Agradecemos Joachim Erber por nos apresentar o paradigma de aprendizagem tátil em abelhas. Este trabalho foi apoiado pelo Cluster de Excelência 277 CITEC, financiado no âmbito da Iniciativa de Excelência alemão.

1. Preparando as abelhas <ol><li> Forrageiras néctar ou pólen são capturados no campo a partir de um alimentador de sacarose ou diretamente a partir da entrada colméia ao retornar de uma viagem de forrageamento. Cada única abelha é capturado dentro de um frasco de vidro, que é fechada com um tampão de espuma e levado imediatamente para o laboratório para posterior manipulação. </li><li> No laboratório, as abelhas capturados são brevemente arrefecida no frigorífico a 4 ° C até se mostrar os primeiros sinais de imobilidade. </li><li> Cada abelha única imobilizada é montado em um pequeno tubo de metal com fita adesiva entre a cabeça e no tórax e sobre o abdómen. Cuidados devem ser tomados para que a tromba e antenas são livremente móvel. </li><li> Pinte os olhos compostos e ocelos da abelha fixo com tinta branca (por exemplo, livre de solvente Tipp-Ex) para ocluir visão. </li><li> Adicionar uma pequena gota de cera derretida por trás da cabeça da abelha para corrigi-lo para a fita entre a cabeça eo tórax para evitar movimentos da cabeça durante as gravações. </li><li> Marcar cada abelha com um número único na fita para facilitar a identificação e colocar o tubo com a abelha fixo em uma atmosfera húmida para evitar a desidratação. </li><li> Alimentar cada abelha único durante 5 segundos, com gotículas de uma solução de sacarose a 30% apresentaram uma seringa e que todas as abelhas recuperar durante 30 min antes de iniciar o protocolo de condicionamento táctil. </li></ol> 2. Condicionado tátil <ol><li> Antes de condicionamento, cada abelha individual tem de ser testado para a resposta da extensão da probóscide (PER) a um estímulo de 30% de sacarose aplicada às antenas. Deste modo, a ponta do nariz tem de atravessar uma linha virtual entre as mandíbulas abertas. Descartar todas as abelhas que não respondem com um PER para o estímulo de sacarose. </li><li> Para o condicionamento táctil utilizar um cubo de metal (por exemplo, 3 x 5 mm) com uma superfície lisa ou um padrão gravado, por exemplo, horizontal ou ranhuras verticais que formam uma grade com comprimento de onda de 150 um, como o estímulo condicionado (CS). Fou o estímulo não condicionado (EUA) utilizar uma solução de sacarose a 30% (açúcar doméstico, diluído em água). </li><li> O cubo de latão (CS) é colocado sobre um suporte de um micromanipulador (por exemplo, Märzhäuser MM33) para garantir o posicionamento exacto durante o processo de condicionamento. Os EUA é apresentada ao abelha com uma seringa cheia com uma solução de sacarose a 30%. </li><li> O procedimento de condicionamento consiste em cinco pares de estímulo táctil (CS) e uma solução de sacarose (EUA), com um intervalo inter-ensaio (ITI) de 5 min. Colocar uma única abelha em frente do micromanipulador com o estímulo táctil montado (CS). Posicionar o CS lentamente, de tal modo que a superfície do estímulo táctil é paralela à cabeça da abelha (Figura 1 A e B). A distância entre o animal e o objeto tátil deve estar no intervalo de o raio da antena de trabalho da abelha testado, isto é, a abelha deve ser capaz de verificar o estímulo táctil numa posição confortável wantenas tanto de ordem i. No exemplo mostrado na Figura 1, a distância era de 3 mm. Deixe a abelha digitalizar o estímulo tátil (CS) por 5 seg. Após o primeiro 3 seg, apresentar uma gotícula da sacarose a 30% (EUA) com uma solução de uma seringa sob a tromba. Utilize a ponta da seringa para levantar suavemente as tromba. Estimulação de sacarose sob a tromba vai provocar o incondicionado PER 15. Permitir que a abelha a lamber a recompensa de sacarose. Usar um cronometro com um sinal de alarme para manter os intervalos exactos de tempo durante o condicionamento. </li><li> O PER condicionado é usada como uma medida para o sucesso da aprendizagem de uma abelha. Após os sorteios primeiro recompensados, as abelhas começam a responder a CS apresentação por extensão de seus probóscides, indicando que eles esperam a recompensa futura. A tromba totalmente estendida observados a qualquer momento durante a janela de tempo de 3 segundos de apresentação do estímulo tátil e antes da apresentação de sacarose é classificada como uma resposta positiva. Nenhuma resposta é contado negativo. O occurrence do PER tem de ser observado pelo experimentador. O percentual de abelhas que mostram o PER durante a apresentação CS é traçado para cada tentativa. </li></ol> 3. Gravações cinemáticas <ol><li> Movimentos antenais de uma única abelha aproveitado são gravados com uma câmera de vídeo digital com uma lente macro adequado (por exemplo Basler A602f-2 equipado com TechSpec VZM 200, operado a 50 fps através de uma conexão de fio de fogo). A câmara é posicionada acima do animal numa vista de cima para baixo (Figura 1 A). Na Figura 1, a resolução espacial das gravações é de 0,02 mm / pixel. </li><li> Calibrar a câmera gravando imagens únicas de um tabuleiro de xadrez 10 mm x 10 com uma aresta de comprimento 1 mm diferentes orientações no âmbito do objectivo da câmara. A calibração pode ser feita com a caixa de ferramentas da câmara de calibração Matlab 16. </li><li> Coloque uma única abelha