Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China Grants 31522029, 31770929 and 31371149 (to Haitao Wu), Program 973 (2014CB542203) from the State Key Development Program for Basic Research of China (to Haitao Wu), and Grant Z161100000216154 from the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Commission (to Haitao Wu). The authors thank all the members of the Haitao Wu laboratory for their encouragement and discussions. The authors are extremely grateful to Zhenwei Liu for his help with debugging the apparatus.

Animal experimental procedures followed the institutional guidelines of the Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences (Beijing, China) and the Chinese governmental regulations for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The mice (adult male, 26 ~ 30 g) were housed and kept at a constant temperature of 23 &#176;C, with water and food ad libitum, under a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle (lights on at 7:00 a.m.). All experimental procedures were performed during the light cycle.
1. Surgical Pr...

<ol>
	<li>Perlmutter, J. S., Mink, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deep+brain+stimulation.">Deep brain stimulation.</a> Annual Review of Neuroscience. 29, 229-257 (2006).</li><li>Lozano, A. M., Lipsman, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+and+regulating+dysfunctional+circuits+using+deep+brain+stimulation.">Probing and regulating dysfunctional circuits using deep brain stimulation.</a> Neuron. 77 (3), 406-424 (2013).</li><li>Kohl, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deep+brain+stimulation+for+treatment-refractory+obsessive+compulsive+disorder:+a+systematic+review.">Deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory obsessive compulsive disorder: a systematic review.</a> BMC Psychiatry. 14, 214 (2014).</li><li>Schlaepfer, T. E., Bewernick, B. H., Kayser, S., Madler, B., Coenen, V. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+effects+of+deep+brain+stimulation+for+treatment-resistant+major+depression.">Rapid effects of deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant major depression.</a> Biological Psychiatry. 73 (12), 1204-1212 (2013).</li><li>Fisher, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrical+stimulation+of+the+anterior+nucleus+of+thalamus+for+treatment+of+refractory+epilepsy.">Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy.</a> Epilepsia. 51 (5), 899-908 (2010).</li><li>Greenberg, B. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deep+brain+stimulation+of+the+ventral+internal+capsule/ventral+striatum+for+obsessive-compulsive+disorder:+worldwide+experience.">Deep brain stimulation of the ventral internal capsule/ventral striatum for obsessive-compulsive disorder: worldwide experience.</a> Molecular Psychiatry. 15 (1), 64-79 (2010).</li><li>Kalia, S. K., Sankar, T., Lozano, A. 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The authors have nothing to declare.

The HF-DBS technique has been widely used as a powerful tool for the treatment of many neurological disorders since the 1990s. So far, the landmark work of HF-DBS is for the treatment of Parkinson&#39;s disease and essential tremor, which has attracted much attention and interest both in the clinic and scientific community. There are various types of ongoing HF-DBS studies by many groups for HF-DBS&#39;s therapeutic application in certain neurological and psychiatric disorders32,<sup cl...

