x micronutrients solution, use 3 &#181;M (NH4)6(MO7)24, 0.4 mM H3BO4, 30 &#181;M CoCl2, 10 &#181;M CuSO4, 80 &#181;M MnCl2, and 10 &#181;M ZnSO4. Sterilize by autoclaving.</li>
		<li>For glucose (20%) and sodium phosphate (300 mM) solutions, sterilize as separate 100x stocks by autoclaving. Sterilize 100x stocks of thiamine and amino acid mixtures by filtration. Prepare fresh media from sterile stock solutions for each experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Labelling with 32P
<ol>
	<li>Grow overnight cultures in MOPS media with 3 mM sodium phosphate.</li>
	<li>In a 24 well plate, add 550 &#181;L of MOPS media containing 0.2 mM sodium phosphate carrier and 30 &#181;L of each bacterial inoculum (dilution 1/20). This will produce an initial inoculum of OD600nm 0.1. Use one well with fresh media as a sterility control.</li>
	<li>Place the plate on a shaking incubator at 37 &#176;C shaking at 900 rpm for 30 min. Cultures are heated from below and shaking provides aeration. Attach the plate firmly with tape to avoid tilting or spills. Growth can be monitored with a replicate plate in parallel in media lacking 32P using a plate reader and incubating under the same conditions.</li>
	<li>Add 100 &#181;Ci to each well of 32P orthophosphate (20 &#181;L from a 5 mCi/mL stock). 
	NOTE: The amount of radioactivity can also be adjusted to meet experimental needs. For low basal levels 100 &#181;Ci with 0.2 mM carrier phosphate works well, but for measuring (p)ppGpp levels that are expected to become equivalent to GTP pools, label can be dropped to 25 or 50 &#181;Ci. Lowering carrier phosphate below 0.2 mM is not recommended to avoid phosphate levels becoming limiting for growth. 
	CAUTION: 32P is a &#946; emitting isotope so use proper shielding specified for safety. All radioactive material must be properly disposed taking all the possible precautions.</li>
	<li>Grow in shaking incubator for 1 to 2 doublings (1 h or more) to allow external label to largely equilibrate with intracellular nucleotide pools before inducing stress.</li>
</ol>
3. Induction of Stress or Starvation
<ol>
	<li>Induce stress using a method of your choosing, depending on the sort of stress studied, e.g. adding metabolic pathway inhibitors, changing temperature, exhausting required nutrients, shifting osmolarity shifts, inducing oxidative stress, adding toxins, etc.
	<ol>
		<li>For example, add 100 &#181;g/mL L-valine to induce isoleucine starvation in E. coli K-12 strains. Increased levels of ppGpp will be observed after 5 minutes of induction.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Sampling and ppGpp Extraction
<ol>
	<li>Add 20 &#181;L of each labelled cell sample to a 0.2 mL PCR tube containing 20 &#181;L of ice cold 6 M Formic acid.</li>
	<li>Immediately place the samples in dry ice.</li>
	<li>Enhance cellular extraction efficiency by 3 cycles of freezing and thawing.</li>
	<li>Just before spotting PEI cellulose thin layer chromatograms, centrifuge samples for 1 min at maximum speed to pellet cell debris to avoid spotting it on chromatograms.</li>
</ol>
5. Thin-layer Chromatography
<ol>
	<li>With a soft pencil, mark an origin line 1 cm from the edge of the 20 cm x 20 cm PEI-Cellulose TLC plate that has had 5 cm removed from the top with scissors. Apply 5 &#181;L as a droplet in the PEI surface for each sample. Begin ascending development without allowing this spot to dry, which improve resolution by minimizing streaking.</li>
	<li>Do ascending development in a tank with a layer of 1.5 M KH2PO4 (pH 3.4) solution shallow enough so that liquid does not touch the origin sample spot. Cover the tank with an air-tight seal and allow liquid ascent to the top of the trimmed sheet, 15 cm. To achieve pH 3.4 for a 1.5 M KH2PO4 solution, it is necessary adjust the pH by addition of H3PO4.</li>
	<li>Remove the fully developed chromatogram and air dry at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Cut and discard the top (pH front) portion of the chromatogram containing the free 32P into radioactive waste. This portion is represented in yellow color in Figure 2 and easily visualized under UV light. If measuring only (p)ppGpp nucleotides that migrate slower than GTP, it is recommended to run a UV-visible GTP standard and then cut and discard a larger upper portion (anything above GTP, as shown in Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Expose autoradiographic films overnight with a phosphor screen.</li>
	<li>Develop the film. Capture and quantitate the phosphor screen signal with a phosphoimager.</li>
</ol>
6. Quantitation of (p)ppGpp
<ol>
	<li>Quantitate radioactive spots with Image J26,27. 
	NOTE: The amount of (p)ppGpp can be normalized to total amount of G nucleotides observed in each sample (Figure 2). If the amount of background is homogeneous, a single blank (box 4 from Figure 2) can be subtracted to correct for background. Total G is the sum of GTP + ppGpp + pppGpp detected. This normalization assumes that GMP and GDP levels are negligible, which is true for E. coli. The ratio of a given nucleotide to total G provides an important way to correct for variations of applied sample volume.</li>
</ol>
7. Measurement of the Rate of ppGpp Decay
NOTE: A modification of this protocol allows measurements of ppGpp decay rates.
<ol>
	<li>After provoking stress or starvation for a time sufficient to allow ppGpp accumulation (step 3), reverse the stress in order to block continued ppGpp synthesis, which allows detection of hydrolytic rates. The procedure for reversal will depend on the stress. For example, add 200 &#181;g/mL of chloramphenicol to reverse any amino acid starvation.</li>
	<li>Decay rates are usually rapid but may vary, so take samples every 20-30 s up to 2 min. Process samples as in step 4.</li>
	<li>Once the TLC is developed (as in step 5) and the levels of ppGpp obtained during the time course, plot residual ppGpp content on a semi-logarithmic plot vs time to allow visualization of zero order rates of decay, as a straight line, and estimation of the ppGpp half-life.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Achieving near uniform labeling of the cells is a critical step for this protocol. Therefore, the use of defined media, such as MOPS or Tris media, is crucial to allow variation of carrier phosphate concentrations and specific activity. Phosphate buffered media, such as M9 or media A, cannot be used. Most undefined media contain variable amounts of phosphate, such as LB, tryptone and casamino acids. The phosphate isotope 33P is a weaker emitter that can be substituted for 32P. Advantages of the subs...

