Gostaríamos de agradecer a Yue (Pauline) Hu, Rachel Sinit por sua assistência técnica. O estudo foi financiado pelo NIH concessão (PN2 EY016525) e pelo financiamento da Síndrome de Down Research Foundation e Tratamento eo Larry L. Fundação Hillblom.

Os procedimentos cirúrgicos e de animais são realizadas estritamente de acordo com o Guia do NIH para o Cuidado e Uso de Animais de Laboratório. Todos os experimentos que envolvem o uso de animais são aprovados por UCSD Animal Care Institucional e Comitê de Uso. 1. plasmídeo Clonagem, expressão e purificação do mono-biotinilado BDNF (mBtBDNF) NOTA: Construir pré-proBDNFavi e BirA cDNA em vetor pcDNA3.1 e co-expressar em células HEK293FT 10. Purificar mBtBDNF utilizando pérolas de Ni-NTA de acordo com o método previamente publicado de produzir factor de crescimento do nervo monobiotinylated madura e biologicamente activa (mBtNGF) 10. 2 Preparação de microfluídicos Chambers Microfluídicos dispositivo neurônio cultura torna possível isolar fluidicamente axônios de corpos celulares neurônio. Montar câmaras com lamelas recentemente pintadas direito antes de cada dissecção. Câmaras microfluídicos usadosneste protocolo são comercialmente adquirido (ver materiais e tabela do equipamento). Lave à mão e reutilizados câmaras adquiridas comercialmente até 5-6x. <ol><li> Somente lavagem à mão câmaras microfluídicos em 1% Alconox. Lavar três vezes com água Milli-Q durante 30 min cada. Câmaras de lavagem de mão novamente em etanol 70%. </li><li> Coloque para fora câmaras para secar em Parafilm na capela de fluxo laminar. Irradiar e esterilizar ambos os lados das câmaras, durante 20 min sob UV. Loja câmaras esterilizadas numa estéril 15 centímetros prato selado com Parafilm à temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Coloque 24 x 40 mm No. 1 lamínulas de vidro em um recipiente de vidro. Mergulhe as lamelas em ácido clorídrico a 35% durante a noite em um rotador. No dia seguinte, lavar as lamelas três vezes, durante 30 min cada, com água. </li><li> Esterilizar as lamelas, um por um, mergulhando cada lamela em etanol a 100% e ardor sobre um bico de Bunsen. Armazenar lamelas secas numa placa de Petri estéril e mantê-lo à temperatura ambiente até o revestimento. </li><li> Coloque UOt as lamelas em um 15 centímetros prato de cultura. Bata de cada lamela com 0,7 ml de 0,01% de poli-L-lisina (PLL) e incuba-se na capa, à temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Após 1 h, lavar as lamelas três vezes com água estéril. Lamelas secos com vácuo e coloque cada lamela em um prato de cultura 6 centímetros. </li><li> Para montar a câmara de microfluídica, coloque a câmara com o lado microgroove na parte inferior para a lamela PLL revestido com cuidado para não tocar nas estrias. Gentilmente pressionado a câmara com uma ponteira para garantir a câmara foi hermeticamente fechado. </li></ol> 3. Dissecção da Neuronal Cultura e Placa em Chambers <ol><li> Coloque dois hipocampos E17-E18 rato (um cérebro) dissecados em um tubo de 15 ml contendo 2 ml de tampão de dissecção (HBSS, sem cálcio, magnésio não, com 1% pen / strep e HEPES 10 mM. Lavar os tecidos 3x com 5 ml dissecção de tampão de cada vez. Remover o tampão de dissecção, tanto quanto possível, e adicionar 900 ul de di frescotampão ssection. </li><li> Para digerir o tecido, adicionar 100 ul de tripsina 10x (2,5%) no tampão de dissecção para tornar a concentração de trabalho 1x. Colocar o tubo cónico de 37 ° C Banho de água. Após 10 minutos de digestão, adicionar 100 ul de 10 mg / ml de ADNase I a uma concentração final de cerca de 1 mg / ml. </li><li> Usando uma pipeta Pasteur de vidro polido-fogo, triturar suavemente os tecidos pipetando para cima e para baixo 5-10x. Logo após a trituração, extinguir a tripsina com 2 ml de meio (chapeamento Neurobasal com 10% de FBS, 2 mM de GlutaMax, 2% B27). </li><li> Deixar a amostra na capa por 5 minutos para permitir que todos os restos dos tecidos para se estabelecer para o fundo. Remover cuidadosamente 2 mL de sobrenadante para um tubo de 15 ml estéril cónico limpo e centrifugar a 200 xg durante 5 min para sedimentar as células. Ressuspender o sedimento em 50 mídia ul chapeamento </li><li> Contar as células com hemocitômetro. Carga 15-20 ul de suspensão de células (~ 40.000 células) em um compartimento da câmara de microfluidos. Coloque a câmarana incubadora durante 10 minutos para permitir que as células se fixem à lamela. Após 10 min, adicionar mídia mais chapeamento para encher ambos os compartimentos da câmara. </li><li> No segundo dia da dissecção, substituir completamente os meios de chapeamento com meio de manutenção (Neurobasal com GlutaMax 2 mM, 2% B27), tanto no corpo da célula e o compartimento do axónio. Os axônios dos neurônios do hipocampo começa a atravessar as estrias no dia 3 e atingir o compartimento do axônio entre os dias 5-7. Durante este período de tempo, substitua metade da media cultura com meio de manutenção fresco todos os 24 ~ 48 horas. </li></ol> 4. axonal Transporte de QD-BDNF <ol><li> Antes da imagiologia de viver QD-BDNF transporte axonal, esgotar o BDNF, tanto do corpo da célula e os compartimentos de axónios da câmara de microfluidos por enxaguar ambos os compartimentos com o BDNF-livre, livre de soro mídia Neurobasal cada 30 min durante 2 horas. </li><li> Durante a depleção de BDNF, preparar os conjugados QD-BDNF. Misturar 50 nM de mono-biotinilado BDNF dímero com 50 nM QD655 conjugados com estreptavidina em meio Neurobasal e incubar em gelo durante 60 min. </li><li> Retirar mídia no compartimento axonal e adicionar 300 ul QD-BDNF com uma concentração final de 0,25 nM durante 4 horas a 37 ° C. Para minimizar a difusão de QD-BDNF no compartimento do corpo da célula, é muito importante para manter sempre um nível mais elevado de meios no compartimento do corpo de célula do que no compartimento do axónio. Lavar desvinculado QD-BDNF após incubação antes de imagem ao vivo. </li><li> Realizar imagens ao vivo de transporte QD-BDNF usando um microscópio invertido equipado com uma lente objectiva de óleo 100X. Aquecer o escopo e a câmara ambiental a ela ligada a uma temperatura constante (37 ° C) e de CO 2 (5%). Uso de um conjunto de cubos Texas excitação / emissão de vermelho para visualizar o sinal de QD655. </li><li> Adquirir e capturar imagens de lapso de tempo dentro dos axônios média na velocidade de um quadro / segundo para um total de 2 min usando uma câmera CCD. Use microgrooves sem axônios that não têm QD e, portanto, nenhum sinal de controlo para a infiltração. </li><li> Analisar transporte BDNF usando qualquer software de análise de imagem ou NIH ImageJ. </li></ol>