fixa abaixo da lente da câmera. Apresentar o estímulo táctil, fixada a um micromanipulador, Para o animal. Proceder do mesmo modo como descrito para o condicionamento táctil, e gravar o movimento da antena enquanto a abelha é digitalizar o objeto. É importante que o intervalo de trabalho completo e antenal do estímulo táctil são visíveis. As escolhas de padrões de estímulo testado e números de ensaios dependem do projeto experimental. </li></ol> 4. Análise de Dados <ol><li> O cálculo da imagem de fundo é feito em Matlab. Primeiro, o valor médio tons de cinza ao longo do tempo tem que ser calculado para cada pixel. Objetos estáticos, como a cabeça fixa da abelha e do estímulo tátil, irá constituir o fundo da imagem. Os objectos em movimento, como a duas antenas, não irá fazer parte do fundo. </li><li> Cada quadro do vídeo gravado deve ser carregada sequencialmente, e a diferença entre a imagem actual e a imagem de fundo tem de ser calculada. O resultado desta subtração enfatiza as partes da imagem que está se movendo de um quadro para outro. Ideally, as antenas da abelha são as únicas áreas de valores diferentes de zero (Figura 1C). </li><li> Para processamento adicional, as duas maiores áreas com valores diferentes de zero de pixel são assumidos como sendo as antenas. Para ambas as antenas de uma máscara binária deve ser gerado para cada pixel contendo um valor de 1, se o pixel pertence à antena e 0 valor de outra forma. Esta máscara serve como uma base para a localização das pontas antenais mais tarde. Para ganhar uma máscara preliminar para a totalidade da imagem do cinzento-valor de cada pixel da imagem de diferença é comparada com um limiar pré-definido. Desde que cuidar de ruído ainda este limiar é escolhido para ser bastante baixa. A máscara de preliminar, então ainda tem dois tipos de erros: em primeiro lugar, devido a regiões da imagem de ruído pequenas ainda fazem parte da máscara. Em segundo lugar, as superfícies que pertencem à antena pode não ser necessariamente totalmente ligado. A última ocorre principalmente quando o fundo tem aproximadamente a mesma que a luminescência da antena. Para eliminar esses artefatos, padrãooperação de processamento de imagem morfológica são aplicadas, ou seja, uma combinação de imagem erosão e dilatação, contando com as funções padrão do Matlab imerode e imdilate respectivamente (ver 17 pp 158-205 para mais explicações). Após o processo de suavização das hipóteses antenas estão ainda contidos no interior da mesma máscara. Assim, como um próximo passo a máscara binária é agrupado para áreas disjuntas usando o padrão Matlab função bwlabel (veja 17 pp 40-48 para mais detalhes sobre o algoritmo de segmentação de imagem). </li><li> O número de pixels por cluster é contado e os dois maiores grupos são selecionados. O centro de gravidade é calculada para distinguir entre a antena do lado esquerdo e direito (Figura 1D). </li><li> A ponta da antena para cada antena pode ser definida como o pixel de um agrupamento com o valor mais elevado na direcção proximal para distal (ver Figura 1D). </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Page, R. E., Scheiner, R., Erber, J., Amdam, G. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+and+evolution+of+division+of+labor+and+foraging+specialization+in+a+social+insect+(Apis+mellifera++L.).">The development and evolution of division of labor and foraging specialization in a social insect (Apis mellifera L.).</a> Curr. Top. Dev. Biol. 74, 253-286 (2006).</li><li>Menzel, R., M&#252;ller, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learning+and+memory+in+honeybees:+From+behavior+to+neural+substrates.">Learning and memory in honeybees: From behavior to neural substrates.</a> Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 19, 379-404 (1996).</li><li>Seeley, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The wisdom of the hive. , (1995).</li><li>Staudacher, E., Gebhardt, M. J., D&#252;rr, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antennal+movements+and+mechanoreception:+neurobiology+of+active+tactile+sensors.">Antennal movements and mechanoreception: neurobiology of active tactile sensors.</a> Adv. Insect Physiol. 32, 49-205 (2005).</li><li>Martin, H., Lindauer, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sinnesphysiologische+Leistungen+beim+Wabenbau+der+Honigbiene.">Sinnesphysiologische Leistungen beim Wabenbau der Honigbiene.</a> Z. Vergl. Physiol. 53, 372-404 (1966).</li><li>Kevan, P. G., Menzel, R., Mercer, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Texture+sensitivity+in+the+life+of+honeybees.">Texture sensitivity in the life of honeybees.</a> Neurobiology and behavior of honeybees. , 96-101 (1987).</li><li>von Frisch, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tanzsprache und Orientierung der Bienen. , (1965).</li><li>Waser, N. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flower+constancy:+definition,+cause,+and+ceasurement.">Flower constancy: definition, cause, and ceasurement.</a> Am. Nat. 127, 593-603 (1986).</li><li>Kevan, P. G., Lane, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flower+petal+microtexture+is+a+tactile+cue+for+bees.">Flower petal microtexture is a tactile cue for bees.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 82, 4750-4752 (1985).