This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (BA 3679/5-1; FOR 2289: BA 3679/4-2). A.K. is supported by an ERASMUS+ fellowship. We thank Iris B&#252;nzli-Ehret, Rita Rosner, and Andrea Schlicksupp for the preparation of primary neurons. We thank Dr. Tobias Dick for providing pLPCX-mito-Grx1-roGFP2. Experiments shown in Figure 4 were performed at the Nikon Imaging Center, University of Heidelberg. Figure 2 was prepared with BioRender.com.

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Quantitative and dynamic measurements of the mitochondrial redox state provide important information about mitochondrial and cellular physiology. Several fluorogenic chemical probes are available that detect reactive oxygen species, &#34;redox stress,&#34; or &#34;oxidative stress.&#34; However, the latter terms are not well-defined and often lack specificity9,17,18. Compared to chemical dyes, Grx1-roGFP2 offers several advantag...

Several important mitochondrial enzymes and signaling molecules are subject to thiol redox regulation1. Moreover, mitochondria are a major cellular source of reactive oxygen species and are selectively vulnerable to oxidative damage2. Accordingly, the mitochondrial redox potential directly affects bioenergetics, cell signaling, mitochondrial function, and ultimately cell viability3,4. The mitochondrial matrix contains high amounts (1-15 mM) of the thiol-disulfide redox buffer glutathione (GSH) to maintain redox homeostasis and mount antioxidant defenses5,6. GSH can be covalently attached to target proteins (S-glutathionylation) to control their redox status and activity and is used by a range of detoxifying enzymes that reduce oxidized proteins. Therefore, the mitochondrial glutathione redox potential is a highly informative parameter when studying mitochondrial function and pathophysiology.
roGFP2 is a variant of GFP that has been made redox-sensitive by the addition of two surface-exposed cysteines that form an artificial dithiol-disulfide pair7,8. It has a single emission peak at ~510 nm and two excitation peaks at ~400 nm and 490 nm. Importantly, the relative amplitudes of the two excitation peaks depend on the redox state of roGFP2 (Figure 1), making this protein a ratiometric sensor. In the Grx1-roGFP2 sensor, human glutaredoxin-1 (Grx1) has been fused to the N-terminus of roGFP29,10. Covalent attachment of the Grx1 enzyme to roGFP2 affords two major improvements of the sensor: it makes the sensor response specific for the GSH/GSSG glutathione redox pair (Figure 1), and it speeds up equilibration between GSSG and roGFP2 by a factor of at least 100,0009. Therefore, Grx1-roGFP2 enables specific and dynamic imaging of the cellular glutathione redox potential.
Grx1-roGFP2 imaging can be performed on a wide range of microscopes, including widefield fluorescence microscopes, spinning disc confocal microscopes, and laser scanning confocal microscopes. Expression of the sensor in primary neurons can be achieved by various methods that include lipofection11, DNA/calcium-phosphate coprecipitation12, virus-mediated gene transfer, or use of transgenic animals as the cell source (Figure 2). Pseudotyped recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAV) containing a 1:1 ratio of AAV1 and AAV2 capsid proteins 13,14 were used for the experiments in this article. With this vector, maximal sensor expression is typically reached 4-5 days after infection and stays stable for at least two weeks. We have successfully used Grx1-roGFP2 in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons from mice and rats.
In this article, rAAV-mediated expression of mitochondria-targeted Grx1-roGFP2 in primary rat hippocampal and cortical neurons is used to assess basal mitochondrial glutathione redox state and its acute perturbation. A protocol is provided for confocal live imaging with detailed instructions on how to (i) optimize laser scanning confocal microscope settings, (ii) run a live imaging experiment, and (iii) analyze data with FIJI.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium chloride (CaCl2&#183;2H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C3306</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diamide (DA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D3648</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>Carl Roth GmbH</td>
			<td>6908.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose (2.5 M stock solution)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8769</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7528</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>neoFroxx GmbH</td>
			<td>LC-4522.2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES (1 M stock solution)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>15630-080</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H4034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride (MgCl2&#183;6H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>442611-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M3262</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3911</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>neoFroxx GmbH</td>
			<td>LC-5932.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyruvate (0.1 M stock solution)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S8636</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyruvate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8574</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Carl Roth GmbH</td>
			<td>4621.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester perchlorate (TMRE)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>87917</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>imaging chamber</td>
			<td>Life Imaging Services (Basel, Switzerland)</td>
			<td>10920</td>
			<td>Ludin Chamber Type 3 for &#216;12mm coverslips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>laser scanning confocal microscope, microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DMI6000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>laser scanning confocal microscope, scanning unit</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>SP8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>peristaltic pump</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>PP1080 181-4001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spinning disc confocal microscope, camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>C9100-02 EMCCD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spinning disc confocal microscope, incubationsystem</td>
			<td>TokaiHit</td>
			<td>INU-ZILCF-F1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spinning disc confocal microscope, microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Ti microscope</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spinning disc confocal microscope, scanning unit</td>
			<td>Yokagawa</td>
			<td>CSU-X1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FIJI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://fiji.sc</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>StackReg plugin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://github.com/fiji-BIG/StackReg/blob/master/src/main/java/StackReg_.java</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TurboReg plugin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://github.com/fiji-BIG/TurboReg/blob/master/src/main/java/TurboReg_.java</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