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Neste estudo, descrevemos o desenvolvimento de uma nova técnica para produzir biologicamente activo, monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF) que podem ser utilizados para rastrear o transporte axonal de BDNF. Conjugando a proteína a estreptavidina quantum dot, e usando uma câmara de microfluidos, o método permite detectar o transporte axonal de BDNF nos neurónios primários com sensibilidade única molécula, em tempo real e com resolução espacial e temporal. As ferramentas aqui utilizadas fornecer um meio pelo qual a es...

Os neurônios são as células cujos processos longos e muitas vezes altamente elaborados são fundamentais para estabelecer e manter a estrutura ea função dos circuitos neurais altamente polarizada. O axônio desempenha um papel vital no que transportam cargas de e para as sinapses. As proteínas e organelas sintetizados no soma célula necessita de ser transportado por axónios para chegar ao terminal pré-sináptico para suportar a função neuronal. Do mesmo modo, os sinais recebidos pelo axónios distais devem ser transduzidas e transportado para o soma. Estes processos são essenciais para a sobrevivência neuronal, diferenciação e manutenção. Em que o transporte axonal em neurónios algumas deve ser conduzida através de distâncias mais do que 1000 vezes o diâmetro do corpo da célula, a possibilidade é facilmente imaginado que mesmo pequenos défices pode impactar significativamente a função neuronal e o circuito. Derivado de factor neurotrófico cerebral (BDNF), um membro da família da neurotrofina de factores de crescimento, está presente na maregiões do cérebro, incluindo ny hipocampo, córtex cerebral, e do prosencéfalo basal. BDNF desempenha um papel crucial na formação da memória e cognição, através do apoio da sobrevivência, diferenciação e função de neurónios que participam em circuitos cognitivos. BDNF se liga ao seu receptor, a tirosina-cinase TrkB, no terminal axonal em que activa as vias de sinalização mediadas por TrkB, incluindo a proteína quinase activada por mitógeno / regulada por sinal extracelular da proteína cinase (MAPK / ERK), fosfatidilinositol-3-quinase (PI3K) e fosfolipase C-gama (PLCy). As proteínas que participam nestas vias de sinalização são empacotados em vesículas de endocitose para formar o BDNF / TrkB sinalização endosome 1-6 que são, então, transportado retrogradamente à soma neuronal. A câmara de cultura de microfluidos é uma plataforma muito útil para estudar a biologia axonal, em condições normais, bem como na definição de lesões e doenças 7,8. Por axônios isolandodos corpos celulares, o dispositivo tem permitido um para estudar o transporte especificamente em axônios 8-10. As plataformas microfluídicos baseados PDMS com 450 mM barreiras microgroove utilizados neste estudo foram adquiridos comercialmente (ver tabela de materiais). Para examinar o transporte BDNF, desenvolvemos uma nova tecnologia para produzir monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF). Tiramos proveito do peptídeo biotina aceitante, AP (também conhecido como AviTag). É uma sequência de 15 aminoácidos que contém um resíduo de lisina, que pode ser especificamente ligado a uma biotina pela Escherichia coli enzima biotina ligase, BirA. Nós fundido a AviTag para o C-terminal do rato pré-proBDNF cDNA por PCR (Figura 1A). A construção foi clonada no vector de expressão de mamífero, pcDNA3.1 Myc-His vector. Nós também clonado o DNA bacteriano BirA na pcDNA3.1 Myc-His vector. Os dois plasmídeos foram co-transfectadas transientemente em células HEK293FT para expressar ambas as proteínas. BirA catalisou a ligadura da biotaem que especificamente a lisina residir no AviTag no C-terminal do BDNF a uma razão de 1: 1 para produzir monobiotinylated monómero BDNF. Biotinilado, BDNF madura com uma massa molecular de ~ 18 kDa foi recuperada e purificada a partir dos meios utilizando Ni-resina (Figura 1C). A biotinilação de FNDC estava completa, conforme avaliado pela incapacidade para detectar o BDNF não modificado por imunotransferência (Figura 1E). Estreptavidina conjugada pontos quânticos, QD 655, foram utilizados para marcar mBtBDNF fazer QD-BDNF. A presença do AviTag não interferir com a actividade do BDNF como o mBtBDNF foi capaz de activar TrkB fosforilada (Figura 1E) e estimular o crescimento de neurites (Figura 1F) até ao ponto de BDNF recombinante humano (rhBDNF). Acms mostrado que QD-BDNF colocalized com TrkB em axónios do hipocampo, indicando que QD-BDNF é bioactivo (Figura 1G). Para estudar o transporte de BDNF, QD-BDNF foi adicionado ao compartimento do axónio distaiculturas de microfluidos contendo rato E18 neurónios do hipocampo (Figura 2A). QD-BDNF transporte retrógrado dentro de axônios foi capturado por em tempo real imagens ao vivo da etiqueta fluorescente vermelha (apoiando vídeos S1, S2). Ao analisar o quimógrafo gerado, QD-BDNF foi observada a ser transportados