</li><li>Erber, J., Kierzek, S., Sander, E., Grandy, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tactile+learning+in+the+honeybee.">Tactile learning in the honeybee.</a> J. Comp. Physiol. A. 183, 737-744 (1998).</li><li>Kisch, J., Erber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Operant+conditioning+of+antennal+movements+in+the+honey+bee.">Operant conditioning of antennal movements in the honey bee.</a> Behav. Brain. Res. 99, 93-102 (1999).</li><li>Scheiner, R., Erber, J., Page, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tactile+learning+and+the+individual+evaluation+of+the+reward+in+honey+bees+(Apis+mellifera+L.).">Tactile learning and the individual evaluation of the reward in honey bees (Apis mellifera L.).</a> J. Comp. Physiol. A. 185, 1-10 (1999).</li><li>Erber, J., Scheiner, R., Adelman, G., Smith, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Honeybee+learning.">Honeybee learning.</a> Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. , (2004).</li><li>Bitterman, M. E., Menzel, R., Fietz, A., Sch&#228;fer, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Classical+conditioning+of+proboscis+extension+in+honeybees+(Apis+mellifera).">Classical conditioning of proboscis extension in honeybees (Apis mellifera).</a> J. Comp. Psychol. 97, 107-119 (1983).</li><li>Dacher, M., Gauthier, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Involvement+of+NO-synthase+and+nicotinic+receptors+in+learning+in+the+honey+bee.">Involvement of NO-synthase and nicotinic receptors in learning in the honey bee.</a> Physiol. Behav. 95, 200-207 (2008).</li><li>Haralick, R. M., Shapiro, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Computer and Robot Vision. I, (1992).</li><li>Erber, J., Galizia, C. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tactile+antennal+learning+in+the+honey+bee.">Tactile antennal learning in the honey bee.</a> Honeybee Neurobiology and Behavior. , 439-455 (2012).</li><li>Pankiw, T., Page, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+pheromones,+hormones,+and+handling+on+sucrose+response+thresholds+of+honey+bees+(Apis+mellifera+L.).">Effect of pheromones, hormones, and handling on sucrose response thresholds of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.).</a> J. Comp. Physiol. A. 189, 675-684 (2003).</li><li>Harris, J. W., Woodring, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+stress,+age,+season+and+source+colony+on+levels+of+octopamine,+dopamine+and+serotonine+in+the+honey+bee+(Apis+mellifera+L.)+brain.">Effects of stress, age, season and source colony on levels of octopamine, dopamine and serotonine in the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) brain.</a> J. Insect. Physiol. 38, 29-35 (1992).</li><li>Scheiner, R., Kuritz-Kaiser, A., Menzel, R., Erber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sensory+responsiveness+and+the+effects+of+equal+subjective+rewards+on+tactile+learning+and+memory+of+honeybees.">Sensory responsiveness and the effects of equal subjective rewards on tactile learning and memory of honeybees.</a> Learn. Mem. 12, 626-635 (2005).</li><li>Mujagic, S., Sarkander, J., Erber, B., Erber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sucrose+acceptance+and+different+forms+of+associative+learning+of+the+honey+bee+(Apis+mellifera+L.)+in+the+field+and+laboratory.">Sucrose acceptance and different forms of associative learning of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) in the field and laboratory.</a> Front. Behav. Neurosci. 4, 46 (2010).</li><li>Scheiner, R., Barnert, M., Erber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variation+in+water+and+sucrose+responsiveness+during+the+foraging+season+affects+proboscis+extension+learning+in+honey+bees.">Variation in water and sucrose responsiveness during the foraging season affects proboscis extension learning in honey bees.</a> Apidologie. 34, 67-72 (2003).</li><li>Mujagic, S., Erber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sucrose+acceptance,+discrimination+and+proboscis+responses+of+honey+bees+(Apis+mellifera+L.)+in+the+field+and+the+laboratory.">Sucrose acceptance, discrimination and proboscis responses of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in the field and the laboratory.</a> J. Comp. Physiol. A. 195, 325-339 (2009).</li><li>Friedrich, A., Thomas, U., M&#252;ller, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learning+at+different+satiation+levels+reveals+parallel+functions+for+the+cAMP-protein+kinase+A+cascade+in+formation+of+long-term+memory.">Learning at different satiation levels reveals parallel functions for the cAMP-protein kinase A cascade in formation of long-term memory.</a> J. Neurosci. 24, 4460-4468 (2004).</li><li>Erber, J., Pribbenow, B., Grandy, K., Kierzek, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tactile+motor+learning+in+the+antennal+system+of+the+honeybee+(Apis+mellifera+L.).">Tactile motor learning in the antennal system of the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.).</a> J. Comp. Physiol. A. 181, 355-365 (1997).</li><li>Lambin, M., D&#233;glise, P., Gauthier, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antennal+movements+as+indicators+of+odor+detection+by+worker+honeybees.">Antennal movements as indicators of odor detection by worker honeybees.</a> Apidologie. 36, 119-126 (2005).</li></ol>