The (p)ppGpp second messenger is a global regulator that modulates the expression of a large number of genes, including genes for synthesizing ribosomes and amino acids1,2. Although initially discovered in Escherichia coli3, (p)ppGpp can be found in both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria as well as in plant chloroplasts4,5. For E. coli and other Gram-negative bacteria, (p)ppGpp interacts directly with RNA polymerase at two different sites6,7,8. In Gram positives, (p)ppGpp inhibits GTP abundance, which is sensed by CodY, a GTP-binding protein with gene-specific DNA recognition motifs that lead to regulation9,10. (p)ppGpp accumulates in response to starvation for different nutrients and stress conditions, resulting in slow growth and adjustments of gene expression to allow adaptation to stress11,12.
The net amount of ppGpp accumulated reflects a balance between synthetase and hydrolase activities. In E. coli RelA is a strong synthetase and SpoT is bifunctional, with a strong hydrolase and a weak synthetase, each of which might be regulated differently in a stress dependent manner. The strong RelA synthetase is activated when the availability of codon-specified charged tRNA bound to the ribosomal A site when it fails to keep up with the demands of protein synthesis13,14,15. The weak SpoT (p)ppGpp synthetase is activated while the strong (p)ppGpp hydrolase is inhibited in response to other stress conditions and through other mechanisms. Under some conditions, proteins such as ACP or Rsd can bind to SpoT, which also change the balance between hydrolysis and synthesis16,17. In Gram positives, synthesis and hydrolysis reflect a more complex balance between a single RelA SpoT homolog (RSH) protein with strong synthesis and hydrolysis activities as well as smaller hydrolases and/or synthetases12.
The (p)ppGpp nucleotides were first discovered as unusual 32P labeled spots that appeared on autoradiograms of thin-layer chromatograms (TLC) during a stringent response induced by amino acid starvation3. More detailed labeling protocols have been reviewed 18. The protocol described here (Figure 1) is a modification of these protocols that allows monitoring growth of multiple samples on microtiter plates. This facilitates multiple biological and technical estimates of (p)ppGpp abundance changes and was initially developed for studies&#160; of diauxic shifts19. Labelling of (p)ppGpp with 32P and detection by TLC also allows measurements of (p)ppGpp degradation rates. Alternative methods have been developed to determine (p)ppGpp levels such as mass spectrometry, &#160;HPLC20, fluorescent chemosensors21,22, and GFP gene fusions to promoters affected by ppGpp23,24. Fluorescent chemosensors currently have a limited use due small spectral shifts after binding ppGpp as well as problems distinguishing between ppGpp and pppGpp21. This method is efficient to detect (p)ppGpp in vitro, but not in cellular extracts. Methods involving HPLC have been improved20 but require expensive equipment and are not well adapted to high through-put. Finally, GFP fusions can give an estimate of ppGpp dependent activation or inhibition, but do not measure ppGpp itself. While each of these alternative methods are valuable, they require expensive equipment or substantial hands-on time, or they are otherwise not amenable to multiple kinetic sampling and subsequent processing. With the method described here, 96 samples can be applied to six TLC plates in about 20 min (18 samples per plate), resolved by TLC development in less than a couple of hours, with quantitative data obtained after several hours or overnight, depending on labeling intensity.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>(NH4)6(MO7)24</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientifics</td>
			<td>A-674</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autoradiography film</td>
			<td>Denville scientific inc.</td>
			<td>E3218</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>J.T.Baker</td>
			<td>1-1309</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloramphenicol</td>
			<td>RPI</td>
			<td>C61000-25.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CoCl2</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientifics</td>
			<td>C-371</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CuSO4</td>
			<td>J.T.Baker</td>
			<td>1843</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FeSO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientifics</td>
			<td>I-146</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formic acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Biotech</td>
			<td>BP1215-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Macron</td>
			<td>4912-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H3BO4</td>
			<td>Macron</td>
			<td>2549-04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H3PO4</td>
			<td>J.T.Baker</td>
			<td>0260-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K2SO4</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P9458-250G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Biotech</td>
			<td>BP362-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Valine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>V-6504</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientifics</td>
			<td>FL-06-0303</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microplate reader Synergy HT</td>
			<td>Biotek</td>
			<td>Synergy HT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MnCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M-9522</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MOPS</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M1254-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt</td>
			<td>7892</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>J.T.Baker</td>
			<td>3624-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt</td>
			<td>7917</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NH4Cl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A0171-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>P-32 radionuclide, orthophosphoric acid in 1 mL water (5 mCi)</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>NEX053005MC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Storage phosphor screen</td>
			<td>Kodak</td>
			<td>So230</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5382000015</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thiamine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T-4625</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TLC PEI Cellulose F</td>
			<td>Merk-Millipore</td>
			<td>1.05579.0001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tricine</td>
			<td>RPI</td>
			<td>T2400-500.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Typhoon 9400 imager</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZnSO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientifics</td>
			<td>Z-68</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using microtiter dish radiolabeling for multiple in vivo measurements of escherichia coli (p)ppgpp followed by thin layer chromatography

