This research was possible through funding from the University of Neuch&#226;tel. We would like to thank all the students that helped in improving this technique, namely our colleague Kevin Thievent. We would also like to thank the members of the Thomas Lab for making their laboratory available. We would like to thank Janet Teeple for her help with mosquito rearing. We would also like to thanks Loyal Hall in the laboratory of Pr. Tom Baker for his help in the preparation of the micro capillary glass tubes.

1. solução salina por injeção e Dissection <ol><li> Preparar a solução salina através da adição de NaCl, KCl, e CaCl 2 de água destilada para obter NaCl 1,3 mM, KCl 0,5 mM, e CaCl 2 0,2 mM, a pH = 6,8. </li><li> Adicionar 1 ml de solução verde 0,1% de metilo a 99 ml da solução de soro fisiológico para colorir as contas transparente. Esta é a &quot;solução injectável&quot; verde metil 0,001%. </li><li> Em seguida, adicionam-se 5 ml de solução a 0,1% verde de metilo a 45 ml de solução salina. Esta &quot;solução de dissecação&quot; verde metil 0,01% é 10 vezes mais concentrada em verde metil para facilitar a coloração das pérolas e sua observação durante a dissecção. NOTA: Filtro de esterilizar o tampão, se necessário. </li></ol> 2. Preparação Capilar <ol><li> Calor-pull tubos microcapilar de vidro para obter uma ponta muito fina ligeiramente maior do que as mais pequenas esferas (φ = 40 mm) 42. </li><li> Aberta e umdjust cada capilar, quebrando a ponta com uma pinça ou serrando a ponta fora. </li></ol> 3. Mosquito Empinar <ol><li> Traseira A. gambiae a 26 ± 1 ° C, 70 ± 5% de umidade relativa, e uma luz 12:12 hr: ciclo escuro. Mantenha as fêmeas adultas e dar-lhes acesso a uma solução de açúcar de 10%. </li></ol> 4. Seleções do grânulo com a Capilar <ol><li> Pour 0,009 g de grânulos carregados negativamente (40-120 um de diâmetro) numa placa de Petri 5 centímetros e adicionam-se 5 ml de solução de injecção de 30 minutos de antecedência. NOTA: O objetivo é permitir que o corante de cor as contas para fazer a seleção talão para a injeção mais fácil. Autoclave as contas, se eles não vêm em um frasco estéril. </li><li> Usando um tubo capilar montado em um bolbo de pipeta capilar, seleccionar visualmente o menor grânulo em 0,1 mL da solução salina sob um microscópio binocular. NOTA: Quando inocular várias esferas simultaneamente, selecione três contas a partir de um volume total de 0,1 mL.</li></ol> 5. Manuseamento Mosquito e inoculação <ol><li> Usando um aspirador de insectos, colocar cada mosquito em um tubo de 50 ml. </li><li> Relaxar cada mosquito brevemente, colocando o tubo em gelo triturado (2-5 min). </li><li> Coloque um mosquito em seu lado direito sob o microscópio binocular. </li><li> Sob um microscópio estereoscópico, inocular o mosquito com o capilar por perfuração firmemente através do lado esquerdo da cutícula cavidade torácica e depois injectar o líquido e o talão. NOTA: Tome cuidado para não danificar os músculos de vôo, segurando o capilar como perpendicularmente ao mosquito possível. </li><li> Remover o capilar. </li><li> Utilizando uma pinça entomologia pluma, coloque cada fêmea individualmente em um copo de plástico de 180 ml coberto com um mosquiteiro; dar-lhes acesso a uma solução de açúcar de 10%. NOTA: É necessário ter cuidado com a solução de açúcar, como o mosquito pode ficar preso em gotas da solução açucarada. </li></ol> 6. MosquitoDissecção e Fotografia Bead <ol><li> Verifique se os mosquitos estão vivos 24 horas após a inoculação. Se assim for, verificar a sua condição e manter apenas os mosquitos que são capazes de voar. </li><li> Congelar esses mosquitos a -20 ° C. NOTA: Eles podem ser mantidos vários dias a meses antes da dissecação, se necessário. </li><li> Remover asas dos mosquitos, usando uma pinça sob um microscópio binocular em 32X de ampliação. Fixar as asas em lâminas de vidro com fita adesiva transparente. Anote o código usado para cada mosquito individual. </li><li> Coloque as lâminas de vidro em um scanner e digitalizá-los a 1.200 dpi. NOTA: Verifique se o código é legível para cada mosquito individual. </li><li> Em uma lâmina de microscópio de vidro e na solução de dissecção, utilizar uma pinça para separar o tórax da cabeça e do abdómen. </li><li> Abra o tórax com uma pinça para recuperar as contas. NOTA: Beads que não se movem para o abdômen, não estão em contacto uns com os outros ea maioria deles flutuar livremente em tele hemolinfa. Tenha cuidado para não quebrar o cordão com a pinça, como um cordão não melanizadas pode ser difícil de encontrar. Espere por 1 a 5 min para grânulos para obter uma cor. </li><li> Transferir as contas em uma gota de solução de dissecção em uma lâmina de vidro, antes de tirar a foto. NOTA: Não há necessidade de lavar as contas. </li><li> Usando um microscópio equipado com uma câmera, dê uma imagem digital de cada conta com uma definição de iluminação padrão e aumento de 400X. NOTA: Não altere a iluminação entre as diferentes imagens para permitir a sua comparação. </li></ol> 7. Análise de Imagem: Bead melanizacao <ol><li> Abra o software de análise de imagem. Clique em &quot;Arquivo&quot; e depois em &quot;abrir&quot; para encontrar uma imagem de talão. </li><li> Clique em &quot;analisar&quot;. Clique em &quot;medições previstas.&quot; Marque a caixa &quot;significa valor de cinza&quot; na janela &quot;Definir medidas&quot;. </li><li> Clique no ícone do círculo ferramenta de seleção. Selecione o perímetro talão; permanecem emlado do talão e evitar o halo luminoso em torno dele. </li><li> Clique no menu &quot;analisar&quot;. Clique em &quot;medida&quot;. Obter o valor médio de cinzentos e o tamanho da área da secção transversal do cordão. <ol><li> Para obter o valor melanizacao de cada grânulo, realize a seguinte operação usando uma calculadora ou calculadora software: &quot;256 - valor médio de cinza.&quot; A medida melanização é um valor entre 0 e 256, com 0 representando uma imagem totalmente branco. </li></ol></li></ol>