Não há conflitos de interesse declarados.

Preparação das abelhas: Coleta e fixação das abelhas deve ser feito rapidamente, a fim de manter o nível de estresse do baixo animal. O stress tem um efeito sobre a capacidade de resposta PER-e, portanto, pode ter um efeito indirecto sobre o desempenho da aprendizagem em abelhas 19, 20. O nível de tensão pode ser reduzida ao colocar os frascos de vidro com as abelhas directamente em gelo imediatamente após a colheita para imobilizá-los rapidamente. Tem que ser tido em conta que as ab...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> Nome do reagente / Material </td><td> Companhia </td><td> Número de catálogo </td><td> Comentários </td></tr><tr><td> Forrageiras pólen, Apis mellifera L. </td><td></td><td></td><td> Colméias privadas </td></tr><tr><td> Frascos de vidro (22 x 45 mm) </td><td> Carl Roth GmbH &amp; Co </td><td> X655.1 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Tubos de bronze, 10 x 30 mm </td><td></td><td></td><td> Auto-produzido </td></tr><tr><td> Cubo de latão, 3 x 5 mm </td><td></td><td></td><td> Auto-produzido </td></tr><tr><td> Tipp-Ex (sem solventes) </td><td> Tipp-Ex GmbH &amp; Co KG </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Solução de sacarose (30%) </td><td></td><td></td><td> Suger casa diluído em água </td></tr><tr><td> Etanol (70%) </td><td> Carl Roth GmbH &amp; Co </td><td> 9065,3 &lt;/ Td&gt; <td></td></tr><tr><td> Seringa (1 ml) e agulha (0,6 x 25) </td><td> Carl Roth GmbH &amp; Co </td><td> 59,1 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Cronômetro </td><td> Carl Roth GmbH &amp; Co </td><td> L423.1 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Micromanipulador </td><td> Märzhäuser MM33 </td><td> 00-42-101-0000 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Câmera de vídeo digital </td><td> Basler A602f-2 </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Lente macro para a câmera </td><td> TechSpec VZM 200 </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Matlab R2009b </td><td> The MathWorks </td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

tactile conditioning and movement analysis of antennal sampling strategies in honey bees (apis mellifera l.)

As abelhas melíferas (Apis mellifera L.) são insetos eussociais e bem conhecidos por sua complexa divisão do trabalho e capacidade de aprendizagem associativa 1, 2. As abelhas operárias passar a primeira metade de sua vida dentro da colméia escuro, onde estão as larvas de enfermagem ou a construção dos favos hexagonal regular de alimentos (por exemplo, pólen ou néctar) e prole 3. As antenas são extraordinários antenas multissensoriais e desempenham um papel fundamental em diversas funções táteis mediadas 4, incluindo a construção colméia 5 e 6 de reconhecimento de padrões. Mais tarde na vida, cada única abelha deixa a colméia para procurar alimentos. Em seguida, uma abelha tem que aprender a discriminar fontes de alimento rentáveis, memorizar a sua localização, e comunicar a seus companheiros de ninho 7. As abelhas utilizam diferentes sinais florais como cores ou odores 7, 8, mas também pistas tácteis da superfície pétala 9 para formar memórias multissensoriais da fonte de alimentação. Em laboratório conditions, as abelhas podem ser treinadas em um paradigma de aprendizagem apetitiva discriminar características do objeto tátil, como bordas ou sulcos com suas antenas 10, 11, 12, 13. Este paradigma da aprendizagem é estreitamente relacionado com o condicionamento clássico olfactory extensão da resposta tromba (PER) em abelhas encapsuladas 14. A vantagem do modelo de aprendizagem tátil no laboratório é a possibilidade de combinar as experiências comportamentais na aprendizagem com várias medições fisiológicas, incluindo a análise do padrão de movimento da antena.