The (p)ppGpp nucleotide functions as a global regulator in bacteria in response to a variety of physical and nutritional stress. It has a rapid onset, in seconds, which leads to accumulation of levels that approach or exceed those of GTP pools. Stress reversal occasions a rapid disappearance of (p)ppGpp, often with a half-life of less than a minute. The presence of (p)ppGpp results in alterations of cellular gene expression and metabolism that counter the damaging effects of stress. Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria have different response mechanisms, but both depend on (p)ppGpp concentration. In any event, there is a need to simultaneously monitor many radiolabeled bacterial cultures at time intervals that may vary from 10 seconds to hours during critical stress transition periods. This protocol addresses this technical challenge. The method takes advantage of temperature- and shaker-controlled microtiter dish incubators that allow parallel monitoring of growth (absorbance) and rapid sampling of uniformly phosphate-radiolabeled cultures to resolve and quantitate nucleotide pools by thin-layer chromatography on PEI-cellulose. Small amounts of sample are needed for multiple technical and biological replicates of analyses. Complex growth transitions, such as diauxic growth and rapid (p)ppGpp turnover rates can be quantitatively assessed by this method.

In E. coli K-12 strains, the addition of valine provokes an endogenous starvation of isoleucine, which results an increase of ppGpp levels after 5 min3. Cells grown in MOPS containing all amino acids except for ILV were labeled with 32P as indicated in Figure 1. Once labelled, 6 &#181;L of 10 mg/mL L-valine (100 &#181;g/mL final concentration) was added to produce isoleucine starvation. Samples were taken 0 and 5 min after the addition of va...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Microtiter Dish Radiolabeling for Multiple In Vivo Measurements Of Escherichia coli pppGpp Followed by Thin Layer Chromatography at JoVE.com

Using Microtiter Dish Radiolabeling for Multiple In Vivo Measurements Of Escherichia coli pppGpp Followed by Thin Layer Chromatography

The growth of radiolabeled bacterial cultures in microtiter dishes facilitates high throughput sampling that allows multiple technical and biological replicate assays of nucleotide pool abundance, including that of (p)ppGpp. The effects of growth transitions provoked by sources of physiological stress as well as recovery from stress can be monitored.