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J., George, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=34;Manipulation&amp;#34;+without+the+parasite:+altered+feeding+behaviour+of+mosquitoes+is+not+dependent+on+infection+with+malaria+parasites.">34;Manipulation&amp;#34; without the parasite: altered feeding behaviour of mosquitoes is not dependent on infection with malaria parasites.</a> P Roy Soc B-Biol Sci. 280 (1763), 20130711 (2013).</li><li>Voordouw, M. J., Lambrechts, L., Koella, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=No+maternal+effects+after+stimulation+of+the+melanization+response+in+the+yellow+fever+mosquito+Aedes+aegypti.">No maternal effects after stimulation of the melanization response in the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti.</a> Oikos. 117 (8), 1269-1279 (2008).</li><li>Paskewitz, S., Riehle, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Response+of+Plasmodium+refractory+and+susceptible+strains+of+Anopheles+gambiae+to+inoculated+Sephadex+beads.">Response of Plasmodium refractory and susceptible strains of Anopheles gambiae to inoculated Sephadex beads.</a> Dev comp immunol. 18 (5), 369-375 (1994).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Esta técnica de injeção é útil para estimular e estudar a resposta melanizacao em mosquitos. Por exemplo, aqui nós estudamos o efeito da carga de estímulos imunológico. O passo crítico neste procedimento é adequada para inocular o mosquito. Qualquer dano excessivo aos músculos de vôo ou para o próprio mosquito pode impedir que o mosquito da alimentação ou podem matá-lo antes da dissecção. Um segundo passo fundamental é manter os mosquitos no gelo tempo suficiente para derr...