live imaging of the mitochondrial glutathione redox state in primary neurons using a ratiometric indicator

Mitochondrial redox homeostasis is important for neuronal viability and function. Although mitochondria contain several redox systems, the highly abundant thiol-disulfide redox buffer glutathione is considered a central player in antioxidant defenses. Therefore, measuring the mitochondrial glutathione redox potential provides useful information about mitochondrial redox status and oxidative stress. Glutaredoxin1-roGFP2 (Grx1-roGFP2) is a genetically encoded, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based ratiometric indicator of the glutathione redox potential that has two redox-state-sensitive excitation peaks at 400 nm and 490 nm with a single emission peak at 510 nm. This article describes how to perform confocal live microscopy of mitochondria-targeted Grx1-roGFP2 in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons. It describes how to assess steady-state mitochondrial glutathione redox potential (e.g., to compare disease states or long-term treatments) and how to measure redox changes upon acute treatments (using the excitotoxic drug N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) as an example). In addition, the article presents co-imaging of Grx1-roGFP2 and the mitochondrial membrane potential indicator, tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester (TMRE), to demonstrate how Grx1-roGPF2 can be multiplexed with additional indicators for multiparametric analyses. This protocol provides a detailed description of how to (i) optimize confocal laser scanning microscope settings, (ii) apply drugs for stimulation followed by sensor calibration with diamide and dithiothreitol, and (iii) analyze data with ImageJ/FIJI.

Quantification of differences in steady-state mitochondrial redox state after growth factor withdrawal 
To demonstrate the quantification of steady-state differences in mitochondrial redox state, primary neurons grown in standard medium were compared to neurons cultured without growth factors for 48 h before imaging. Growth factor withdrawal results in apoptotic neuronal cell death after 72 h16. Cells were imaged after 48 h to test if this is preceded by changes in mitochondr...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live Imaging of the Mitochondrial Glutathione Redox State in Primary Neurons using a Ratiometric Indicator at JoVE.com

Live Imaging of the Mitochondrial Glutathione Redox State in Primary Neurons using a Ratiometric Indicator

This article describes a protocol to determine differences in basal redox state and redox responses to acute perturbations in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons using confocal live microscopy. The protocol can be applied to other cell types and microscopes with minimal modifications.

Mitochondrial redox homeostasis is important for neuronal viability and function. Although mitochondria contain several redox systems, the highly abundant ...

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2.7K Views.  Heidelberg University. This article describes a protocol to determine differences in basal redox state and redox responses to acute perturbations in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons using confocal live microscopy. The protocol can be applied to other cell types and microscopes with minimal modifications.

Video: Live Imaging of the Mitochondrial Glutathione Redox State in Primary Neurons using a Ratiometric Indicator

