This study has been supported by the Department of Biochemistry, Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi. The authors thank the laboratory staff for their support.

The entire protocol with all steps is depicted as a schematic diagram in Figure 4. The method is adapted from a previous study using rat intestines8. The experiment was performed in compliance with institutional guidelines. The samples used in this study were procured from a commercial vendor.
CAUTION: Wear gloves during this experiment.
1. Preparation of inverted Jejunum sacs
<ol>
	<li>Pre-treat and clean goat jejunum.
	<ol>
		<li>Procure the entrails of a freshly sacrificed healthy goat from a licensed vendor.</li>
		<li>Place the entrails in enough 1x phosphate buffer saline (PBS) so that they are immersed completely for cleaning.</li>
		<li>Separate the small intestine from the large intestine, and make sure that the external connective tissue is removed using scissors.</li>
		<li>Gently flush the small intestine with 1x PBS using a 10 mL syringe, ensuring the removal of undigested food material to obtain a hollow bag of small intestine. Repeat this process at least thrice for effective cleaning. 
		NOTE: Avoid using excessive force or needles while flushing. The use of force can result in the puncturing of the intestinal walls and thus damage the intestinal enterocytes.</li>
		<li>Measure the complete length of the small intestine using a ruler to obtain the three parts: Duodenum (1/4th of the small intestine) and the remainder split evenly into Jejunum and Ileum.</li>
		<li>Proceed with the experiment using the Jejunum part.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare inverted Jejunum.
	<ol>
		<li>Clean the jejunum part by removing all the connective tissue using a blade.</li>
		<li>Cut the jejunum into 12-15 cm long portions, wash with 1x PBS, and place in a Petri dish containing PBS.</li>
		<li>Invert the jejunum portions using a glass rod to allow the villi portion to be exposed on the outside. 
		CAUTION: Avoid using a glass rod with sharp edges. Moreover, the diameter of the glass rod should not be greater than the diameter of the sac. 
		NOTE: At this point, one can visualize the villi under a light microscope (Figure 4).</li>
		<li>Gently flush the inverted jejunum portions with 1x PBS.</li>
		<li>Check for any leaks from the sides of the inverted jejunum.</li>
		<li>Cut the inverted jejunum portions into 5 cm long sacs.</li>
		<li>Tie one end with twine and recheck for visual leaks at the tied end by filling the sacs with PBS.</li>
		<li>Tie the other end to create an empty inverted sac with villi on the external surface.</li>
		<li>Recheck for external leaks by patting the inverted sac on filter paper.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Equilibrate the inverted sacs in 1x PBS.
	<ol>
		<li>Proceed with the experiment on the same day or store the sacs overnight in 1x PBS at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Experimental setup for Histidine transport
<ol>
	<li>Assemble two sets of three 50 mL tubes according to different concentrations of sodium chloride as given in Table 1.</li>
	<li>Dip the prepared intestinal sacs in the specified tubes for 30 min and 60 min for each of the sets.</li>
	<li>After the designated time, empty the solution inside the sac in a separate 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube and determine the volume.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the liquid inside the sac using a 2 mL syringe. Alternatively, untie one end of the sac and collect the contents in a fresh 1.5 mL tube.</li>
	<li>Assay 0.1 mL of the collected samples for histidine estimation and calculate the concentration using the standard graph.</li>
</ol>
3. Estimation of Histidine using Pauly&#39;s reaction
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a standard curve for histidine.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare solutions with varying concentrations of histidine as indicated in Table 2 using stock solutions of histidine (5 mM) and water.</li>
		<li>Add sulphanilic acid (0.5 mL) and sodium nitrate (0.5 mL) to each tube.</li>
		<li>Incubate the tubes for 5 min at room temperature, then add 1 mL each of sodium carbonate and ethanol to each tube.</li>
		<li>Incubate the tubes for 20 min at room temperature (~20 &#176;C) and note the absorbance at wavelength 490 nm.</li>
		<li>Plot a standard curve of absorbance versus Histidine concentration. 
		NOTE: This test for histidine is based on the property of histidine to form a diazo compound (Figure 5).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Sodium-Dependent Histidine Absorption in Goat Jejunal Inverted Sacs

