We are grateful for the technical assistance of Dr. Suchitra Swaminathan who runs the Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine Flow Cytometry core. Funding was provided by (NIH) DK101675.

All animal work was approved by the Northwestern IACUC. All experiments were completed in accordance and compliance with all relevant regulatory and institutional guidelines. For human subjects donating blood, an informed consent was presented and signed; in addition, all human subjects in this study were treated in accordance with the institutional and federal guidelines for human welfare.
NOTE: The protocol steps are listed under the following subsections: (i) Mouse Bone Marrow Cell Isolatio...

<ol>
	<li>Hickey, M. J., Kubes, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravascular+immunity:+the+host-pathogen+encounter+in+blood+vessels.">Intravascular immunity: the host-pathogen encounter in blood vessels.</a> Nat Rev Immunol. 9 (5), 364-375 (2009).</li><li>Nathan, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophils+and+immunity:+challenges+and+opportunities.">Neutrophils and immunity: challenges and opportunities.</a> Nat Rev Immunol. 6 (3), 173-182 (2006).</li><li>Kolaczkowska, E., Kubes, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+recruitment+and+function+in+health+and+inflammation.">Neutrophil recruitment and function in health and inflammation.</a> Nat Rev Immunol. 13 (3), 159-175 (2013).</li><li>Butin-Israeli, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deposition+of+microparticles+by+neutrophils+onto+inflamed+epithelium:+a+new+mechanism+to+disrupt+epithelial+intercellular+adhesions+and+promote+transepithelial+migration.">Deposition of microparticles by neutrophils onto inflamed epithelium: a new mechanism to disrupt epithelial intercellular adhesions and promote transepithelial migration.</a> FASEB J. , (2016).</li><li>Gasser, O., Schifferli, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activated+polymorphonuclear+neutrophils+disseminate+anti-inflammatory+microparticles+by+ectocytosis.">Activated polymorphonuclear neutrophils disseminate anti-inflammatory microparticles by ectocytosis.</a> Blood. 104 (8), 2543-2548 (2004).</li><li>Swamydas, M., Lionakis, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation,+purification+and+labeling+of+mouse+bone+marrow+neutrophils+for+functional+studies+and+adoptive+transfer+experiments.">Isolation, purification and labeling of mouse bone marrow neutrophils for functional studies and adoptive transfer experiments.</a> J Vis Exp. (77), e50586 (2013).</li><li>Shet, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterizing+blood+microparticles:+technical+aspects+and+challenges.">Characterizing blood microparticles: technical aspects and challenges.</a> Vasc Health Risk Manag. 4 (4), 769-774 (2008).</li><li>Dey-Hazra, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+circulating+microparticles+by+flow+cytometry:+influence+of+centrifugation,+filtration+of+buffer,+and+freezing.">Detection of circulating microparticles by flow cytometry: influence of centrifugation, filtration of buffer, and freezing.</a> Vasc Health Risk Manag. 6, 1125-1133 (2010).</li><li>Slater, T. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+Microparticles+Deliver+Active+Myeloperoxidase+to+Injured+Mucosa+To+Inhibit+Epithelial+Wound+Healing.">Neutrophil Microparticles Deliver Active Myeloperoxidase to Injured Mucosa To Inhibit Epithelial Wound Healing.</a> J Immunol. 198 (7), 2886-2897 (2017).</li><li>Enjeti, A. K., Lincz, L., Seldon, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bio-maleimide+as+a+generic+stain+for+detection+and+quantitation+of+microparticles.">Bio-maleimide as a generic stain for detection and quantitation of microparticles.</a> Int J Lab Hematol. 30 (3), 196-199 (2008).</li><li>Headland, S. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil-derived+microvesicles+enter+cartilage+and+protect+the+joint+in+inflammatory+arthritis.">Neutrophil-derived microvesicles enter cartilage and protect the joint in inflammatory arthritis.</a> Sci Transl Med. 7 (315), (2015).</li><li>Andersson, T., Dahlgren, C., Lew, P. D., Stendahl, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+surface+expression+of+fMet-Leu-Phe+receptors+on+human+neutrophils.+Correlation+to+changes+in+the+cytosolic+free+Ca2++level+and+action+of+phorbol+myristate+acetate.">Cell surface expression of fMet-Leu-Phe receptors on human neutrophils. Correlation to changes in the cytosolic free Ca2+ level and action of phorbol myristate acetate.</a> J Clin Invest. 79 (4), 1226-1233 (1987).</li></ol>