Live-imaging of PKC Translocation in Sf9 Cells and in Aplysia Sensory Neurons

Protein kinase Cs (PKCs) are serine threonine kinases that play a central role in regulating a wide variety of cellular processes such as cell growth and learning and memory. There are four known families of PKC isoforms in vertebrates: classical PKCs (&alpha;, &beta;I, &beta;II and &gamma;), novel type I PKCs (&#949; and &eta;), novel type II PKCs (&delta; and &theta;), and atypical PKCs (&zeta; and &iota;). The classical PKCs are activated by Ca2+ and diacylclycerol (DAG), while the novel PKCs are activated by DAG, but are Ca2+-independent. The atypical PKCs are activated by neither Ca2+ nor DAG. In Aplysia californica, our model system to study memory formation, there are three nervous system specific PKC isoforms one from each major class, namely the conventional PKC Apl I, the novel type I PKC Apl II and the atypical PKC Apl III. PKCs are lipid-activated kinases and thus activation of classical and novel PKCs in response to extracellular signals has been frequently correlated with PKC translocation from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. Therefore, visualizing PKC translocation in real time in live cells has become an invaluable tool for elucidating the signal transduction pathways that lead to PKC activation. For instance, this technique has allowed for us to establish that different isoforms of PKC translocate under different conditions to mediate distinct types of synaptic plasticity and that serotonin (5HT) activation of PKC Apl II requires production of both DAG and phosphatidic acid (PA) for translocation 1-2. Importantly, the ability to visualize the same neuron repeatedly has allowed us, for example, to measure desensitization of the PKC response in exquisite detail 3. In this video, we demonstrate each step of preparing Sf9 cell cultures, cultures of Aplysia sensory neurons have been described in another video article 4, expressing fluorescently tagged PKCs in Sf9 cells and in Aplysia sensory neurons and live-imaging of PKC translocation in response to different activators using laser-scanning microscopy.

In this video, we demonstrate visualization of PKC translocation in living cells using fluorescently tagged PKCs.

Protein kinase Cs (PKCs) are serine threonine kinases that play a central role in regulating a wide variety of cellular processes such as cell growth and ...

Neuromodulation and Mitochondrial Transport: Live Imaging in Hippocampal Neurons over Long Durations

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured neurons for extended durations1-3. This is now possible through the use of vital dyes and fluorescent proteins with which cytoskeletal components, organelles, and other structures in living cells can be labeled and then visualized via dynamic fluorescence microscopy. For example, in embryonic chicken sympathetic neurons, mitochondrial movement was characterized using the vital dye rhodamine 1234. In another study, mitochondria were visualized in rat forebrain neurons by transfection of mitochondrially targeted eYFP5. However, imaging of primary neurons over minutes, hours, or even days presents a number of issues. Foremost among these are: 1) maintenance of culture conditions such as temperature, humidity, and pH during long imaging sessions; 2) a strong, stable fluorescent signal to assure both the quality of acquired images and accurate measurement of signal intensity during image analysis; and 3) limiting exposure times during image acquisition to minimize photobleaching and avoid phototoxicity.
Here, we describe a protocol that permits the observation, visualization, and analysis of mitochondrial movement in cultured hippocampal neurons with high temporal resolution and under optimal life support conditions. We have constructed an affordable stage-top incubator that provides good temperature regulation and atmospheric gas flow, and also limits the degree of media evaporation, assuring stable pH and osmolarity. This incubator is connected, via inlet and outlet hoses, to a standard tissue culture incubator, which provides constant humidity levels and an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2/air. This design offers a cost-effective alternative to significantly more expensive microscope incubators that don't necessarily assure the viability of cells over many hours or even days. To visualize mitochondria, we infect cells with a lentivirus encoding a red fluorescent protein that is targeted to the mitochondrion. This assures a strong and persistent signal, which, in conjunction with the use of a stable xenon light source, allows us to limit exposure times during image acquisition and all but precludes photobleaching and phototoxicity. Two injection ports on the top of the stage-top incubator allow the acute administration of neurotransmitters and other reagents intended to modulate mitochondrial movement. In sum, lentivirus-mediated expression of an organelle-targeted red fluorescent protein and the combination of our stage-top incubator, a conventional inverted fluorescence microscope, CCD camera, and xenon light source allow us to acquire time-lapse images of mitochondrial transport in living neurons over longer durations than those possible in studies deploying conventional vital dyes and off-the-shelf life support systems.

We describe a protocol that allows imaging of mitochondria in living neurons via fluorescence microscopy over long durations. Imaging over extended periods is accomplished through lentivirus-mediated expression of a mitochondrially targeted fluorescent protein and use of an inexpensive stage-top incubator that was designed and built in our laboratory.

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured ...