retrogradamente a uma velocidade de deslocamento de cerca de 1,06 pM / seg (Figura 3A). GFP ou mCherry-BDNF com etiquetas ter sido usado para controlar o movimento axonal de BDNF. As principais desvantagens são que eles não são brilhantes o suficiente para os estudos de moléculas individuais. Além disso, a presença de ambos os movimentos anterógrada e retrógrada BDNF torna difícil avaliar se ou não o BDNF transportado retrogradamente era um complexo de neurotrofina / receptor. Neste vídeo, demonstramos as técnicas utilizadas para examinar o tráfico ao vivo do QD-BDNF em câmaras microfluídicos usando neurônios primários. O ultrabrightness e excelente fotoestabilidade de pontos quânticos makes-se possível realizar de seguimento a longo prazo de transporte BDNF. Estas técnicas podem ser explorados para reforçar estudos de função axonal em AD, HD, e outras desordens neurodegenerativas.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="641">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:261px;">Name</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Catalog Number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Platinum pfx DNA polymerase&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>11708021</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">EcoRI&#160;</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>FD0274</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">BamHI&#160;</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>FD0054</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEK293FT cells</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>R70007</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DMEM-high glucose media</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>10-013-CV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">d-biotin&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B4639</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">TurboFect&#160;</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>R0531</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PMSF&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7626</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">aprotinin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A6279</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ni-NTA resins</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>30250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">protease inhibitors cocktail</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;S8820</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">silver staining kit&#160;</td>
			<td>G-Biosciences</td>
			<td>786-30</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">human recombinant BDNF</td>
			<td>Genentech</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microfluidic chambers</td>
			<td>Xona</td>
			<td>SND450</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">24x40 mm No. 1 glass coverslips&#160;</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48393-060</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">poly-L-Lysine&#160;</td>
			<td>Cultrex</td>
			<td>3438-100-01</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HBSS</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>14185-052</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DNase I</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10104159001</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Trypsin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15090-046</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Neurobasal&#160;</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>21103-049</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">FBS&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>16000-044</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">GlutaMax&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">B27&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>17504-044</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">QD655-streptavidin conjugates</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>&#160;Q10121MP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">anti-Avi tag antibody</td>
			<td>GenScript</td>
			<td>A00674</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">streptavidin-agarose beads&#160;</td>
			<td>Life Technology</td>
			<td>&#160;SA100-04</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">trichloroacetic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T6399</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HRP-streptavidin&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>N100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">anti-pTrkB antibody</td>
			<td colspan="2">a generous gift from Dr M. Chao of NYU</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">anti-TrkB antibody</td>
			<td>BD Science</td>
			<td>610101</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