Insetos dependem de respostas imunes para se proteger contra parasitas e patógenos 1 - 3 que violam através da sua cutícula ou a sua epitélio do intestino médio 4. Em mosquitos, estas respostas são eficientes contra bactérias, vírus 5 6, nematóides filarial 7 e parasitas da malária 1,8,9. Em mosquitos, uma resposta imune chave é a encapsulação de partículas estranhas com melanina 10-12. Este encapsulamento pode ocorrer no intestino ou na hemolinfa sistema de circulação 10 - 12. Esta resposta melanização é o resultado de o pró-fenoloxidase cascata 10 - 12, e que pode conduzir à morte dos parasitas ou a sua fagocitose. Em mosquitos adultos, onde o número de células hemócitos é limitado, melanização é uma resposta humoral, como contra parasitas de Plasmodium ou nemátodos filariais 7.Em alguns outros insetos, é diretamente as células hemócitos que se reúnem em torno do parasita para melanize-los 7. Além disso, a melanina também é essencial para vários outros processos fisiológicos como a produção de ovos e feridas cutícula cura 7. A estimulação de respostas imunes é usado como uma ferramenta para o estudo da imunidade de insectos em vários sistemas de modelo de saúde pública agrícola e 13 - 18. É utilizado em Anopheles gambiae os mosquitos, o principal vetor de malária na África, para estudar as interações parasita-hospedeiro 14 - 16,19. Estas técnicas baseiam-se na capacidade de insectos para detectar parasitas com os seus receptores de reconhecimento de padrões (PRR) 2. Os mosquitos também pode detectar outras moléculas que interferem com a sua biologia, como padrões moleculares associados a patógenos (PAMPs), ou detectar suas próprias células danificadas devido à liberação de colágeno e ácidos nucleicos. A célula imune mosquitos tais como os hemócitos são utilizados para a detecção de 20-23. As principais vias de sinalização imunes são IMD, Toll, JAK / STAT 24, e interferência do ácido ribonucleico (RNAi) 25,26. Ambos Toll e vias IMD influenciar a resposta melanizacao e interagir com o pró-fenoloxidase cascata 10-12. A ferramenta de padrão usado para estimular a resposta melanização é a inoculação de um mosquito com um pequeno rebordo na hemolinfa da cavidade torácica. O grau de encapsulamento melanina pode então ser medida 19 depois de recuperar o cordão através da dissecação do mosquito. Na maioria dos estudos, apenas uma esfera foi injectada por mosquito 15,16,27, mas injectando mais grânulos é possível, a fim de estudar os limites da resposta melanização 19. Estes grânulos são injectados utilizando uma solução para injecção (soro fisiológico), para limitar a perturbação do mosquito e fisiologiaa dessecação do mosquito 15,16,27. Um corante é adicionado a esta solução para facilitar a selecção de grânulo. É o mesmo para a solução de dissecção usado para recuperar o grânulo 15,16,27. A vantagem de inoculação de insectos com estímulos não patogénico é a capacidade de focar sobre o efeito directo sobre a resposta imune. Não há efeitos que complicam devido ao parasita patogenicidade 28, imunossupressão 29-31, ou a evasão imune 31-34. Além disso, as consequências das estimulações de outras características da história de vida, tais como a longevidade ou fecundidade, pode também ser estudado. Assim, os pesquisadores que estudam ecologia evolutiva pode exigir tais ferramentas 2,35,36. Por exemplo, zangões desafiou-imuno têm uma vida útil encurtada sob fome. efeitos negativos semelhantes de estímulos imunitários e implantações foram observadas em diferentes modelos de invertebrados, resultando muitas vezes num curtoer a vida útil ou o sucesso reprodutivo menos 13,27,37. Tais estudos podem ser realizados em ambientes variados 2,4,38. Estimular a imunidade também é de interesse para aqueles focando diretamente imunopatologia 39,40. Este protocolo baseia-se na inoculação de grânulos com mosquitos para estimular a resposta melanização e directamente medem a quantidade de melanina. Isso permite estudo quantitativo e qualitativo da resposta melanizacao em diferentes configurações experimentais. Uma tal ferramenta pode ser estendido para a estimulação de outras respostas imunes, tais como a resposta antibacteriana a bactérias 41 aquecer-morto. Ele também pode ser realizado em muitos contextos ecológicos.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Microcapillary glass tubes GB120TF-10</td><td>science-products.com</td><td>GB120TF-10</td><td>http://www.science-products.com/Products/CatalogG/Glass/Glass.html</td></tr><tr><td>Microcaps Capillary pipette bulb</td><td>Drumond</td><td>1-000-9000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>negatively charged Sephadex CM C-25 beads</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, Steinheim, Germany</td><td>C25120 SIGMA</td><td>need few to start</td></tr><tr><td>Methyl green</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>323829 ALDRICH</td><td>need few to start</td></tr><tr><td>Software ImageJ</td><td>opensource</td><td></td><td>Version 1.47f7 or later</td></tr></tbody></table>