Determination of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Reactive Oxygen Species in Live Rat Cortical Neurons

Mitochondrial membrane potential (&Delta;&Psi;m) is critical for maintaining the physiological function of the respiratory chain to generate ATP. A significant loss of &Delta;&Psi;m renders cells depleted of energy with subsequent death. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important signaling molecules, but their accumulation in pathological conditions leads to oxidative stress. The two major sources of ROS in cells are environmental toxins and the process of oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress have been implicated in the pathophysiology of many diseases; therefore, the ability to determine &Delta;&Psi;m and ROS can provide important clues about the physiological status of the cell and the function of the mitochondria. 
Several fluorescent probes (Rhodamine 123, TMRM, TMRE, JC-1) can be used to determine &Delta;&psi;m in a variety of cell types, and many fluorescence indicators (Dihydroethidium, Dihydrorhodamine 123, H2DCF-DA) can be used to determine ROS. Nearly all of the available fluorescence probes used to assess &Delta;&Psi;m or ROS are single-wavelength indicators, which increase or decrease their fluorescence intensity proportional to a stimulus that increases or decreases the levels of &Delta;&Psi;m or ROS. Thus, it is imperative to measure the fluorescence intensity of these probes at the baseline level and after the application of a specific stimulus. This allows one to determine the percentage of change in fluorescence intensity between the baseline level and a stimulus. This change in fluorescence intensity reflects the change in relative levels of &Delta;&Psi;m or ROS. In this video, we demonstrate how to apply the fluorescence indicator, TMRM, in rat cortical neurons to determine the percentage change in TMRM fluorescence intensity between the baseline level and after applying FCCP, a mitochondrial uncoupler. The lower levels of TMRM fluorescence resulting from FCCP treatment reflect the depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential. We also show how to apply the fluorescence probe H2DCF-DA to assess the level of ROS in cortical neurons, first at baseline and then after application of H2O2. This protocol (with minor modifications) can be also used to determine changes in &#x2206;&#x03A8;m and ROS in different cell types and in neurons isolated from other brain regions.

We demonstrate application of the fluorescence indicator, TMRM, in cortical neurons to determine the relative changes in TMRM fluorescence intensity before and after application of a specific stimulus. We also show application of the fluorescence probe H2DCF-DA to assess the relative level of reactive oxygen species in cortical neurons.

Mitochondrial membrane potential (&Delta;&Psi;m) is critical for maintaining the physiological function of the respiratory chain to generate ATP.  A ...

Preparation of Primary Neurons for Visualizing Neurites in a Frozen-hydrated State Using Cryo-Electron Tomography

Neurites, both dendrites and axons, are neuronal cellular processes that enable the conduction of electrical impulses between neurons. Defining the structure of neurites is critical to understanding how these processes move materials and signals that support synaptic communication. Electron microscopy (EM) has been traditionally used to assess the ultrastructural features within neurites; however, the exposure to organic solvent during dehydration and resin embedding can distort structures. An important unmet goal is the formulation of procedures that allow for structural evaluations not impacted by such artifacts.
Here, we have established a detailed and reproducible protocol for growing and flash-freezing whole neurites of different primary neurons on electron microscopy grids followed by their examination with cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET). This technique allows for 3-D visualization of frozen, hydrated neurites at nanometer resolution, facilitating assessment of their morphological differences. Our protocol yields an unprecedented view of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurites, and a visualization of hippocampal neurites in their near-native state. As such, these methods create a foundation for future studies on neurites of both normal neurons and those impacted by neurological disorders.

To preserve neuronal processes for ultrastructural analysis, we describe a protocol for plating of primary neurons on electron microscopy grids followed by flash freezing, yielding samples suspended in a layer of vitreous ice. These samples can be examined with a cryo-electron microscope to visualize structures at the nanometer scale.

Neurites, both dendrites and axons, are neuronal cellular processes that enable the conduction of electrical impulses between neurons. Defining the ...