real-time imaging of axonal transport of quantum dot-labeled bdnf in primary neurons

BDNF desempenha um papel importante em vários aspectos da sobrevivência neuronal, diferenciação e função. Défices funcionais e estruturais no axônios são cada vez mais vistos como uma característica precoce de doenças neurodegenerativas, incluindo a doença de Alzheimer (AD) e a doença de Huntington (DH). Como ainda é pouco claro o mecanismo (s) pelo qual é induzida lesão axonal. Nós relataram o desenvolvimento de uma nova técnica para produzir biologicamente activo, monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF) que pode ser utilizado para rastrear o transporte axonal de BDNF. Quantum dot marcado BDNF (QD-BDNF) foi produzido pela conjugação de ponto quântico 655 a mBtBDNF. Um dispositivo de microfluidos foi usada para isolar axónios de corpos celulares de neurónios. A adição de QD-BDNF ao compartimento axonal permitiu imagens ao vivo de transporte BDNF nos axônios. Nós demonstramos que QD-BDNF movido essencialmente exclusivamente retrogradamente, com muito poucas pausas, a uma velocidade de deslocamento de cerca de 1,06 pM / seg. Este sistema pode ser utilizado para me investigarcanismos de função axonal interrompido no AD ou HD, bem como outras doenças degenerativas.

Produção e Purificação de BDNF Mono-biotinilado Biologicamente Activo O vector de expressão de BDNF fundida com uma sequência de AviTag (GGGLNDIFEAQKIEWHE) foi criado de acordo com um protocolo previamente publicado 10. A massa molecular da proteína de fusão de comprimento completo foi previsto para ser ~ 32 kDa ( <a href="http://ca.expasy.org/tools/pi_tool.html" target="_blank">http://ca.expasy.org/tools/pi_tool.html</a> ) Monobiotinylated BDNF maduro com uma massa molecu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons at JoVE.com

Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

O transporte axonal de BDNF, um factor neurotrófico, é crítico para a sobrevivência e função de várias populações neuronais. Algumas desordens degenerativas são marcadas pela ruptura da estrutura e função axonal. Nós demonstramos as técnicas utilizadas para examinar o tráfico ao vivo do QD-BDNF em câmaras microfluídicos usando neurônios primários.