Using Microtiter Dish Radiolabeling for Multiple In Vivo Measurements Of Escherichia coli (p)ppGpp Followed by Thin Layer Chromatography

The (p)ppGpp nucleotide functions as a global regulator in bacteria in response to a variety of physical and nutritional stress. It has a rapid onset, in ...

using-microtiter-dish-radiolabeling-for-multiple-vivo-measurements

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

5.9K Views.  Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD, NIH. The growth of radiolabeled bacterial cultures in microtiter dishes facilitates high throughput sampling that allows multiple technical and biological replicate assays of nucleotide pool abundance, including that of (p)ppGpp. The effects of growth transitions provoked by sources of physiological stress as well as recovery from stress can be monitored.

Video: Using Microtiter Dish Radiolabeling for Multiple In Vivo Measurements Of Escherichia coli pppGpp Followed by Thin Layer Chromatography

MALDI Sample Preparation: the Ultra Thin Layer Method

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS) 1,2. The ultra-thin layer method involves the production of a substrate layer of matrix crystals (alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid) on the sample plate, which serves as a seeding ground for subsequent crystallization of a matrix/analyte mixture. Advantages of the ultra-thin layer method over other sample deposition approaches (e.g. dried droplet) are that it provides (i) greater tolerance to impurities such as salts and detergents, (ii) better resolution, and (iii) higher spatial uniformity. This method is especially useful for the accurate mass determination of proteins. The protocol was initially developed and optimized for the analysis of membrane proteins and used to successfully analyze ion channels, metabolite transporters, and receptors, containing between 2 and 12 transmembrane domains 2. Since the original publication, it has also shown to be equally useful for the analysis of soluble proteins. Indeed, we have used it for a large number of proteins having a wide range of properties, including those with molecular masses as high as 380 kDa 3. It is currently our method of choice for the molecular mass analysis of all proteins. The described procedure consistently produces high-quality spectra, and it is sensitive, robust, and easy to implement.

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS).

This video demonstrates the preparation of an ultra-thin matrix/analyte layer for analyzing peptides and proteins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption ...

An Assay for Measuring the Activity of Escherichia coli Inducible Lysine Decarboxyase

Escherichia coli is an enteric bacterium that is capable of growing over a wide range of pH values (pH 5 - 9)1 and, incredibly, is able to survive extreme acid stresses including passage through the mammalian stomach where the pH can fall to as low as pH 1 - 22. To enable such a broad range of acidic pH survival, E. coli possesses four different inducible amino acid decarboxylases that decarboxylate their substrate amino acids in a proton-dependent manner thus raising the internal pH. The decarboxylases include the glutamic acid decarboxylases GadA and GadB3, the arginine decarboxylase AdiA4, the lysine decarboxylase LdcI5, 6 and the ornithine decarboxylase SpeF7. All of these enzymes utilize pyridoxal-5'-phospate as a co-factor8 and function together with inner-membrane substrate-product antiporters that remove decarboxylation products to the external medium in exchange for fresh substrate2. In the case of LdcI, the lysine-cadaverine antiporter is called CadB. Recently, we determined the X-ray crystal structure of LdcI to 2.0 &#197;, and we discovered a novel small-molecule bound to LdcI the stringent response regulator guanosine 5'-diphosphate,3'-diphosphate (ppGpp) 14. The stringent response occurs when exponentially growing cells experience nutrient deprivation or one of a number of other stresses9. As a result, cells produce ppGpp which leads to a signaling cascade culminating in the shift from exponential growth to stationary phase growth10. We have demonstrated that ppGpp is a specific inhibitor of LdcI 14. Here we describe the lysine decarboxylase assay, modified from the assay developed by Phan et al.11, that we have used to determine the activity of LdcI and the effect of pppGpp/ppGpp on that activity. The LdcI decarboxylation reaction removes the &alpha;-carboxy group of L-lysine and produces carbon dioxide and the polyamine cadaverine (1,5-diaminopentane)5. L-lysine and cadaverine can be reacted with 2,4,6-trinitrobenzensulfonic acid (TNBS) at high pH to generate N,N'-bistrinitrophenylcadaverine (TNP-cadaverine) and N,N&#8242;-bistrinitrophenyllysine (TNP-lysine), respectively11. The TNP-cadaverine can be separated from the TNP-lysine as the former is soluble in organic solvents such as toluene while the latter is not (See Figure 1). The linear range of the assay was determined empirically using purified cadaverine.