Protocols for the isolation and characterization of PMN-derived MPs are described in this communication. Several key critical points must be taken into account for the success of the procedure. First, PMNs must be isolated fresh and used in experiments within 2 h of isolation to prevent spontaneous activation and degranulation. All handling of PMNs during isolation and up to the point of stimulation must be performed on ice to prevent activation and premature MP release12. Second, ultracentrifugat...

Recently, &#34;microparticles/microvesicles&#34; originating from the cell cytosol or plasma membrane have become of great scientific interest, as emerging data suggest that these structures, ranging from 50-1,000 nm in diameter, can carry biological information and serve as a non-canonical method of cellular communication. Immune cell-derived MPs and particularly those produced by polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) are of great interest given the important role of PMNs in host defense1,2, inflammatory responses3, and wound-healing4. Intriguingly, thus far, numerous reports have shown both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory functions of PMN-MPs5, suggesting a potential context-, disease-, species-, and organ-specific role of MPs.
Described protocols in this communication provide a cost-effective, innovative, and adaptable method to study the function of MPs in health and disease. They are applicable to many model organisms, organs, and stimulation conditions. They allow for the identification of several types of MPs and can be used in the future to address their pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory functions. As an example, described here is how to study the function of PMN-MPs in epithelial wound healing in vitro and in vivo. The presented protocol for isolation of mouse bone marrow-derived PMNs was adapted with some modifications from a previously described method6.
Furthermore, protocols described in this study allow for the detection and characterization of specific markers that can be found on PMN-MPs by two complementary methods: Western blot and flow cytometry. We find that immunoblotting of MPs using standard protocols5 is easy and reliable, however, recent advances in sensitivity of flow cytometry instruments, and improved noise-to-signal ratio now allow for further analysis of MPs using this method. The described protocols in this study incorporate recent advances and recommendations from original research articles, including modifications to centrifugation speed and time, the addition of sample filtering and freezing/storage conditions7,8, and how to reduce the &#34;background noise&#34;, improve the detection limit of PMN-MPs, and discriminate between different sizes of MPs.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:968px;" width="967">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">DMEM</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">10-041-CV</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">Fetal Bovine Serum (Heat inactivated)</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Atlanta Biologics</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">S11150</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="44">
			<td height="44" style="height:44px;width:257px;">Penicillin/Streptomycin (10,000 units penicillin / 10,000 mg/ml strep)</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">GIBCO</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">15140</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">0.5 M EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">BP2482</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="44">
			<td height="44" style="height:44px;width:257px;">Sodium chloride</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">S9888</td>
			<td style="width:348px;">Sterile and filtered through a 0.1 micron filter unit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">Sterile filtered Histopaque 1077</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">10771</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">Sterile filtered Histopaque 1119</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">11191</td>
			<td style="width:348px;">Density 1.119 g/ml.&#160; Solution of polysucrose and&#160; sodium diatrizoate. Bring to room temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) without Calcium and Magnesium</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Cellgro</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">210-40-CV</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">Ethyl Alcohol (200 proof)</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Decon labs</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">2701</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">HBBS</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">21-022-CV</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">Trypan Blue Solution, 0.4%</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">T8154&#160;SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:348px;">Diluted 1:2 for cell viability counting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">Isoflurane</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Abbot</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">50033</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">Anti-human CD11b-APC conjugated</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Biolegend</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">301350</td>
			<td style="width:348px;">Clone ICRD44 (Final concetration: 1 &#181;g/mL)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">BODIPY FL</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>B10250</td>
			<td style="width:348px;">N-(2-aminoethyl) maleimide&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Annexin V Binding Buffer</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>422201</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Calibration Beads for Flow Cytometry</td>
			<td>BioCytex</td>
			<td>7803</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">FITC Annexin V</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>640906</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Polymorphprep</td>
			<td>Axis-Shield PoC AS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td style="width:348px;">Sodium diatrizoate/Dextran 500, density 1.113 g/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">C57BL/6 mice</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Jackson Labs</td>
			<td style="width:181px;"></td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:257px;">15 ml centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">430053</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">50 ml centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">352070</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">25 ml serological pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Celltreat</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">229225B</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">10 ml serological pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Celltreat</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">229210B</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">5 ml serological pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Celltreat</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">229205B</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">Pasteur pipettes&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">BD Falcon</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">357575</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">25 G x 5/8 in. Needles (precision glide needles)</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">305122</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">100 &#181;m cell strainers</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Celltreat</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">229485</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:257px;">Vacutainer tubes</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">367251</td>
			<td style="width:348px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;">LSR Fortessa Special Order Research Product (SORP)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>(SORP)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;">Swinging bucket centrifuge</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>75007210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Ultracentrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td>(L8-80 M)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Micro-centrifuge</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;VV-17703-15 (Fresco 17)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Swinging bucket centrifuge</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;75004503 (Megafuge 40R)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Biopsy forceps, 28 cm</td>
			<td>Storz</td>
			<td>27071zj</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td>Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Image J</td>
			<td>National Institute of Health</td>
			<td>Open source&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