Imagens em tempo real de axonal Transporte de Quantum Dot marcado BDNF na Primária Neurônios

BDNF plays an important role in several facets of neuronal survival, differentiation, and function. Structural and functional deficits in axons are ...

real-time-imaging-axonal-transport-quantum-dot-labeled-bdnf-primary

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.0K visualizações.  University of California, San Diego.  O transporte axonal de BDNF, um factor neurotrófico, é crítico para a sobrevivência e função de várias populações neuronais. Algumas desordens degenerativas são marcadas pela ruptura da estrutura e função axonal. Nós demonstramos as técnicas utilizadas para examinar o tráfico ao vivo do QD-BDNF em câmaras microfluídicos usando neurônios primários. 

Vídeo: Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

Mechanical Manipulation of Neurons to Control Axonal Development

Cell manipulations and extension of neuronal axons can be accomplished with calibrated glass micro-fibers capable of measuring and applying forces in the 10-1000 &mu;dyne range1,2. Force measurements are obtained through observation of the Hookean bending of the glass needles, which are calibrated by a direct and empirical method3. Equipment requirements and procedures for fabricating, calibrating, treating, and using the needles on cells are fully described. The force regimes previously used and different cell types to which these techniques have been applied demonstrate the flexibility of the methodology and are given as examples for future investigation4-6. The technical advantages are the continuous 'visualization' of the forces produced by the manipulations and the ability to directly intervene in a variety of cellular events. These include direct stimulation and regulation of axonal growth and retraction7; as well as detachment and mechanical measurements on any type of cultured cell8.

Application and direct measurements of forces on neurons in the 2-1000 microdyne range are achieved with high precision using calibrated glass needles. This methodology can be used to control and measure several aspects of axonal development, including axonal initiation, axonal tension, velocity of axonal elongation, and force vectors.

A manipulação mecânica de Neurônios para controlar o desenvolvimento Axonal

Cell manipulations and extension of neuronal axons can be accomplished with calibrated glass micro-fibers capable of measuring and applying forces in the ...

Neurociência

Neuromodulation and Mitochondrial Transport: Live Imaging in Hippocampal Neurons over Long Durations

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured neurons for extended durations1-3. This is now possible through the use of vital dyes and fluorescent proteins with which cytoskeletal components, organelles, and other structures in living cells can be labeled and then visualized via dynamic fluorescence microscopy. For example, in embryonic chicken sympathetic neurons, mitochondrial movement was characterized using the vital dye rhodamine 1234. In another study, mitochondria were visualized in rat forebrain neurons by transfection of mitochondrially targeted eYFP5. However, imaging of primary neurons over minutes, hours, or even days presents a number of issues. Foremost among these are: 1) maintenance of culture conditions such as temperature, humidity, and pH during long imaging sessions; 2) a strong, stable fluorescent signal to assure both the quality of acquired images and accurate measurement of signal intensity during image analysis; and 3) limiting exposure times during image acquisition to minimize photobleaching and avoid phototoxicity.
Here, we describe a protocol that permits the observation, visualization, and analysis of mitochondrial movement in cultured hippocampal neurons with high temporal resolution and under optimal life support conditions. We have constructed an affordable stage-top incubator that provides good temperature regulation and atmospheric gas flow, and also limits the degree of media evaporation, assuring stable pH and osmolarity. This incubator is connected, via inlet and outlet hoses, to a standard tissue culture incubator, which provides constant humidity levels and an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2/air. This design offers a cost-effective alternative to significantly more expensive microscope incubators that don't necessarily assure the viability of cells over many hours or even days. To visualize mitochondria, we infect cells with a lentivirus encoding a red fluorescent protein that is targeted to the mitochondrion. This assures a strong and persistent signal, which, in conjunction with the use of a stable xenon light source, allows us to limit exposure times during image acquisition and all but precludes photobleaching and phototoxicity. Two injection ports on the top of the stage-top incubator allow the acute administration of neurotransmitters and other reagents intended to modulate mitochondrial movement. In sum, lentivirus-mediated expression of an organelle-targeted red fluorescent protein and the combination of our stage-top incubator, a conventional inverted fluorescence microscope, CCD camera, and xenon light source allow us to acquire time-lapse images of mitochondrial transport in living neurons over longer durations than those possible in studies deploying conventional vital dyes and off-the-shelf life support systems.

We describe a protocol that allows imaging of mitochondria in living neurons via fluorescence microscopy over long durations. Imaging over extended periods is accomplished through lentivirus-mediated expression of a mitochondrially targeted fluorescent protein and use of an inexpensive stage-top incubator that was designed and built in our laboratory.