An Assay for Measuring the Activity of Escherichia coli Inducible Lysine Decarboxyase

The activity of the inducible lysine decarboxylase is monitored by reacting the substrate L-lysine and the product cadaverine with 2,4,6-trinitrobenzensulfonic acid to form adducts that have differential solubility in toluene.

Escherichia coli is an enteric bacterium that is capable of growing over a wide range of pH values (pH 5 - 9)1 and, incredibly, is able to survive extreme ...

Arabidopsis thaliana Polar Glycerolipid Profiling by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) Coupled with Gas-Liquid Chromatography (GLC)

Biological membranes separate cells from the environment. From a single cell to multicellular plants and animals, glycerolipids, such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine, form bilayer membranes which act as both boundaries and interfaces for chemical exchange between cells and their surroundings. Unlike animals, plant cells have a special organelle for photosynthesis, the chloroplast. The intricate membrane system of the chloroplast contains unique glycerolipids, namely glycolipids lacking phosphorus: monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG), sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG)4. The roles of these lipids are beyond simply structural. These glycolipids and other glycerolipids were found in the crystal structures of photosystem I and II indicating the involvement of glycerolipids in photosynthesis8,11. During phosphate starvation, DGDG is transferred to extraplastidic membranes to compensate the loss of phospholipids9,12.
Much of our knowledge of the biosynthesis and function of these lipids has been derived from a combination of genetic and biochemical studies with Arabidopsis thaliana14. During these studies, a simple procedure for the analysis of polar lipids has been essential for the screening and analysis of lipid mutants and will be outlined in detail. A leaf lipid extract is first separated by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and glycerolipids are stained reversibly with iodine vapor. The individual lipids are scraped from the TLC plate and converted to fatty acyl methylesters (FAMEs), which are analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography coupled with flame ionization detection (FID-GLC) (Figure 1). This method has been proven to be a reliable tool for mutant screening. For example, the tgd1,2,3,4 endoplasmic reticulum-to-plastid lipid trafficking mutants were discovered based on the accumulation of an abnormal galactoglycerolipid: trigalactosyldiacylglycerol (TGDG) and a decrease in the relative amount of 18:3 (carbons : double bonds) fatty acyl groups in membrane lipids 3,13,18,20. This method is also applicable for determining enzymatic activities of proteins using lipids as substrate6.

Arabidopsis thaliana Polar Glycerolipid Profiling by Thin Layer Chromatography TLC Coupled with Gas-Liquid Chromatography GLC

Composition of polar lipid extracts and the fatty acid composition of individual glycerolipids are determined in a simple and robust lipid profiling experiment. For this purpose, glycerolipids are isolated by thin layer chromatography and subjected to transmethylation of their acyl groups. Fatty acyl methylesters are quantified by gas-liquid chromatography.

Biological membranes separate cells from the environment. From a single cell to multicellular plants and animals, glycerolipids, such as ...

High Throughput Screening of Fungal Endoglucanase Activity in Escherichia coli

Cellulase enzymes (endoglucanases, cellobiohydrolases, and &beta;-glucosidases) hydrolyze cellulose into component sugars, which in turn can be converted into fuel alcohols1. The potential for enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass to provide renewable energy has intensified efforts to engineer cellulases for economical fuel production2. Of particular interest are fungal cellulases3-8, which are already being used industrially for foods and textiles processing.
Identifying active variants among a library of mutant cellulases is critical to the engineering process; active mutants can be further tested for improved properties and/or subjected to additional mutagenesis. Efficient engineering of fungal cellulases has been hampered by a lack of genetic tools for native organisms and by difficulties in expressing the enzymes in heterologous hosts. Recently, Morikawa and coworkers developed a method for expressing in E. coli the catalytic domains of endoglucanases from H. jecorina3,9, an important industrial fungus with the capacity to secrete cellulases in large quantities. Functional E. coli expression has also been reported for cellulases from other fungi, including Macrophomina phaseolina10 and Phanerochaete chrysosporium11-12. 
We present a method for high throughput screening of fungal endoglucanase activity in E. coli. (Fig 1) This method uses the common microbial dye Congo Red (CR) to visualize enzymatic degradation of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) by cells growing on solid medium. The activity assay requires inexpensive reagents, minimal manipulation, and gives unambiguous results as zones of degradation (&#x201C;halos&#x201D;) at the colony site. Although a quantitative measure of enzymatic activity cannot be determined by this method, we have found that halo size correlates with total enzymatic activity in the cell. Further characterization of individual positive clones will determine , relative protein fitness. 
Traditional bacterial whole cell CMC/CR activity assays13 involve pouring agar containing CMC onto colonies, which is subject to cross-contamination, or incubating cultures in CMC agar wells, which is less amenable to large-scale experimentation. Here we report an improved protocol that modifies existing wash methods14 for cellulase activity: cells grown on CMC agar plates are removed prior to CR staining. Our protocol significantly reduces cross-contamination and is highly scalable, allowing the rapid screening of thousands of clones. In addition to H. jecorina enzymes, we have expressed and screened endoglucanase variants from the Thermoascus aurantiacus and Penicillium decumbens (shown in Figure 2), suggesting that this protocol is applicable to enzymes from a range of organisms.