isolation and characterization of neutrophil-derived microparticles for functional studies

Polymorphonuclear neutrophil-derived microparticles (PMN)-MPs) are lipid bilayer, spherical microvesicles with sizes ranging from 50&#8211;1,000 nm in diameter. MPs are a newly evolving, important part of cell-to-cell communication and signaling machinery. Because of their size and the nature of their release, until recently MP existence was overlooked. However, with improved technology and analytical methods their function in health and disease is now emerging. The protocols presented here are aimed at isolating and characterizing PMN-MPs by flow cytometry and immunoblotting. Moreover, several implementation examples are given. These protocols for MP isolation are fast, low-cost, and do not require the use of expensive kits. Furthermore, they allow for the labeling of MPs following isolation, as well as pre-labeling of source cells prior to MP release, using a membrane-specific fluorescent dye for visualization and analysis by flow cytometry. These methods, however, have several limitations including purity of PMNs and MPs and the need for sophisticated analytical instrumentation. A high-end flow cytometer is needed to reliably analyze MPs and minimize false positive reads due to noise or auto-fluorescence. The described protocols can be used to isolate and define MP biogenesis, and characterize their markers and variation in composition under different stimulating conditions. Size heterogeneity can be exploited to investigate whether the content of membrane particles versus exosomes is different, and whether they fulfill different roles in tissue homeostasis. Finally, following isolation and characterization of MPs, their function in cellular responses and various disease models (including, PMN-associated inflammatory disorders, such as Inflammatory Bowel Diseases or Acute Lung Injury) can be explored.

Representative flow cytometric analysis of MPs that were isolated from human and mouse PMNs are shown in Figure 1. The size heterogeneity of PMN-MPs can be assessed by comparison to known sized beads as shown in Figure 1A, B for human MPs. Note, no significant differences in size heterogeneity were observed between mouse and human MPs. Similarly, using flow cytometry and fluorescence labeling, expression of prote...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Isolation and Characterization of Neutrophil-derived Microparticles for Functional Studies at JoVE.com

Isolation and Characterization of Neutrophil-derived Microparticles for Functional Studies

New protocols are described here to isolate and characterize microparticles derived from human and mouse neutrophils. These protocols utilize ultracentrifugation, flow cytometry, and immunoblotting techniques to analyze microparticle content, and they can be used to study the role of microparticles derived from various cell types in cellular function.

Polymorphonuclear neutrophil-derived microparticles (PMN)-MPs) are lipid bilayer, spherical microvesicles with sizes ranging from 50&#8211;1,000 nm in ...