inoculating anopheles gambiae mosquitoes with beads to induce and measure the melanization immune response

A estimulação de respostas imunes é uma ferramenta comum em estudos de invertebrados para examinar a eficácia e os mecanismos de imunidade. Esta estimulação é baseado em a injecção de partículas não patogénicas em insectos, como as partículas vão ser detectado pelo sistema imunológico e induzem a produção de efectores imunitários. Nós nos concentramos aqui na estimulação da resposta melanizacao no mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Os resultados de resposta melanizacao no encapsulamento de partículas estranhas e parasitas com uma camada escura de melanina. Para estimular essa resposta, os mosquitos são inoculados com contas na cavidade torácica, utilizando tubos microcapilar de vidro. Então, depois de 24 horas, os mosquitos são dissecados para recuperar as contas. O grau de melanização do grânulo é medida utilizando software de análise de imagem. Grânulos não têm os efeitos patogénicos de parasitas, ou a sua capacidade de evitar ou suprimir a resposta imunitária. Estas injecções são uma forma de measure eficácia imunológico e o impacto da estimulação do sistema imunológico em outros traços da história de vida, tais como fecundidade e longevidade. Ele não é exactamente o mesmo que estudando directamente interacções hospedeiro-parasita, mas é uma ferramenta interessante para o estudo da imunidade e da sua ecologia evolutiva.

<html> Os mosquitos que nem todos melanize os grânulos do mesmo modo, como algumas esferas foram cobertas com menos melanina do que outras (Figura 1). Na verdade, alguns grânulos permaneceu azul devido a uma falta de melanização, ao passo que outros foram completamente escuro (Figura 1). O valor melanização foi padronizado por interpolação linear para um valor entre 0 (o que corresponde a um cordão azul e unmelanized) e 100 (correspondendo a uma ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response at JoVE.com

Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response

Through inoculation with beads, the described technique enables the stimulation of the mosquito melanization response in the hemolymph circulating system. The amount of melanin covering the beads can be measured after dissection as a measure of the immune response.

inoculando<em&gt; Anopheles gambiae</em&gt; Os mosquitos com grânulos para induzir e medir a melanizacao Resposta Imunológica

The stimulation of immune responses is a common tool in invertebrate studies to examine the efficacy and the mechanisms of immunity. This stimulation is ...

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JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response

7.9K visualizações.  Université de Neuchâtel. Through inoculation with beads, the described technique enables the stimulation of the mosquito melanization response in the hemolymph circulating system. The amount of melanin covering the beads can be measured after dissection as a measure of the immune response.

Vídeo: Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response

Injection of An. stephensi Embryos to Generate Malaria-resistant Mosquitoes

The introduction of exogenous genes into the genomes of mosquitoes requires microinjection techniques tailored to the specific species of interest. This video protocol demonstrates a method used by the James laboratory to microinject DNA constructs into Anopheles stephensi embryos for the generation of transformed mosquitoes. Techniques for preparing microinjection needles, collecting and preparing embryos and performing the microinjection are illustrated.

Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes are vectors for malaria inhabiting India and throughout Asia. This video demonstrates the technique for performing microinjections of this species with transgenes that will confer resistance to the malaria to the mosquito. Much of the methodology demonstrated in this video is applicable to microinjection techniques of other mosquito species.

Uma injeção de. Embriões stephensi para gerar malária resistente a mosquitos

The introduction of exogenous genes into the genomes of mosquitoes requires microinjection techniques tailored to the specific species of interest. This ...

Biologia

Site-Directed &#966;C31-Mediated Integration and Cassette Exchange in Anopheles Vectors of Malaria

Functional genomic analysis and related strategies for genetic control of malaria rely on validated and reproducible methods to accurately modify the genome of Anopheles mosquitoes. Amongst these methods, the &#966;C31 system allows precise and stable site-directed integration of transgenes, or the substitution of integrated transgenic cassettes via recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE). This method relies on the action of the Streptomyces &#966;C31 bacteriophage integrase to catalyze recombination between two specific attachment sites designated attP (derived from the phage) and attB (derived from the host bacterium). The system uses one or two attP sites that have been integrated previously into the mosquito genome and attB site(s) in the donor template DNA. Here we illustrate how to stably modify the genome of attP-bearing Anopheles docking lines using two plasmids: an attB-tagged donor carrying the integration or exchange template and a helper plasmid encoding the &#966;C31 integrase. We report two representative results of &#966;C31-mediated site-directed modification: the single integration of a transgenic cassette in An. stephensi and RMCE in An. gambiae mosquitoes. &#966;C31-mediated genome manipulation offers the advantage of reproducible transgene expression from validated, fitness neutral genomic sites, allowing comparative qualitative and quantitative analyses of phenotypes. The site-directed nature of the integration also substantially simplifies the validation of the single insertion site and the mating scheme to obtain a stable transgenic line. These and other characteristics make the &#966;C31 system an essential component of the genetic toolkit for the transgenic manipulation of malaria mosquitoes and other insect vectors.

The protocol describes how to achieve site-directed modifications in the genome of Anopheles malaria mosquitoes using the &#966;C31 system. Modifications described include both the integration and the exchange of transgenic cassettes in the genome of attP-bearing docking lines.

Integração mediada pelo site φC31 e troca de em vetores anofelinos da malária

Functional genomic analysis and related strategies for genetic control of malaria rely on validated and reproducible methods to accurately modify the ...

Genética

Microinjection Method for Anopheles gambiae Embryos

Embryo microinjection techniques are essential for many molecular and genetic studies of insect species. They provide a means to introduce exogenous DNA fragments encoding genes of interest as well as favorable traits into the insect germline in a stable and heritable manner. The resulting transgenic strains can be studied for phenotypic changes resulting from the expression of the integrated DNA to answer basic questions or used in practical applications. Although the technology is straightforward, it requires of the investigator patience and practice to achieve a level of skill that maximizes efficiency. Shown here is a method for microinjection of embryos of the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. The objective is to deliver by microinjection exogenous DNA to the embryo so that it can be taken up in the developing germline (pole) cells. Expression from the injected DNA of transposases, integrases, recombinases, or other nucleases (for example CRISPR-associated proteins, Cas) can trigger events that lead to its covalent insertion into chromosomes. Transgenic An. gambiae generated from these technologies have been used for basic studies of immune system components, genes involved in blood-feeding, and elements of the olfactory system. In addition, these techniques have been used to produce An. gambiae strains with traits that may help control the transmission of malaria parasites.

Microinjection Method for Anopheles gambiae Embryos

Microinjection techniques are essential to introduce exogenous genes into the genomes of mosquitoes. This protocol explains a method used by the James laboratory to microinject DNA constructs into Anopheles gambiae embryos to generate transformed mosquitoes.

Método de microinjeção para embriões anofelinos gambiae

Embryo microinjection techniques are essential for many molecular and genetic studies of insect species. They provide a means to introduce exogenous DNA ...