High Throughput Screening of Fungal Endoglucanase Activity in Escherichia coli

We describe a low cost, high throughput method to screen for fungal endoglucanase activity in E. coli. The method relies on a simple visual readout of substrate degradation, does not require enzyme purification, and is highly scalable. This allows for the rapid screening of large libraries of enzyme variants.

Cellulase enzymes (endoglucanases, cellobiohydrolases, and &beta;-glucosidases) hydrolyze cellulose into component sugars, which in turn can be converted ...

In vivo Liver Endocytosis Followed by Purification of Liver Cells by Liver Perfusion

The liver is the metabolic center of the mammalian body and serves as a filter for the blood. The basic architecture of the liver is illustrated in figure 1 in which more than 85% of the liver mass is composed of hepatocytes and the remaining 15% of the cellular mass is composed of Kupffer cells (KCs), stellate cells (HSCs), and sinusoidal endothelial cells (SECs). SECs form the blood vessel walls within the liver and contain specialized morphology called fenestrae within in the cytoplasm. Fenestration of the cytoplasm is the appearance of holes (&tilde;100 &mu;m) within the cells so that the SECs act as a sieve in which most chylomicrons, chylomicron remnants and macromolecules, but not cells, pass through to the hepatocytes and HSCs 1 (Fig. 1). Due to the lack of a basement membrane, the gap between the SECs and hepatocytes form the Space of Disse. HSCs occupy this space and play a prominent role in regulation and response to injury, storage of retinoic acid and immunoregulation of the liver 2.
SECs are among the most endocytically active cells of the body displaying an array of scavenger receptors on their cell surface 3. These include SR-A, Stabilin-1 and Stabilin-2. Generally, small colloidal particles less than 230 nm and macromolecules in buffer phase are taken up by SECs, whereas, large particles and cellular debris is endocytosed (phagocytosed) by KCs 4. Thus, the bulk clearance of extracellular material such as the glycosaminoglycans from blood is largely dependent on the health and endocytic functions of SECs 5,6. For example, an increase in blood hyaluronan levels is indicative of liver disease ranging from mild to more severe forms 7.
With the exception of one report 8, there are no immortalized SEC cell lines in existence. Even this immortalized cell line is de-differentiated in that it does not express scavenger receptors that are present on primary SECs (our data, not shown). All cell biological studies must be performed on primary cells obtained freshly from the animal. Unfortunately, SECs dedifferentiate under standard culture conditions and must be used within 1 or 2 days upon isolation from the animal. Differentiation of SECs is marked by the expression of Stabilin-2 or HARE receptor 9 , CD31, and the presence of cytoplasmic fenestration 1. Differentiation of SECs can be extended by the addition of VEGF in culture media or by culturing cells in hepatocyte conditioned medium 10,11.
In this report, we will demonstrate the endocytic activity of SECs in the intact organ using radio-labeled heparin for hyaluronan for the SEC-specific Stabilin-2 receptor. We will then purify hepatocytes and SECs from the perfused liver to measure endocytosis.

In vivo Liver Endocytosis Followed by Purification of Liver Cells by Liver Perfusion

The study of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (SECs) must be performed with primary cells obtained from the animal as no cell lines exist. This method relies on liver digestion and differential centrifugation for SEC purification for subsequent culturing and experimentation.

The liver is the metabolic center of the mammalian body and serves as a filter for the blood.  The basic architecture of the liver is illustrated in ...