Live Imaging of Primary Cerebral Cortex Cells Using a 2D Culture System

During cerebral cortex development, progenitor cells undergo several rounds of symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions to generate new progenitors or postmitotic neurons. Later, some progenitors switch to a gliogenic fate, adding to the astrocyte and oligodendrocyte populations. Using time-lapse video-microscopy of primary cerebral cortex cell cultures, it is possible to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling the mode of cell division and cell cycle parameters of progenitor cells. Similarly, the fate of postmitotic cells can be examined using cell-specific fluorescent reporter proteins or post-imaging immunocytochemistry. More importantly, all these features can be analyzed at the single-cell level, allowing the identification of progenitors committed to the generation of specific cell types. Manipulation of gene expression can also be performed using viral-mediated transfection, allowing the study of cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous phenomena. Finally, the use of fusion fluorescent proteins allows the study of symmetric and asymmetric distribution of selected proteins during division and the correlation with daughter cells fate. Here, we describe the time-lapse video-microscopy method to image primary cerebral cortex murine cells for up to several days and analyze the mode of cell division, cell cycle length and fate of newly generated cells. We also describe a simple method to transfect progenitor cells, which can be applied to manipulate genes of interest or simply label cells with reporter proteins.

Live imaging is a powerful tool to study cellular behaviors in real time. Here, we describe a protocol for time-lapse video-microscopy of primary cerebral cortex cells that allows a detailed examination of the phases enacted during the lineage progression from primary neural stem cells to differentiated neurons and glia.

During cerebral cortex development, progenitor cells undergo several rounds of symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions to generate new progenitors or ...

Live Images of GLUT4 Protein Trafficking in Mouse Primary Hypothalamic Neurons Using Deconvolution Microscopy

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues. The hypothalamus in the central nervous system (CNS) is the control center for energy and insulin signal response regulation. Chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues and imbalances of certain chemokines (such as CCL5, TNF&#945;, and IL-6) contribute to diabetes and obesity. However, the functional mechanism(s) connecting chemokines and hypothalamic insulin signal regulation still remain unclear.
In vitro primary neuron culture models are convenient and simple models which can be used to investigate insulin signal regulation in hypothalamic neurons. In this study, we introduced exogeneous GLUT4 protein conjugated with GFP (GFP-GLUT4) into primary hypothalamic neurons to track GLUT4 membrane translocation upon insulin stimulation. Time-lapse images of GFP-GLUT4 protein trafficking were recorded by deconvolution microscopy, which allowed users to generate high-speed, high-resolution images without damaging the neurons significantly while conducting the experiment. The contribution of CCR5 in insulin regulated GLUT4 translocation was observed in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons, which were isolated and cultured from CCR5 knockout mice. Our results demonstrated that the GLUT4 membrane translocation efficiency was reduced in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons after insulin stimulation.

This protocol describes a technique for observation of real-time Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) tagged Glucose Transporter 4 (GLUT4) protein trafficking upon insulin stimulation and characterization of the biological role of CCR5 in the insulin&#8211;GLUT4 signaling pathway with Deconvolution Microscopy.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral ...

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major immune cells and only phagocytes in the brain, recent studies have shown that astrocytes also participate in various phagocytic processes, such as developmental synapse elimination and clearance of amyloid beta plaques in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). Despite these findings, the efficiency of astrocyte engulfment and degradation of their targets is unclear compared with that of microglia. This lack of information is mostly due to the lack of an assay system in which the kinetics of astrocyte- and microglia-mediated phagocytosis are easily comparable. To achieve this goal, we have developed a long-term live-imaging in vitro phagocytosis assay to evaluate the phagocytic capacity of purified astrocytes and microglia. In this assay, real-time detection of engulfment and degradation is possible using pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes, which emit bright red fluorescence in acidic organelles, such as lysosomes. Our novel assay provides simple and effective detection of phagocytosis through live-imaging. In addition, this in vitro phagocytosis assay can be used as a screening platform to identify chemicals and compounds that can enhance or inhibit the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. As synaptic pruning malfunction and pathogenic protein accumulation have been shown to cause mental disorders or neurodegenerative diseases, chemicals and compounds that modulate the phagocytic capacity of glial cells should be helpful in treating various neurological disorders.

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

This protocol presents an in vitro live-imaging phagocytosis assay to measure the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. Purified rat astrocytes and microglia are used along with pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes. This method can detect real-time engulfment and degradation kinetics and provides a suitable screening platform to identify factors modulating astrocyte phagocytosis.

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major ...