<ol>
	<li>Nelson, D. L., Cox, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 7th Edition. , (2017).</li><li>Stillwell, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Membrane Transport. An Introduction to Biological Membranes. , (2013).</li><li>Fick, A. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+liquid+diffusion.">On liquid diffusion.</a> The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 10 (63), 30-39 (1855).</li><li>Sherwood, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Introduction to Human Physiology. , (2013).</li><li>Br&#246;er, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intestinal+amino+acid+transport+and+metabolic+health.">Intestinal amino acid transport and metabolic health.</a> Annu Rev Nutr. 43, 73-99 (2023).</li><li>Avissar, N. E., Ryan, C. K., Ganapathy, V., Sax, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Na+-dependent+neutral+amino+acid+transporter+ATB0+is+a+rabbit+epithelial+cell+brush-border+protein.">Na+-dependent neutral amino acid transporter ATB0 is a rabbit epithelial cell brush-border protein.</a> Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 281 (3), C963-C971 (2001).</li><li>Br&#246;er, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amino+acid+transport+across+mammalian+intestinal+and+renal+epithelia.">Amino acid transport across mammalian intestinal and renal epithelia.</a> Physiol Rev. 88 (1), 249-286 (2008).</li><li>Agar, W. T., Hird, F. J. R., Sidhu, G. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+uptake+of+amino+acids+by+the+intestine.">The uptake of amino acids by the intestine.</a> BBA - Biochim Biophys Acta. 14 (1), 80-84 (1954).</li><li>Pauly, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=&#220;ber+die+Konstitution+des+Histidins.">&#220;ber die Konstitution des Histidins.</a> I. Mitteilung. Biological Chemistry. 42 (5-6), 508-518 (1904).</li><li>Wilson, T. H., Wiseman, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+sacs+of+everted+small+intestine+for+the+study+of+the+transference+of+substances+from+the+mucosal+to+the+serosal+surface.">The use of sacs of everted small intestine for the study of the transference of substances from the mucosal to the serosal surface.</a> J Physiol. 123 (1), 116-125 (1954).</li><li>Barthe, L., Woodley, J. F., Kenworthy, S., Houin, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+everted+gut+sac+as+a+simple+and+accurate+technique+to+measure+paracellular+transport+across+the+small+intestine.">An improved everted gut sac as a simple and accurate technique to measure paracellular transport across the small intestine.</a> Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 23 (2), 313-323 (1998).</li><li>Alam, M. A., Al-Jenoobi, F. I., Al-Mohizea, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everted+gut+sac+model+as+a+tool+in+pharmaceutical+research:+Limitations+and+applications.">Everted gut sac model as a tool in pharmaceutical research: Limitations and applications.</a> J Pharm Pharmacol. 64 (3), 326-336 (2012).</li><li>Pento, J. T., Mousissian, G. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-dependent+deterioration+of+active+transport+in+duodenal+segments+of+rat+intestine.">Time-dependent deterioration of active transport in duodenal segments of rat intestine.</a> J Pharmacol Methods. 20 (1), 9-14 (1988).</li><li>Williams, L., Sembiante, S. 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The authors have no competing financial interests or other conflicts of interest.

Membrane transport is one of the most fundamental concepts taught to undergraduate students of all major biological science disciplines, basic or applied. Traditionally, movement across membranes has been visualized using metabolites labeled with radioactive isotopes. However, these methods are extremely hazardous and not feasible for teaching or learning. While experiential learning is the best pedagogical technique to understand such complex concepts, it is a challenge that is further compounded by the lack of infrastr...