An In Vitro Model for Measuring Immune Responses to Malaria in the Context of HIV Co-infection

Malaria and HIV co-infection is a growing health priority. However, most research on malaria or HIV currently focuses on each infection individually. Although understanding the disease dynamics for each of these pathogens independently is vital, it is also important that the interactions between these pathogens are investigated and understood. 
We have developed a versatile in vitro model of HIV-malaria co-infection to study host immune responses to malaria in the context of HIV infection. Our model allows the study of secreted factors in cellular supernatants, cell surface and intracellular protein markers, as well as RNA expression levels. The experimental design and methods used limit variability and promote data reliability and reproducibility. 
All pathogens used in this model are natural human pathogens (Plasmodium falciparum and HIV-1), and all infected cells are naturally infected and used fresh. We use human erythrocytes parasitized with P. falciparum and maintained in continuous in vitro culture. We obtain freshly isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from chronically HIV-infected volunteers. Every condition used has an appropriate control (P. falciparum parasitized vs. normal erythrocytes), and every HIV-infected donor has an HIV uninfected control, from which cells are harvested on the same day. This model provides a realistic environment to study the interactions between malaria parasites and human immune cells in the context of HIV infection.

An In Vitro Model for Measuring Immune Responses to Malaria in the Context of HIV Co-infection

Human co-infection is difficult to replicate in vitro. However, human malaria parasites can readily be cultured in vitro, as can freshly isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells naturally infected with HIV. This provides an excellent model for studying early immune responses to malaria parasites in the context of HIV co-infection.

Um<em&gt; In Vitro</em&gt; Modelo para medição de respostas imunes a Malária no Contexto do HIV co-infecção

Malaria and HIV co-infection is a growing health priority. However, most research on malaria or HIV currently focuses on each infection individually. ...

Imunologia e Infecção

Myeloid Cell Isolation from Mouse Skin and Draining Lymph Node Following Intradermal Immunization with Live Attenuated Plasmodium Sporozoites

Malaria infection begins when the sporozoite stage of Plasmodium is inoculated into the skin of a mammalian host through a mosquito bite. The highly motile parasite not only reaches the liver to invade hepatocytes and transform into erythrocyte-infective form. It also migrates into the skin and to the proximal lymph node draining the injection site, where it can be recognized and degraded by resident and/or recruited myeloid cells. Intravital imaging reported the early recruitment of brightly fluorescent Lys-GFP positive leukocytes in the skin and the interactions between sporozoites and CD11c+ cells in the draining lymph node. We present here an efficient procedure to recover, identify and enumerate the myeloid cell subsets that are recruited to the mouse skin and draining lymph node following intradermal injection of immunizing doses of sporozoites in a murine model. Phenotypic characterization using multi-parametric flow cytometry provides a reliable assay to assess early dynamic cellular changes during inflammatory response to Plasmodium infection.

Myeloid Cell Isolation from Mouse Skin and Draining Lymph Node Following Intradermal Immunization with Live Attenuated Plasmodium Sporozoites

We describe here a protocol for isolating myeloid cells from mouse skin and draining lymph node following intradermal injection of Plasmodium sporozoites. Flow cytometry of collected cells provides a reliable assay to characterize the skin and draining lymph node inflammatory response to the parasite.

Isolamento de células mielóides de rato Pele e Drenagem Linfonodo Seguindo intradérmica imunização com vivos atenuados<em&gt; Plasmodium</em&gt; Esporozoítos

Malaria infection begins when the sporozoite stage of Plasmodium is inoculated into the skin of a mammalian host through a mosquito bite. The highly ...

In Vivo Tracking of Edema Development and Microvascular Pathology in a Model of Experimental Cerebral Malaria Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Cerebral malaria is a sign of severe malarial disease and is often a harbinger of death. While aggressive management can be life-saving, the detection of cerebral malaria can be difficult. We present an experimental mouse model of cerebral malaria that shares multiple features of the human disease, including edema and microvascular pathology. Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we can detect and track the blood-brain barrier disruption, edema development, and subsequent brain swelling. We describe multiple MRI techniques that can visualize these pertinent pathological changes. Thus, we show that MRI represents a valuable tool to visualize and track pathological changes, such as edema, brain swelling, and microvascular pathology, in vivo.