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized animals. Highly sensitive, genetically encoded fluorescent reporters of Ca2+ have revolutionized the recording of cell and synaptic activity using non-invasive optical approaches in behaving animals. When combined with genetic and optogenetic techniques, the molecular mechanisms that modulate cell and circuit activity during different behavior states can be identified.
Here we describe methods for ratiometric Ca2+ imaging of single neurons in freely behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. We demonstrate a simple mounting technique that gently overlays worms growing on a standard Nematode Growth Media (NGM) agar block with a glass coverslip, permitting animals to be recorded at high-resolution during unrestricted movement and behavior. With this technique, we use the sensitive Ca2+ reporter GCaMP5 to record changes in intracellular Ca2+ in the serotonergic Hermaphrodite Specific Neurons (HSNs) as they drive egg-laying behavior. By co-expressing mCherry, a Ca2+-insensitive fluorescent protein, we can track the position of the HSN within ~ 1 &#181;m and correct for fluctuations in fluorescence caused by changes in focus or movement. Simultaneous, infrared brightfield imaging allows for behavior recording and animal tracking using a motorized stage. By integrating these microscopic techniques and data streams, we can record Ca2+ activity in the C. elegans egg-laying circuit as it progresses between inactive and active behavior states over tens of minutes.

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

This protocol describes the use of genetically encoded Ca2+ reporters to record changes in neural activity in behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. &#8195;

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized ...

Ballistic Labeling of Pyramidal Neurons in Brain Slices and in Primary Cell Culture

It has been reported that the size and shape of dendritic spines is related to their structural plasticity. To identify the morphological structure of pyramidal neurons and dendritic spines, a ballistic labeling technique can be utilized. In the present protocol, pyramidal neurons are labeled with DilC18(3) dye and analyzed using neuronal reconstruction software to assess neuronal morphology and dendritic spines. To investigate neuronal structure, dendritic branching analysis and Sholl analysis are performed, allowing researchers to draw inferences about dendritic branching complexity and neuronal arbor complexity, respectively. The evaluation of dendritic spines is conducted using an automatic assisted classification algorithm integral to the reconstruction software, which classifies spines into four categories (i.e., thin, mushroom, stubby, filopodia). Furthermore, an additional three parameters (i.e., length, head diameter, and volume) are also chosen to assess alterations in dendritic spine morphology. To validate the potential of wide application of the ballistic labeling technique, pyramidal neurons from in vitro cell culture were successfully labeled. Overall, the ballistic labeling method is unique and useful for visualizing neurons in different brain regions in rats, which in combination with sophisticated reconstruction software, allows researchers to elucidate the possible mechanisms underlying neurocognitive dysfunction.

We present a protocol to label and analyze pyramidal neurons, which is critical for evaluating potential morphological alterations in neurons and dendritic spines that may underlie neurochemical and behavioral abnormalities.

It has been reported that the size and shape of dendritic spines is related to their structural plasticity. To identify the morphological structure of ...

Imaging Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake in Astrocytes and Neurons using Genetically Encoded Ca2+ Indicators (GECIs)

Mitochondrial Ca2+ plays a critical role in controlling cytosolic Ca2+ buffering, energy metabolism, and cellular signal transduction. Overloading of mitochondrial Ca2+ contributes to various pathological conditions, including neurodegeneration and apoptotic cell death in neurological diseases. Here we present a cell-type specific and mitochondria targeting molecular approach for mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging in astrocytes and neurons in vitro and in vivo. We constructed DNA plasmids encoding mitochondria-targeting genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators (GECIs) GCaMP5G or GCaMP6s (GCaMP5G/6s) with astrocyte- and neuron-specific promoters gfaABC1D and CaMKII and mitochondria-targeting sequence (mito-). For in vitro mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging, the plasmids were transfected in cultured astrocytes and neurons to express GCaMP5G/6s. For in vivo mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging, adeno-associated viral vectors (AAVs) were prepared and injected into the mouse brains to express GCaMP5G/6s in mitochondria in astrocytes and neurons. Our approach provides a useful means to image mitochondrial Ca2+ dynamics in astrocytes and neurons to study the relationship between cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca2+ signaling, as well as astrocyte-neuron interactions.

Imaging Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake in Astrocytes and Neurons using Genetically Encoded Ca2+ Indicators GECIs

This proctocol aims to provide a method for in vitro and in vivo mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging in astrocytes and neurons.

Mitochondrial Ca2+ plays a critical role in controlling cytosolic Ca2+ buffering, energy metabolism, and cellular signal transduction. Overloading of ...