The overall goal of this protocol is to isolate and characterize neutrophil-derived microparticles for functional studies. This method can help answer key questions about the role of exo-cell vesicles, or microparticles, in cell-cell communication in different physiological processes including cancer, inflammation, and wound healing. The main advantages of this technique are that it is relatively quick, cost effective, and that it allows the valuation of the p`henotypic composition of microparticles, or micro-vesicles, in functional assets.Demonstrating the procedure will be Ariel Finkielsztein, a postdoctoral fellow in my laboratory, and Joseph Lee, an undergraduate in my laboratory. For density gradient separation of murine bone marrow polymorphonuclear, or PMN cells, first slowly layer three milliliters of freshly-prepared, room temperature, 1.077 grams per milliliter solution over three milliliters of freshly-prepared, room temperature, 1.119 grams per milliliter density solution in one 15 milliliter conical tube per bone marrow cell samples. Next overlay one milliliter of freshly isolated bone marrow cells in ice cold PBS onto the top density gradient layer of each tube, and separate the cells by density gradient centrifugation.At the end of the separation, carefully remove the mononuclear cell layers at the interfaces between the PBS and the upper density gradient layers in each tube without disturbing the PMN bands. Using a transfer pipette, collect the PMN layers into one new 15 milliliter tube per sample, and bring the final volume in each tube up to 15 milliliters with 0.1 micron pour-size filtered PBS. Pellet the PMNs by centrifugation, followed by a second centrifugation in two milliliters of fresh-filtered PBS per tube.Then re-suspend the pellets in one milliliter of fresh-filtered PBS for counting. After counting, centrifuge the cells again, and re-suspend the pellet in 100 microliters of 0.1 micron pour-size filtered HBSS, supplemented with the stimulant of interest per 10 million cells. Incubate for 20 to 30 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius.At the end of the stimulation, collect the cells by centrifugation and transfer the cell-free supernatants into one new, 1.5 milliter micro-centrifuge tube per sample. Centrifuge the supernatants to remove any cell debris, and transfer the cleared supernatants into new ultra-centrifuge tubes, then ultra-centrifuge the supernatants, and store the pelleted microparticles in paraffin-sealed ultra-centrifuge tubes at 80 degrees Celsius until further experimental analysis. To administer the microparticles into the mouse colon, first place a fully anesthetized mouse in the prone position, and use biopsy forceps and an endoscope equipped with a high-resolution camera to generate three to five superficial wounds along the dorsal side of the colon.Return the mouse to its cage with monitoring until full recovery. 24 hours later, use the endoscope to acquire images of the inflicted wounds under anesthesia. Then use a colonoscopy-based micro-injection system to administer an experimental volume of PMN microparticles re-suspended in 100 microliters of HBSS directly into each wound site.The size heterogeneity of the PMN microparticles can be assessed by comparing the microparticles to known-sized flow cytometry beads. As demonstrated, the expression of proteins of interest by the microparticles can also be examined by flow cytometry. In this experiment, the expression of key inflammatory and anti-inflammatory molecules by activator-stimulated PMN-derived microparticles was assessed by immunoblot.The affects of PMN microparticles on epithelial cell healing can be monitored by image acquisition of scratch-wounded epithelial monolayers at pre-determined time points in vitro, as well as after biopsy forceps wounding in vivio. Once mastered, PMN-derived microparticles can be isolated within four hours, if the technique is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember that prior to stimulation, the PMN should be kept on ice to prevent premature activation and microparticles lost.Following this procedure, flow cytometry, immunoblotting, and real-time proliferation reaction techniques can be used to define the microparticle content, under various stimulatory conditions, or from different cells of origin. This technique is useful for examining the role of microparticle contribution in the regulation of immune responses, barrier function, tissue injury and repair, as well as in cancer progression. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to isolate and label murine microparticles and to use the microparticles in a functional wound-healing asset in vivo.Do not forget that working with live animals can be hazardous, and that precautions suggest putting on the personal protective equipment and completing the appropriate safety trainings should always be undertaken before performing this procedure.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

10.1K visualizações.  Northwestern University. The overall goal of this protocol is to isolate and characterize neutrophil-derived microparticles for functional studies. This method can help answer key questions about the role of exo-cell vesicles, or microparticles, in cell-cell communication in different physiological processes including cancer, inflammation, and wound healing. The main advantages of this technique are that it is relatively quick, cost effective, and that it allows the valuation of the p`henotypic composition of micropa...