Biological cells are surrounded by a membrane lipid bilayer that separates the intracellular cytosol from the extracellular content. The membrane serves as a semipermeable barrier that regulates the movement of solutes1. Transport across biological membranes is affected by a solute&#39;s permeability coefficient, which depends on several factors, including the concentration and charge of the solute. In general, solutes move through the membrane using three mechanisms (Figure 1): Passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport2. Simple diffusion is the process by which soluble, uncharged, and non-polar solutes pass down their concentration gradient through a semipermeable membrane (Figure 1A). Membrane proteins do not assist in this process since it involves the movement of solutes from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. The rate of diffusion is based on Fick&#39;s Law3. On the other hand, facilitated diffusion is a protein-dependent transport wherein the membrane allows only selective solutes to pass along a concentration gradient without the expenditure of energy (Figure 1B). This kind of transport is specific and differs from simple diffusion in exhibiting saturation kinetics.
Active transport is a protein-dependent transport of molecules against their concentration gradient, i.e., from the region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration with the use of ATP or ion gradients (Figure 1C). When the transporter hydrolyses ATP, the transport is termed primary active transport (Figure 1C; left panel). Another form of active transport is secondary active transport (Figure 1C; right panel). In secondary active transport, solutes are moved based on an electrochemical gradient. It takes place when a transporter protein couples the movement of an ion (typically Na+) down its concentration gradient with the movement of another molecule or an ion against its concentration gradient. This kind of solute movement can be a co-transport (Symport) wherein both the solute and the ion move in the same direction or an exchange (Antiport), in which case the solute and the ion move in opposite directions.
The dietary amino acids and monosaccharides from food sources are absorbed in the small intestine. The small intestine can be functionally divided into three segments: Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum (Figure 2). Absorption of solute occurs throughout the small intestine, with maximum absorption occurring at the jejunum and at the proximal end of the ileum. The intestinal enterocytes are polarized cells, and the tight junctions connecting two adjacent cells create two distinct membrane sites - the basolateral and the apical membrane site (Figure 2). The absorption of luminal solutes generated by digestion occurs on the apical membrane site4.
Histidine transport in the intestinal enterocytes at the apical membrane is an example of a secondary active symport that is sodium-dependent. At the basolateral end, the histidine entering the enterocyte moves down the concentration gradient into the hepatic portal circulation. The intracellular concentrations of sodium within the enterocyte are maintained at 12 mmoles/L1, which is lower than the extracellular/luminal concentrations, due to the active pumping of sodium out of the cell by Na+ K+ATPase located on the basolateral membrane (Figure 3). At the apical membrane of enterocytes, the B0AT and the sodium neutral amino acid transporter (SNAT) 5 are the major transporters that not only transport histidine but also amino acids such as asparagine and glutamine in a sodium-dependent cotransport5,6. Another transport protein called Large Amino acid Transporter (LAT)1 present at the basolateral membrane of enterocytes transports large neutral amino acids such as leucine, tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine across the membrane7.
With the objective of teaching the concept of membrane transport integrated with techniques such as spectrophotometry and routine biochemical assays through experiential learning pedagogy, it is imperative to develop methodologies that can not only demonstrate the concept in easy-to-understand terms but also enable participatory learning for undergraduate students. Currently, there are limited resources available to the students for hands-on engagement to learn such concepts of biochemistry. Here, we report a simple protocol for demonstrating Histidine transport across goat intestinal membrane that is easy to reproduce in undergraduate laboratories and can be adapted for evaluating the transport of other metabolites as well. More importantly, the method utilizes inexpensive materials in an undergraduate laboratory, thereby enabling experiential learning in even the simplest of laboratory settings.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL Microcentrifuge Tubes</td>
			<td>TARSONS</td>
			<td>500020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL Test Tubes</td>
			<td>BOROSIL</td>
			<td>9800U04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL Sterile Falcon Tubes</td>
			<td>TARSONS</td>
			<td>546041</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>500 mL Beaker</td>
			<td>BOROSIL</td>
			<td>10044977</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>500 mL Conical Flask</td>
			<td>BOROSIL</td>
			<td>691467</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-Glucose</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>42738</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>SYSTRONICS</td>
			<td>2710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>EMSURE</td>
			<td>1009831000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Finpipettes</td>
			<td>THERMOFISHER</td>
			<td>4642090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Stirrer Rod</td>
			<td>BOROSIL</td>
			<td>9850107</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Histidine&#160;</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>17849</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>41721</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrile Gloves</td>
			<td>KIMTECH</td>
			<td>112-4847</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri Dish&#160;</td>
			<td>TARSONS</td>
			<td>460090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline (ph 7.4)</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>95131</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette Tips</td>
			<td>ABDOS</td>
			<td>P10102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Carbonate</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>89382</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Nitrate&#160;</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>44618</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Phosphate Dibasic (anhydrous)</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>53046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Phosphate Monobasic (anhydrous)</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>22249</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulphanilic Acid&#160;</td>
			<td>SRL</td>
			<td>15354</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

demonstration of membrane transport of histidine using goat intestinal inverted sacs: an experiential pedagogical tool for undergraduates

Histidine is an essential amino acid that is also a precursor for metabolites implicated in the immune system, pulmonary ventilation, and vascular circulation. Absorption of dietary histidine relies largely on the sodium-coupled neutral amino acid transport by the Broad neutral amino acid transporter (B0AT) present on the apical membrane of the enterocyte. Here, we demonstrate the absorption of histidine by the intestinal villus enterocytes from the lumen using goat jejunal inverted sacs. The jejunal sacs exposed to varying concentrations of sodium and histidine were assayed to determine the concentration of histidine inside the sacs as a function of time. The results show active histidine absorption. Increasing the concentration of salt resulted in higher absorption of histidine, suggesting a symport of sodium and histidine absorption in goat intestinal inverted sacs. This protocol may be applied to visualize the intestinal mobility of amino acids or other metabolites with appropriate modifications. We propose this experiment as an experiential pedagogical tool that can help undergraduate students comprehend the concept of membrane transport.

Author Spotlight: Experiential Tool for Teaching Active Transport Using Ex Vivo Histidine Uptake

Demonstration of Membrane Transport of Histidine using Goat Intestinal Inverted Sacs: An Experiential Pedagogical Tool for Undergraduates

The experimental workflow for demonstrating intestinal mobility of histidine through absorption of histidine by intestinal villi into the lumen of the inverted sacs is illustrated in Figure 4, Table 1 and Table 2. Three independent experimental setups were performed, and representative data are presented in Figure 6.
Under the given experimental conditions, Histidine estimation using Pauly&#39;s react...

Here, we report an inexpensive and reproducible method demonstrating the membrane transport of histidine in a goat intestine. This process occurs by co-transporting histidine and sodium ions enabled by the sodium gradient across the enterocyte membrane. This method exploits experiential learning pedagogy to better understand solute movement across biological membranes.

Histidine is an essential amino acid that is also a precursor for metabolites implicated in the immune system, pulmonary ventilation, and vascular ...

demonstration-membrane-transport-histidine-using-goat-intestinal

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

896 Views.  University of Delhi. Here, we report an inexpensive and reproducible method demonstrating the membrane transport of histidine in a goat intestine. This process occurs by co-transporting histidine and sodium ions enabled by the sodium gradient across the enterocyte membrane. This method exploits experiential learning pedagogy to better understand solute movement across biological membranes.