In Vivo Tracking of Edema Development and Microvascular Pathology in a Model of Experimental Cerebral Malaria Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging

We describe a mouse model of experimental cerebral malaria and show how inflammatory and microvascular pathology can be tracked in vivo using magnetic resonance imaging.

In Vivo Tracking of Edema Development and Microvascular Pathology em um Modelo de Malária Cerebral Experimental Usando Ressonância Magnética

Cerebral malaria is a sign of severe malarial disease and is often a harbinger of death. While aggressive management can be life-saving, the detection of ...

Medicina

Standard Membrane Feeding Assay for the Detection of Plasmodium falciparum Infection in Anopheles Mosquito Vectors

Malaria remains one of the most devastating diseases worldwide and, to date, the African region is still responsible for 94% of all cases worldwide. This parasitic disease requires a protozoan parasite, an Anopheles mosquito vector, and a vertebrate host. The Anopheles genus comprises more than 500 species, of which 60 are known as vectors of the parasite. The Plasmodium parasite genus consists of 250 species, and 48 of these are involved in disease transmission. Furthermore, the Plasmodium falciparum parasite has contributed toward an estimated 99.7% of malaria cases in sub-Saharan Africa in recent years. 
Gametocytes form part of the sexual stage of the parasite and are ingested by the female mosquito upon feeding on an infected human host. Further development of the parasite within the mosquito is enhanced by favorable environmental conditions in the midgut of the mosquito. Here, the fusion of the female and male gametes takes place, and the motile ookinetes originate. The ookinetes enter the midgut epithelium of the mosquito, and mature ookinetes form oocysts, which, in turn, produce motile sporozoites. These sporozoites migrate to the mosquito's salivary glands and are injected as a mosquito takes a blood meal. 
For drug discovery purposes, mosquitoes were artificially infected with gametocyte-infected blood in the standard membrane feeding assay (SMFA). To detect infection within the mosquito and/or to assess the efficacy of antimalarial compounds, the midguts of the female mosquitoes were removed post infection and were stained with mercurochrome. This method was used to enhance the visual detection of oocysts under the microscope for the accurate determination of oocyst prevalence and intensity.

Standard Membrane Feeding Assay for the Detection of Plasmodium falciparum Infection in Anopheles Mosquito Vectors

The standard membrane feeding assay (SMFA) is regarded as the gold standard for the assessment and identification of potential antimalarial compounds. This artificial feeding system is used to infect mosquitoes to further evaluate the effects of such compounds on the intensity and prevalence of the Plasmodium falciparum parasite.

Ensaio padrão de alimentação de membrana para a detecção de infecção por plasmodium falciparum em Vetores de Mosquito Anopheles

Malaria remains one of the most devastating diseases worldwide and, to date, the African region is still responsible for 94% of all cases worldwide. This ...

Generating Genetically Modified Plasmodium berghei Sporozoites

Malaria is a deadly disease caused by the parasite Plasmodium and is transmitted through the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes. The sporozoite stage of Plasmodium deposited by mosquitoes in the skin of vertebrate hosts undergoes a phase of mandatory development in the liver before initiating clinical malaria. We know little about the biology of Plasmodium development in the liver; access to the sporozoite stage and the ability to genetically modify such sporozoites are critical tools for studying the nature of Plasmodium infection and the resulting immune response in the liver. Here, we present a comprehensive protocol for the generation of transgenic Plasmodium berghei sporozoites. We genetically modify blood-stage P. berghei and use this form to infect Anopheles mosquitoes when they take a blood meal. After the transgenic parasites undergo development in the mosquitoes, we isolate the sporozoite stage of the parasite from the mosquito salivary glands for in vivo and in vitro experimentation. We demonstrate the validity of the protocol by generating sporozoites of a novel strain of P. berghei expressing the green fluorescent protein (GFP) subunit 11 (GFP11), and show how it could be used to investigate the biology of liver-stage malaria.