Neuromodulação e Transportes mitocondrial: Imagens ao vivo em neurônios do hipocampo durante muito tempo

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured ...

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal degeneration. Lack of growth cone formation, regeneration, and loss of additional myelinated axonal projections within the spinal cord greatly limits neurological recovery following injury. To assess how central myelinated axons of the spinal cord respond to injury, we developed an ex vivo living spinal cord model utilizing transgenic mice that express yellow fluorescent protein in axons and a focal and highly reproducible laser-induced spinal cord injury to document the fate of axons and myelin (lipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red) over time using two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy. Dynamic processes such as acute axonal injury, axonal retraction, and myelin degeneration are best studied in real-time. However, the non-focal nature of contusion-based injuries and movement artifacts encountered during in vivo spinal cord imaging make differentiating primary and secondary axonal injury responses using high resolution microscopy challenging. The ex vivo spinal cord model described here mimics several aspects of clinically relevant contusion/compression-induced axonal pathologies including axonal swelling, spheroid formation, axonal transection, and peri-axonal swelling providing a useful model to study these dynamic processes in real-time. Major advantages of this model are excellent spatiotemporal resolution that allows differentiation between the primary insult that directly injures axons and secondary injury mechanisms; controlled infusion of reagents directly to the perfusate bathing the cord; precise alterations of the environmental milieu (e.g., calcium, sodium ions, known contributors to axonal injury, but near impossible to manipulate in vivo); and murine models also offer an advantage as they provide an opportunity to visualize and manipulate genetically identified cell populations and subcellular structures. Here, we describe how to isolate and image the living spinal cord from mice to capture dynamics of acute axonal injury.

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability.

Um<em&gt; Ex Vivo</em&gt; Induzida por laser Lesão Medular modelo para avaliar mecanismos de axonal Degeneration em tempo real

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal ...

A Protocol for the Administration of Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback Training

Neurologic disorders are characterized by abnormal cellular-, molecular-, and circuit-level functions in the brain. New methods to induce and control neuroplastic processes and correct abnormal function, or even shift functions from damaged tissue to physiologically healthy brain regions, hold the potential to dramatically improve overall health. Of the current neuroplastic interventions in development, neurofeedback training (NFT) from functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) has the advantages of being completely non-invasive, non-pharmacologic, and spatially localized to target brain regions, as well as having no known side effects. Furthermore, NFT techniques, initially developed using fMRI, can often be translated to exercises that can be performed outside of the scanner without the aid of medical professionals or sophisticated medical equipment. In fMRI NFT, the fMRI signal is measured from specific regions of the brain, processed, and presented to the participant in real-time. Through training, self-directed mental processing techniques, that regulate this signal and its underlying neurophysiologic correlates, are developed. FMRI NFT has been used to train volitional control over a wide range of brain regions with implications for several different cognitive, behavioral, and motor systems. Additionally, fMRI NFT has shown promise in a broad range of applications such as the treatment of neurologic disorders and the augmentation of baseline human performance. In this article, we present an fMRI NFT protocol developed at our institution for modulation of both healthy and abnormal brain function, as well as examples of using the method to target both cognitive and auditory regions of the brain.

The ability to induce and/or control neural plasticity may be critical in future treatments for neurologic disorders and the recovery from brain injury. In this paper, we present a protocol on the use of neurofeedback training with functional magnetic resonance imaging to modulate human brain function.

Um protocolo para a administração do real-time fMRI treinamento de Neurofeedback

Neurologic disorders are characterized by abnormal cellular-, molecular-, and circuit-level functions in the brain. New methods to induce and control ...

Assay to Measure Nucleocytoplasmic Transport in Real Time within Motor Neuron-like NSC-34 Cells