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Phenotypes are determined by a complex series of physical (e.g. protein-protein) and functional (e.g. gene-gene or genetic) interactions (GI)1. While physical interactions can indicate which bacterial proteins are associated as complexes, they do not necessarily reveal pathway-level functional relationships1. GI screens, in which the growth of double mutants bearing two deleted or inactivated genes is measured and compared to the corresponding single mutants, can illuminate epistatic dependencies between loci and hence provide a means to query and discover novel functional relationships2. Large-scale GI maps have been reported for eukaryotic organisms like yeast3-7, but GI information remains sparse for prokaryotes8, which hinders the functional annotation of bacterial genomes. To this end, we and others have developed high-throughput quantitative bacterial GI screening methods9, 10.
Here, we present the key steps required to perform quantitative E. coli Synthetic Genetic Array (eSGA) screening procedure on a genome-scale9, using natural bacterial conjugation and homologous recombination to systemically generate and measure the fitness of large numbers of double mutants in a colony array format. Briefly, a robot is used to transfer, through conjugation, chloramphenicol (Cm) - marked mutant alleles from engineered Hfr (High frequency of recombination) 'donor strains' into an ordered array of kanamycin (Kan) - marked F- recipient strains. Typically, we use loss-of-function single mutants bearing non-essential gene deletions (e.g. the 'Keio' collection11) and essential gene hypomorphic mutations (i.e. alleles conferring reduced protein expression, stability, or activity9, 12, 13) to query the functional associations of non-essential and essential genes, respectively. After conjugation and ensuing genetic exchange mediated by homologous recombination, the resulting double mutants are selected on solid medium containing both antibiotics. After outgrowth, the plates are digitally imaged and colony sizes are quantitatively scored using an in-house automated image processing system14. GIs are revealed when the growth rate of a double mutant is either significantly better or worse than expected9. Aggravating (or negative) GIs often result between loss-of-function mutations in pairs of genes from compensatory pathways that impinge on the same essential process2. Here, the loss of a single gene is buffered, such that either single mutant is viable. However, the loss of both pathways is deleterious and results in synthetic lethality or sickness (i.e. slow growth). Conversely, alleviating (or positive) interactions can occur between genes in the same pathway or protein complex2 as the deletion of either gene alone is often sufficient to perturb the normal function of the pathway or complex such that additional perturbations do not reduce activity, and hence growth, further. Overall, systematically identifying and analyzing GI networks can provide unbiased, global maps of the functional relationships between large numbers of genes, from which pathway-level information missed by other approaches can be inferred9.

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Systematic, large-scale synthetic genetic (gene-gene or epistasis) interaction screens can be used to explore genetic redundancy and pathway cross-talk. Here, we describe a high-throughput quantitative synthetic genetic array screening technology, termed eSGA that we developed for elucidating epistatic relationships and exploring genetic interaction networks in Escherichia coli.

Phenotypes  are determined by a complex series of physical (e.g. protein-protein) and  functional (e.g. gene-gene or genetic) interactions (GI)1. While ...

Rapid Protocol for Preparation of Electrocompetent Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae

Electroporation has become a widely used method for rapidly and efficiently introducing foreign DNA into a wide range of cells. Electrotransformation has become the method of choice for introducing DNA into prokaryotes that are not naturally competent. Electroporation is a rapid, efficient, and streamlined transformation method that, in addition to purified DNA and competent bacteria, requires commercially available gene pulse controller and cuvettes. In contrast to the pulsing step, preparation of electrocompetent cells is time consuming and labor intensive involving repeated rounds of centrifugation and washes in decreasing volumes of sterile, cold water, or non-ionic buffers of large volumes of cultures grown to mid-logarithmic phase of growth. Time and effort can be saved by purchasing electrocompetent cells from commercial sources, but the selection is limited to commonly employed E. coli laboratory strains. We are hereby disseminating a rapid and efficient method for preparing electrocompetent E. coli, which has been in use by bacteriology laboratories for some time, can be adapted to V. cholerae and other prokaryotes. While we cannot ascertain whom to credit for developing the original technique, we are hereby making it available to the scientific community.

Rapid Protocol for Preparation of Electrocompetent Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae

Electroporation is a commonly employed method for introducing DNA into bacteria in a process known as transformation. Traditional protocols for the preparation of electrocompetent cells are time consuming and labor intensive. This article describes an alternate, rapid, and efficient method for the preparation of electrocompetent cells presently employed by some laboratories.

Electroporation has become a widely used method for rapidly and efficiently introducing foreign DNA into a wide range of cells. Electrotransformation has ...