No experimento seguinte estudou como o aprendizado afeta o comportamento tátil amostragem antenais de abelhas. Para isso, é monitorado o movimento da ponta da antena de abelhas naive e condicionado antes e durante a apresentação de um estímulo táctil. Em primeiro lugar, o movimento espontâneo antenal de um grupo de forrageadoras pólen (N = 42) foi registado durante 1 min. Metade das abelhas (N = 21) foi, em seguida, condicionado por emparelhamento cinco vezes um estímulo táctil com...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Tactile Conditioning And Movement Analysis Of Antennal Sampling Strategies In Honey Bees Apis mellifera L. at JoVE.com

Tactile Conditioning And Movement Analysis Of Antennal Sampling Strategies In Honey Bees Apis mellifera L.

Neste protocolo, mostramos como condição aproveitado abelhas aos estímulos táteis e introduzir uma técnica de captura de movimento 2D para analisar a cinemática de multa escala padrão de amostragem antenal.

Condicionado tátil e Análise do Movimento de estratégias de amostragem antenais de abelhas (<em&gt; Apis mellifera</em&gt; L.)

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are eusocial insects and well known for their complex division of labor and associative learning capability1, 2. The worker ...

tactile-conditioning-movement-analysis-antennal-sampling-strategies

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Tactile Conditioning And Movement Analysis Of Antennal Sampling Strategies In Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.)

10.5K visualizações.  Bielefeld University. Neste protocolo, mostramos como condição aproveitado abelhas aos estímulos táteis e introduzir uma técnica de captura de movimento 2D para analisar a cinemática de multa escala padrão de amostragem antenal.

Vídeo: Tactile Conditioning And Movement Analysis Of Antennal Sampling Strategies In Honey Bees Apis mellifera L.

Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their communication and orientation skills and for their impressive learning capability1,2. Because the survival of a honeybee colony depends on the exploitation of food sources, forager bees learn and memorize variable flower sites as well as their profitability. Forager bees can be easily trained in natural settings where they forage at a feeding site and learn the related signals such as odor or color. Appetitive associative learning can also be studied under controlled conditions in the laboratory by conditioning the proboscis extension response (PER) of individually harnessed honeybees3,4. This learning paradigm enables the study of the neuronal and molecular mechanisms that underlie learning and memory formation in a simple and highly reliable way5-12. A behavioral pharmacology approach is used to study molecular mechanisms. Drugs are injected systemically to interfere with the function of specific molecules during or after learning and memory formation13-16.
Here we demonstrate how to train harnessed honeybees in PER conditioning and how to apply drugs systemically by injection into the bee flight muscle.

Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees Apis mellifera

We demonstrate how to implement a behavioral pharmacology method in an appetitive olfactory conditioning paradigm in honeybees (Apis mellifera) by systemic application of drugs. This method allows investigation of the mechanisms underlying learning and memory formation in a simple and reliable way.

Farmacologia Comportamental no condicionamento clássico da Resposta Extensão Proboscis em Abelhas ( Apis mellifera)

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their communication and orientation skills and for their impressive learning capability1,2. Because the ...