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a connection between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and impairments in the nucleocytoplasmic pathway. ALS is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the motor neurons and resulting in paralysis and ultimately in death, within 2-5 years on average. Most cases of ALS are sporadic, lacking any apparent genetic linkage, but 10% are inherited in a dominant manner. Recently, hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HREs) in the chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9orf72) gene were identified as a genetic cause of ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Importantly, different groups have recently proposed that these mutants affect nucleocytoplasmic transport. These studies have mostly shown the final outcome and manifestations caused by HREs on nucleocytoplasmic transport, but they do not demonstrate nuclear transport dysfunction in real time. As a result, only severe nucleocytoplasmic transport deficiency can be determined, mostly due to high overexpression or exogenous protein insertion. 
This protocol describes a new and very sensitive assay to evaluate and quantify nucleocytoplasmic transport dysfunction in real time. The rate of import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein (shuttle-GFP) can be quantified in real time using fluorescent microscopy. This is performed by using an exportin inhibitor, thus allowing the shuttle GFP only to enter the nucleus. To validate the assay, the C9orf72 HRE translated dipeptide repeats, poly(GR) and poly(PR), which have been previously shown to disrupt nucleocytoplasmic transport, were used. Using the described assay, a 50% decrease in the nuclear import rate was observed compared to the control. Using this system, minute changes in nucleocytoplasmic transport can be examined and the ability of different factors to rescue (even partially) a nucleocytoplasmic transport defect can be determined.

This protocol describes a method to sensitively measure the nucleocytoplasmic transport rate within motor neuron-like NSC-34 cells by quantifying the real-time change in the nuclear import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein.

Ensaio para Medir o Transporte Nucleocitoplasmático em Tempo Real dentro de Células NSC-34 do tipo Motor-Neuron

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a ...

Visualization of the Axonal Projection Pattern of Embryonic Motor Neurons in Drosophila

The establishment of functional neuromuscular circuits relies on precise connections between developing motor axons and target muscles. Motor neurons extend growth cones to navigate along specific pathways by responding to a large number of axon guidance cues that emanate from the surrounding extracellular environment. Growth cone target recognition also plays a critical role in neuromuscular specificity. This work presents a standard immunohistochemistry protocol to visualize motor neuron projections of late stage-16 Drosophila melanogaster embryos. This protocol includes a few key steps, including a genotyping procedure, to sort the desired mutant embryos; an immunostaining procedure, to tag embryos with fasciclin II (FasII) antibody; and a dissection procedure, to generate filleted preparations from fixed embryos. Motor axon projections and muscle patterns in the periphery are much better visualized in flat preparations of filleted embryos than in whole-mount embryos. Therefore, the filleted preparation of fixed embryos stained with FasII antibody provides a powerful tool to characterize the genes required for motor axon pathfinding and target recognition, and it can also be applied to both loss-of-function and gain-of-function genetic screens.

Visualization of the Axonal Projection Pattern of Embryonic Motor Neurons in Drosophila

This work details a standard immunohistochemistry method to visualize motor neuron projections of late stage-16 Drosophila melanogaster embryos. The filleted preparation of fixed embryos stained with FasII antibody provides a powerful tool to characterize the genes required for motor axon pathfinding and target recognition during neural development.

Visualização do Padrão de Projeção Axonal de Neurônios de Motor Embrionários em<em&gt; Drosophila</em

The establishment of functional neuromuscular circuits relies on precise connections between developing motor axons and target muscles. Motor neurons ...

Axonal Transport of Organelles in Motor Neuron Cultures using Microfluidic Chambers System

Motor neurons (MNs) are highly polarized cells with very long axons. Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for MN health, contributing to neuronal growth, development, and survival. We describe a detailed method for the use of microfluidic chambers (MFCs) for tracking axonal transport of fluorescently labeled organelles in MN axons. This method is rapid, relatively inexpensive, and allows for the monitoring of intracellular cues in space and time. We describe a step by step protocol for: 1) Fabrication of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) MFCs; 2) Plating of ventral spinal cord explants and MN dissociated culture in MFCs; 3) Labeling of mitochondria and acidic compartments followed by live confocal imagining; 4) Manual and semiautomated axonal transport analysis. Lastly, we demonstrate a difference in the transport of mitochondria and acidic compartments of HB9::GFP ventral spinal cord explant axons as a proof of the system validity. Altogether, this protocol provides an efficient tool for studying the axonal transport of various axonal components, as well as a simplified manual for MFC usage to help discover spatial experimental possibilities.

Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for motor neuron health. In this protocol we provide a detailed method for tracking the axonal transport of acidic compartments and mitochondria in motor neuron axons using microfluidic chambers.

Transporte Axonal de Organelas em Culturas de Neurônios Motores usando sistema de câmaras microfluidas

Motor neurons (MNs) are highly polarized cells with very long axons. Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for MN health, contributing to neuronal ...