Detection of Live Escherichia coli O157:H7 Cells by PMA-qPCR

A unique open reading frame (ORF) Z3276 was identified as a specific genetic marker for E. coli O157:H7. A qPCR assay was developed for detection of E. coli O157:H7 by targeting ORF Z3276. With this assay, we can detect as low as a few copies of the genome of DNA of E. coli O157:H7. The sensitivity and specificity of the assay were confirmed by intensive validation tests with a large number of E. coli O157:H7 strains (n = 369) and non-O157 strains (n = 112). Furthermore, we have combined propidium monoazide (PMA) procedure with the newly developed qPCR protocol for selective detection of live cells from dead cells. Amplification of DNA from PMA-treated dead cells was almost completely inhibited in contrast to virtually unaffected amplification of DNA from PMA-treated live cells. Additionally, the protocol has been modified and adapted to a 96-well plate format for an easy and consistent handling of a large number of samples. This method is expected to have an impact on accurate microbiological and epidemiological monitoring of food safety and environmental source.

Detection of Live Escherichia coli O157:H7 Cells by PMA-qPCR

A qPCR assay was developed for detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 targeting a unique genetic marker, Z3276. The qPCR was combined with propidium monoazide (PMA) treatment for live cell detection. This protocol has been modified and adapted to a 96-well plate format for easy and consistent handling of numerous samples

A unique open reading frame (ORF) Z3276 was identified as a specific genetic marker for E. coli O157:H7. A qPCR assay was developed for detection of E. ...

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) maintain the turnover of all mature blood cell lineages. The coordination of the complex signals leading to specific HSC fates relies upon the interaction between HSCs and the intricate bone marrow microenvironment, which is still poorly understood[1-2].
We describe how by combining a newly developed specimen holder for stable animal positioning with multi-step confocal and two-photon in vivo imaging techniques, it is possible to obtain high-resolution 3D stacks containing HSPCs and their surrounding niches and to monitor them over time through multi-point time-lapse imaging. High definition imaging allows detecting ex vivo labeled hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) residing within the bone marrow. Moreover, multi-point time-lapse 3D imaging, obtained with faster acquisition settings, provides accurate information about HSPC movement and the reciprocal interactions between HSPCs and stroma cells.
Tracking of HSPCs in relation to GFP positive osteoblastic cells is shown as an exemplary application of this method. This technique can be utilized to track any appropriately labeled hematopoietic or stromal cell of interest within the mouse calvarium bone marrow space.

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

The nature of the interactions between hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and bone marrow niches is poorly understood. Custom hardware modifications and a multi-step acquisition protocol allow the use of two-photon and confocal microscopy to image ex vivo labeled HSPCs homed within bone marrow areas, tracking interactions and movement.

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ...

The Multifaceted Benefits of Protein Co-expression in Escherichia coli

We report here that the expression of protein complexes in vivo in Escherichia coli can be more convenient than traditional reconstitution experiments in vitro. In particular, we show that the poor solubility of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase III &#949; subunit (featuring 3&#8217;-5&#8217; exonuclease activity) is highly improved when the same protein is co-expressed with the &#945; and &#952; subunits (featuring DNA polymerase activity and stabilizing &#949;, respectively). We also show that protein co-expression in E. coli can be used to efficiently test the competence of subunits from different bacterial species to associate in a functional protein complex. We indeed show that the &#945; subunit of Deinococcus radiodurans DNA polymerase III can be co-expressed in vivo with the &#949; subunit of E. coli. In addition, we report on the use of protein co-expression to modulate mutation frequency in E. coli. By expressing the wild-type &#949; subunit under the control of the araBAD promoter (arabinose-inducible), and co-expressing the mutagenic D12A variant of the same protein, under the control of the lac promoter (inducible by isopropyl-thio-&#946;-D-galactopyranoside, IPTG), we were able to alter the E. coli mutation frequency using appropriate concentrations of the inducers arabinose and IPTG. Finally, we discuss recent advances and future challenges of protein co-expression in E. coli.

The Multifaceted Benefits of Protein Co-expression in Escherichia coli

Protein co-expression is a powerful alternative to the reconstitution in vitro of protein complexes, and is of help in performing biochemical and genetic tests in vivo. Here we report on the use of protein co-expression in Escherichia coli to obtain protein complexes, and to tune the mutation frequency of cells.

We report here that the expression of protein complexes in vivo in Escherichia coli can be more convenient than traditional reconstitution experiments in ...