Neurociência

Automated Sholl Analysis of Digitized Neuronal Morphology at Multiple Scales

Neuronal morphology plays a significant role in determining how neurons function and communicate1-3. Specifically, it affects the ability of neurons to receive inputs from other cells2 and contributes to the propagation of action potentials4,5. The morphology of the neurites also affects how information is processed. The diversity of dendrite morphologies facilitate local and long range signaling and allow individual neurons or groups of neurons to carry out specialized functions within the neuronal network6,7. Alterations in dendrite morphology, including fragmentation of dendrites and changes in branching patterns, have been observed in a number of disease states, including Alzheimer's disease8, schizophrenia9,10, and mental retardation11. The ability to both understand the factors that shape dendrite morphologies and to identify changes in dendrite morphologies is essential in the understanding of nervous system function and dysfunction.
Neurite morphology is often analyzed by Sholl analysis and by counting the number of neurites and the number of branch tips. This analysis is generally applied to dendrites, but it can also be applied to axons. Performing this analysis by hand is both time consuming and inevitably introduces variability due to experimenter bias and inconsistency. The Bonfire program is a semi-automated approach to the analysis of dendrite and axon morphology that builds upon available open-source morphological analysis tools. Our program enables the detection of local changes in dendrite and axon branching behaviors by performing Sholl analysis on subregions of the neuritic arbor. For example, Sholl analysis is performed on both the neuron as a whole as well as on each subset of processes (primary, secondary, terminal, root, etc.) Dendrite and axon patterning is influenced by a number of intracellular and extracellular factors, many acting locally. Thus, the resulting arbor morphology is a result of specific processes acting on specific neurites, making it necessary to perform morphological analysis on a smaller scale in order to observe these local variations12.
The Bonfire program requires the use of two open-source analysis tools, the NeuronJ plugin to ImageJ and NeuronStudio. Neurons are traced in ImageJ, and NeuronStudio is used to define the connectivity between neurites. Bonfire contains a number of custom scripts written in MATLAB (MathWorks) that are used to convert the data into the appropriate format for further analysis, check for user errors, and ultimately perform Sholl analysis. Finally, data are exported into Excel for statistical analysis. A flow chart of the Bonfire program is shown in Figure 1.

We have developed a computer program to analyze neuronal morphology. In combination with two existing open source analysis tools, our program performs Sholl analysis and determines the number of neurites, branch points, and neurite tips. The analyses are performed so that local changes in neurite morphology can be observed.

Análise Sholl automatizado de Morfologia Neuronal Digitized em múltiplas escalas

Neuronal morphology plays a significant role in determining how neurons function and communicate1-3.  Specifically, it affects the ability of neurons to ...

The Culture of Primary Motor and Sensory Neurons in Defined Media on Electrospun Poly-L-lactide Nanofiber Scaffolds

Electrospinning is a technique for producing micro- to nano-scale fibers. Fibers can be electrospun with varying degrees of alignment, from highly aligned to completely random. In addition, fibers can be spun from a variety of materials, including biodegradable polymers such as poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA). These characteristics make electrospun fibers suitable for a variety of scaffolding applications in tissue engineering. Our focus is on the use of aligned electrospun fibers for nerve regeneration. We have previously shown that aligned electrospun PLLA fibers direct the outgrowth of both primary sensory and motor neurons in vitro. We maintain that the use of a primary cell culture system is essential when evaluating biomaterials to model real neurons found in vivo as closely as possible. Here, we describe techniques used in our laboratory to electrospin fibrous scaffolds and culture dorsal root ganglia explants, as well as dissociated sensory and motor neurons, on electrospun scaffolds. However, the electrospinning and/or culture techniques presented here are easily adapted for use in other applications.

Aligned electrospun fibers direct the growth of neurons in vitro and are a potential component of nerve regeneration scaffolds. We describe a procedure for preparing electrospun fiber substrates and the serum-free culture of primary rat E15 sensory (DRG) and motor neurons. Visualization of neurons by immunocytochemistry is also included.

A Cultura da Motor Primário e neurônios sensoriais no Media Definidas em electrospun Poly-L-ácido lático nanofibras Andaimes

Electrospinning is a technique for producing micro- to nano-scale fibers. Fibers can be electrospun with varying degrees of alignment, from highly aligned ...

Calcium Imaging of Odor-evoked Responses in the Drosophila Antennal Lobe

The antennal lobe is the primary olfactory center in the insect brain and represents the anatomical and functional equivalent of the vertebrate olfactory bulb1-5. Olfactory information in the external world is transmitted to the antennal lobe by olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), which segregate to distinct regions of neuropil called glomeruli according to the specific olfactory receptor they express. Here, OSN axons synapse with both local interneurons (LNs), whose processes can innervate many different glomeruli, and projection neurons (PNs), which convey olfactory information to higher olfactory brain regions.
Optical imaging of the activity of OSNs, LNs and PNs in the antennal lobe - traditionally using synthetic calcium indicators (e.g. calcium green, FURA-2) or voltage-sensitive dyes (e.g. RH414) - has long been an important technique to understand how olfactory stimuli are represented as spatial and temporal patterns of glomerular activity in many species of insects6-10. Development of genetically-encoded neural activity reporters, such as the fluorescent calcium indicators G-CaMP11,12 and Cameleon13, the bioluminescent calcium indicator GFP-aequorin14,15, or a reporter of synaptic transmission, synapto-pHluorin16 has made the olfactory system of the fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster, particularly accessible to neurophysiological imaging, complementing its comprehensively-described molecular, electrophysiological and neuroanatomical properties2,4,17. These reporters can be selectively expressed via binary transcriptional control systems (e.g. GAL4/UAS18, LexA/LexAop19,20, Q system21) in defined populations of neurons within the olfactory circuitry to dissect with high spatial and temporal resolution how odor-evoked neural activity is represented, modulated and transformed22-24.
Here we describe the preparation and analysis methods to measure odor-evoked responses in the Drosophila antennal lobe using G-CaMP25-27. The animal preparation is minimally invasive and can be adapted to imaging using wide-field fluorescence, confocal and two-photon microscopes.