Real-Time fMRI Brain Mapping in Animals

Dynamic fMRI responses vary largely according to the physiological conditions of animals either under anesthesia or in awake states. We developed a real-time fMRI platform to guide experimenters to monitor fMRI responses instantaneously during acquisition, which can be used to modify the physiology of animals to achieve desired hemodynamic responses in animal brains. The real-time fMRI set-up is based on a 14.1T preclinical MRI system, enabling the real-time mapping of dynamic fMRI responses in the primary forepaw somatosensory cortex (FP-S1) of anesthetized rats. Instead of a retrospective analysis to investigate confounding sources leading to the variability of fMRI signals, the real-time fMRI platform provides a more effective scheme to identify dynamic fMRI responses using customized macro-functions and a common neuroimage analysis software in the MRI system. Also, it provides immediate troubleshooting feasibility and a real-time biofeedback stimulation paradigm for brain functional studies in animals.

Animal brain functional mapping can benefit from the real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experimental set-up. Using the latest software implemented in the animal MRI system, we established a real-time monitoring platform for small animal fMRI.

Mapeamento cerebral por fMRI em tempo real em animais

Dynamic fMRI responses vary largely according to the physiological conditions of animals either under anesthesia or in awake states. We developed a ...

Expanding the Toolkit for In Vivo Imaging of Axonal Transport

Axonal transport maintains neuronal homeostasis by enabling the bidirectional trafficking of diverse organelles and cargoes. Disruptions in axonal transport have devastating consequences for individual neurons and their networks, and contribute to a plethora of neurological disorders. As many of these conditions involve both cell autonomous and non-autonomous mechanisms, and often display a spectrum of pathology across neuronal subtypes, methods to accurately identify and analyze neuronal subsets are imperative.
This paper details protocols to assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria in sciatic nerves of anesthetized mice. Stepwise instructions are provided to 1) distinguish motor from sensory neurons in vivo, in situ, and ex vivo by using mice that selectively express fluorescent proteins within cholinergic motor neurons; and 2) separately or concurrently assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria. These complementary intravital approaches facilitate the simultaneous imaging of different cargoes in distinct peripheral nerve axons to quantitatively monitor axonal transport in health and disease.

Expanding the Toolkit for In Vivo Imaging of Axonal Transport

Using transgenic fluorescent mice, detailed protocols are described to assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria within motor and sensory axons of the intact sciatic nerve in live animals.

Expansão do Kit de Ferramentas para Imagens In Vivo do Transporte Axonal

Axonal transport maintains neuronal homeostasis by enabling the bidirectional trafficking of diverse organelles and cargoes. Disruptions in axonal ...

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia

Ca2+ imaging can be used as a proxy for cellular activity, including action potentials and various signaling mechanisms involving Ca2+ entry into the cytoplasm or the release of intracellular Ca2+ stores. Pirt-GCaMP3-based Ca2+ imaging of primary sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) in mice offers the advantage of simultaneous measurement of a large number of cells. Up to 1,800 neurons can be monitored, allowing neuronal networks and somatosensory processes to be studied as an ensemble in their normal physiological context at a populational level in vivo. The large number of neurons monitored allows the detection of activity patterns that would be challenging to detect using other methods. Stimuli can be applied to the mouse hindpaw, allowing the direct effects of stimuli on the DRG neuron ensemble to be studied. The number of neurons producing Ca2+ transients as well as the amplitude of Ca2+ transients indicates sensitivity to specific sensory modalities. The diameter of neurons provides evidence of activated fiber types (non-noxious mechano vs. noxious pain fibers, A&#946;, A&#948;, and C fibers). Neurons expressing specific receptors can be genetically labeled with td-Tomato and specific Cre recombinases together with Pirt-GCaMP. Therefore, Pirt-GCaMP3 Ca2+ imaging of DRG provides a powerful tool and model for the analysis of specific sensory modalities and neuron subtypes acting as an ensemble at the populational level to study pain, itch, touch, and other somatosensory signals.

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia

This protocol describes the surgical exposure of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) followed by GCaMP3 (genetically-encoded Ca2+ indicator; Green Fluorescent Protein-Calmodulin-M13 Protein 3) Ca2+ imaging of the neuronal ensembles using Pirt-GCaMP3 mice while applying a variety of stimuli to the ipsilateral hind paw.

In vivo Imagem com cálcio de conjuntos neuronais em redes de neurônios sensoriais primários em gânglios intactos da raiz dorsal

Ca2+ imaging can be used as a proxy for cellular activity, including action potentials and various signaling mechanisms involving Ca2+ entry into the ...