Generating Genetically Modified Plasmodium berghei Sporozoites

Malaria is transmitted through inoculation of the sporozoite stage of Plasmodium by infected mosquitoes. Transgenic Plasmodium has allowed us to understand the biology of malaria better and has contributed directly to malaria vaccine development efforts. Here, we describe a streamlined methodology to generate transgenic Plasmodium berghei sporozoites.

Geração de Esporozoítos Geneticamente Modificados de Plasmodium berghei

Malaria is a deadly disease caused by the parasite Plasmodium and is transmitted through the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes. The sporozoite stage of ...

RNAi Trigger Delivery into Anopheles gambiae Pupae

RNA interference (RNAi), a naturally occurring phenomenon in eukaryotic organisms, is an extremely valuable tool that can be utilized in the laboratory for functional genomic studies. The ability to knockdown individual genes selectively via this reverse genetic technique has allowed many researchers to rapidly uncover the biological roles of numerous genes within many organisms, by evaluation of loss-of-function phenotypes. In the major human malaria vector Anopheles gambiae, the predominant method used to reduce the function of targeted genes involves injection of double-stranded (dsRNA) into the hemocoel of the adult mosquito. While this method has been successful, gene knockdown in adults excludes the functional assessment of genes that are expressed and potentially play roles during pre-adult stages, as well as genes that are expressed in limited numbers of cells in adult mosquitoes. We describe a method for the injection of Serine Protease Inhibitor 2 (SRPN2) dsRNA during the early pupal stage and validate SRPN2 protein knockdown by observing decreased target protein levels and the formation of melanotic pseudo-tumors in SRPN2 knockdown adult mosquitoes. This evident phenotype has been described previously for adult stage knockdown of SRPN2 function, and we have recapitulated this adult phenotype by SRPN2 knockdown initiated during pupal development. When used in conjunction with a dye-labeled dsRNA solution, this technique enables easy visualization by simple light microscopy of injection quality and distribution of dsRNA in the hemocoel.

RNAi Trigger Delivery into Anopheles gambiae Pupae

RNA interference (RNAi) is an extremely valuable tool for uncovering gene function. However, the ability to target genes using RNAi during pre-adult stages is limited in the major human malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. We describe an RNAi protocol to reduce gene function via direct injection during pupal development.

RNAi gatilho para o interior<em&gt; Anopheles gambiae</em&gt; As pupas

RNA interference (RNAi), a naturally occurring phenomenon in eukaryotic organisms, is an extremely valuable tool that can be utilized in the laboratory ...

Effective Oral RNA Interference (RNAi) Administration to Adult Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes

RNA interference has been a heavily utilized tool for reverse genetic analysis for two decades. In adult mosquitoes, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) administration has been accomplished primarily via injection, which requires significant time and is not suitable for field applications. To overcome these limitations, here we present a more efficient method for robust activation of RNAi by oral delivery of dsRNA to adult Anopheles gambiae. Long dsRNAs were produced in Escherichia coli strain HT115 (DE3), and a concentrated suspension of heat-killed dsRNA-containing bacteria in 10% sucrose was offered on cotton balls ad-libitum to adult mosquitoes. Cotton balls were replaced every 2 days for the duration of the treatment. Use of this method to target doublesex (a gene involved in sex differentiation) or fork head (which encodes a salivary gland transcription factor) resulted in reduced target gene expression and/or protein immunofluorescence signal, as measured by quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) or fluorescence confocal microscopy, respectively. Defects in salivary gland morphology were also observed. This highly flexible, user-friendly, low-cost, time-efficient method of dsRNA delivery could be broadly applicable to target genes important for insect vector physiology and beyond.

Effective Oral RNA Interference RNAi Administration to Adult Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes

The oral administration of dsRNA produced by bacteria, a delivery method for RNA interference (RNAi) that is routinely used in Caenorhabditis elegans, was successfully applied here to adult mosquitoes. Our method allows for robust reverse genetics studies and transmission-blocking vector studies without the use of injection.

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