Calcium Imaging of Odor-evoked Responses in the Drosophila Antennal Lobe

We describe an established technique to measure and analyze odor-evoked calcium responses in the antennal lobe of living Drosophila melanogaster.

Imagens de cálcio de odor-provocou respostas no Drosophila Lobo antenal

The antennal lobe is the primary olfactory center in the insect brain and represents the anatomical and functional equivalent of the vertebrate olfactory ...

Electrophysiological Measurements and Analysis of Nociception in Human Infants

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience. Since infants cannot verbally report their experiences, current methods of pain assessment are based on behavioural and physiological body reactions, such as crying, body movements or changes in facial expression. While these measures demonstrate that infants mount a response following noxious stimulation, they are limited: they are based on activation of subcortical somatic and autonomic motor pathways that may not be reliably linked to central sensory processing in the brain. Knowledge of how the central nervous system responds to noxious events could provide an insight to how nociceptive information and pain is processed in newborns.
The heel lancing procedure used to extract blood from hospitalised infants offers a unique opportunity to study pain in infancy. In this video we describe how electroencephalography (EEG) and electromyography (EMG) time-locked to this procedure can be used to investigate nociceptive activity in the brain and spinal cord.
This integrative approach to the measurement of infant pain has the potential to pave the way for an effective and sensitive clinical measurement tool.

The assessment and treatment of pain in infants is difficult because infants cannot verbally report their experience. In this video we describe quantitative electrophysiological methods and analysis techniques that can be used to measure the response to noxious events from the infant nervous system.

Medidas eletrofisiológicas e Análise de nocicepção em bebês humanos

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience. Since infants cannot verbally report their experiences, current methods of pain assessment are ...

Rapid Determination of the Thermal Nociceptive Threshold in Diabetic Rats

Painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN) is characterized by hyperalgesia i.e., increased sensitivity to noxious stimulus, and allodynia i.e., hypersensitivity to normally innocuous stimuli1. Hyperalgesia and allodynia have been studied in many different rodent models of diabetes mellitus2. However, as stated by B&ouml;lcskei et al, determination of "pain" in animal models is challenging due to its subjective nature3. Moreover, the traditional methods used to determine behavioral responses to noxious thermal stimuli usually lack reproducibility and pharmacological sensitivity3. For instance, by using the hot-plate method of Ankier4, flinch, withdrawal and/or licking of either hind- and/or fore-paws is quantified as reflex latencies at constant high thermal stimuli (52-55 &deg;C). However, animals that are hyperalgesic to thermal stimulus do not reproducibly show differences in reflex latencies using those supra-threshold temperatures3,5. As the recently described method of B&ouml;lcskei et al.6, the procedures described here allows for the rapid, sensitive and reproducible determination of thermal nociceptive thresholds (TNTs) in mice and rats. The method uses slowly increasing thermal stimulus applied mostly to the skin of mouse/rat plantar surface. The method is particularly sensitive to study anti-nociception during hyperalgesic states such as PDN. The procedures described bellow are based on the ones published in detail by Alm&aacute;si et al 5 and B&ouml;lcskei et al 3. The procedures described here have been approved the Laboratory Animal Care and Use Committee (LACUC), Wright State University.

Here, we describe a rapid reliable and simple procedure to determine the lowest temperature at which rats or mice show nocifensive behavior, i.e. the thermal nociceptive threshold (TNT). This method applies a slowly increasing thermal stimulus allowing precise and reproducible estimation of TNTs with minimum, if any, stress to the animals.

Determinação rápida do limiar térmico nociceptivo em ratos diabéticos

Painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN) is characterized by hyperalgesia i.e., increased sensitivity to noxious stimulus, and allodynia i.e., hypersensitivity ...

RNAi-mediated Double Gene Knockdown and Gustatory Perception Measurement in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera)

This video demonstrates novel techniques of RNA interference (RNAi) which downregulate two genes simultaneously in honey bees using double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) injections. It also presents a protocol of proboscis extension response (PER) assay for measuring gustatory perception.	
	RNAi-mediated gene knockdown is an effective technique downregulating target gene expression. This technique is usually used for single gene manipulation, but it has limitations to detect interactions and joint effects between genes. In the first part of this video, we present two strategies to simultaneously knock down two genes (called double gene knockdown). We show both strategies are able to effectively suppress two genes, vitellogenin (vg) and ultraspiracle (usp), which are in a regulatory feedback loop. This double gene knockdown approach can be used to dissect interrelationships between genes and can be readily applied in different insect species.	
	The second part of this video is a demonstration of proboscis extension response (PER) assay in honey bees after the treatment of double gene knockdown. The PER assay is a standard test for measuring gustatory perception in honey bees, which is a key predictor for how fast a honey bee's behavioral maturation is. Greater gustatory perception of nest bees indicates increased behavioral development which is often associated with an earlier age at onset of foraging and foraging specialization in pollen. In addition, PER assay can be applied to identify metabolic states of satiation or hunger in honey bees. Finally, PER assay combined with pairing different odor stimuli for conditioning the bees is also widely used for learning and memory studies in honey bees.

RNAi-mediated Double Gene Knockdown and Gustatory Perception Measurement in Honey Bees Apis mellifera

In this protocol, we describe two strategies that simultaneously suppress two genes (double gene knockdown) in honey bees. Then we present how to use the proboscis extension response (PER) assay to study the effect of double gene knockdown on honey bee gustatory perception.

RNAi mediado por Gene Knockdown duplo e Mensuração Percepção gustativa em abelhas do mel (<em&gt; Apis mellifera</em&gt;)

This video demonstrates novel techniques of RNA  interference (RNAi) which downregulate two genes simultaneously in honey bees  using double-stranded RNA ...

Neuropharmacological Manipulation of Restrained and Free-flying Honey Bees, Apis mellifera

Honey bees demonstrate astonishing learning abilities and advanced social behavior and communication. In addition, their brain is small, easy to visualize and to study. Therefore, bees have long been a favored model amongst neurobiologists and neuroethologists for studying the neural basis of social and natural behavior. It is important, however, that the experimental techniques used to study bees do not interfere with the behaviors being studied. Because of this, it has been necessary to develop a range of techniques for pharmacological manipulation of honey bees. In this paper we demonstrate methods for treating restrained or free-flying honey bees with a wide range of pharmacological agents. These include both noninvasive methods such as oral and topical treatments, as well as more invasive methods that allow for precise drug delivery in either systemic or localized fashion. Finally, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method and&#160;describe common hurdles and how to best overcome them. We conclude with a discussion on the importance of adapting the experimental method to the biological questions rather than the other way around.

Neuropharmacological Manipulation of Restrained and Free-flying Honey Bees, Apis mellifera

This manuscript describes several protocols for administering pharmacological agents to honey bees, including simple noninvasive methods for free-flying bees, as well as more invasive variants that allow precise localized treatment of restrained bees.

Manipulação neurofarmacologia de contido e vôo livre abelhas do mel,<em&gt; Apis mellifera</em

Honey bees demonstrate astonishing learning abilities and advanced social behavior and communication. In addition, their brain is small, easy to visualize ...

The Use of Trace Eyeblink Classical Conditioning to Assess Hippocampal Dysfunction in a Rat Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Neonatal rats were administered a relatively high concentration of ethyl alcohol (11.9% v/v) during postnatal days 4-9, a time when the fetal brain undergoes rapid organizational change and is similar to accelerated brain changes that occur during the third trimester in humans. This model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) produces severe brain damage, mimicking the amount and pattern of binge-drinking that occurs in some pregnant alcoholic mothers. We describe the use of trace eyeblink classical conditioning (ECC), a higher-order variant of associative learning, to assess long-term hippocampal dysfunction that is typically seen in alcohol-exposed adult offspring. At 90 days of age, rodents were surgically prepared with recording and stimulating electrodes, which measured electromyographic (EMG) blink activity from the left eyelid muscle and delivered mild shock posterior to the left eye, respectively. After a 5 day recovery period, they underwent 6 sessions of trace ECC to determine associative learning differences between alcohol-exposed and control rats. Trace ECC is one of many possible ECC procedures that can be easily modified using the same equipment and software, so that different neural systems can be assessed. ECC procedures in general, can be used as diagnostic tools for detecting neural pathology in different brain systems and different conditions that insult the brain.

Trace eyeblink classical conditioning (ECC) was used to assess hippocampal-dependent associative learning in adult rats that were administered a high concentration (11.9% v/v) of alcohol during early neonatal brain development. In general, ECC procedures are sound diagnostic tools for detecting brain dysfunction across many psychological and biomedical settings.

O uso do condicionamento de rastreamento Eyeblink clássico para avaliar disfunção Hippocampal em um modelo do rato de transtornos do espectro do álcool Fetal

Neonatal rats were administered a relatively high concentration of ethyl alcohol (11.9% v/v) during postnatal days 4-9, a time when the fetal brain ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Drosophila Courtship Acondicionamento Como Medida de Aprendizagem e Memória

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...