HF-DBS is a neurosurgical technology for electrical stimulation in the brain, which has been developed since the 1870s1. In the late 1980s, HFS was first used as a potential therapeutic intervention for Parkinson&#39;s disease and other movement disorders2. In the past few decades, HF-DBS has been more and more widely used in the treatment of brain disorders which are currently untreatable by a traditional therapeutic strategy. Particularly, due to the accuracy improvement of the HFS electrode, the highly effective outcomes, and minimal side effects, the number of brain disorders treated by HF-DBS has significantly increased over the past decades3,4,5. For example, HF-DBS has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), Alzheimer&#39;s type dementia, essential tremor, and other types of movement disorders2,6,7. In PD patients, the dopaminergic medication is reduced up to 50% during HF-DBS8. In addition to the successful treatment of movement disorders, HF-DBS has also demonstrated its powerful effects in the treatment of psychiatric diseases in the clinic, and for cognitive augmentation as well2,9,10,11. It should be noted that the research of HFS for the treatment of other psychiatric disorders are in various stages, offering much promise to patients12.
Although many studies have demonstrated that a focal HFS has both local and remote effects throughout the brain13, the neurological and molecular mechanisms of the effects remain elusive2,14. In the clinic, therapeutic HF-DBS is usually applied in a long-term manner for the treatment of Parkinson&#39;s disease and chronic pain, etc. Many opinions are raised to explain the improvement generated by an HF-DBS treatment, among which one possibility that the HFS current modulates the neuronal network activity, probably by a repetitive depolarization of the axons in the vicinity of the implanted HFS electrode. Or, HF-DBS may change the discharge rate of the output neurons and the projected targets. Also, HF-DBS may lead to long-term synaptic changes, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), which may contribute to a symptomatic improvement. So far, it is still unclear whether HFS in&#64258;uences the key molecular events that regulate cellular processes such as adult neurogenesis in vivo. Several lines of studies have demonstrated that HFS in rodents could mimic similar neural responses of clinically applied DBS15,16. To understand the underlying cellular mechanisms of HF-DBS, in this study, we first set up an in vivo HFS methodology in mice in an acute (one day) or chronic (five days) manner. Secondly, we set up an activation analysis methodology to determine the alteration of the neuronal activity and neurogenesis after an HF-DBS delivery.
Given that the neuronal production from neural stem cells is abundant during the embryonic development but continues throughout adult life, the hippocampal subgranular zone is one of the major areas where the neurogenesis occurs. The process of neurogenesis is influenced by many physiological and pathological factors. In certain epileptic cases, the hippocampal neurogenesis is dramatically decreased17,18. In addition, a single electroconvulsive therapy could significantly increase the neuronal production in the dentate gyrus19. These observations suggest that the electrophysiological activity plays a critical role in the regulation of adult neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in hippocampal neurons. Therefore, to further demonstrate the effects of HF-DBS on neuronal activity and neurogenesis, we first carry out an immunostaining assay of the immediate early gene (IEG) c-fos which is a well-known marker of short-term neuronal activity resulting from experience20. Notch1 signaling is also detected to monitor the signaling activation after the HFS delivery21,22. Moreover, we also detect the neuronal production by a BrdU labeling analysis after the HF-DBS induction in various manners, though BrdU staining can also be a marker for gliogenesis.
In the present study, two HFS methodologies are adapted to target the activation of the hippocampal DG directly and indirectly. The electrode is implanted into the DG directly or implanted into the medial perforant path (PP) which sends projections to activate the DG neurons. For the HF-DBS induction, a programmable stimulator is presented for a continuous stimulation via the fixed electrode onto the mouse head. To determine the effects of HFS on neuronal activation and neurogenesis, we detect the expression of c-fos and Notch1 by immunofluorescent staining and the number of BrdU-incorporated positive neurons in the hippocampal DG region, respectively, after the HFS treatment. Particularly, the effects of the HF-DBS on the neurogenesis in the DG are compared between an acute and a chronic stimulation manner, or between a direct and an indirect stimulation manner, respectively.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:975px;" width="975">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:255px;">Brain stereotaxic instrument</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Stoelting</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">51730D</td>
			<td style="width:307px;">Stereotactic intracranial implantation for mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:255px;">Stimulator</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">A-M systems</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Model 3800</td>
			<td>MultiStim 8-Channel programmable stimulator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:255px;">Dental driller</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Saeshin Precision Co., Ltd</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">STRONG 90</td>
			<td>For drilling and crainiotomy&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:255px;">Burr</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Meisinger</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">HM1 005#</td>
			<td>For drilling and crainiotomy&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:255px;">Digidata 1550 Digitizer</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Molecular Devices</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">AXON 1550</td>
			<td>High-resolution data acquisition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:255px;">Cryotome</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Thermo Cryotome FSE</td>
			<td>Cutting frozen sections of specimens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Confocal microscope</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">FV-1200</td>
			<td>Japan, with 20x Objective (NA 0.45)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:255px;">Mouse surgery tools</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">F.S.T.</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">14084-08,11254-20,16109-14</td>
			<td style="width:307px;">Scissors, forceps, bone cutter, holders etc.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Pentobarbital sodium</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">R&#38;D systems</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">4579</td>
			<td>20-50mg/kg for i.p. injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Penicillin G&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">P3032</td>
			<td>75,000 U for i.m. injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Carprofen</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">SML1713</td>
			<td>5-10mg/kg, for s.c. injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">4% Paraformaldehyde (PFA)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Beijing Solarbio Sci-Tech Co.&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">P1110</td>
			<td>stocking solution for tissue fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Phosphate buffer (PBS)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">10010023</td>
			<td>pH7.4, 500ml in stocking</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">Tissue-Tek O.C.T. compound</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sakura</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">4583</td>
			<td>Formulation of water-soluble glycols and resins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">anti-BrdU antibody</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Abcam</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">ab6326</td>
			<td>Dilutions:1/800</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">anti-c-fos antibody</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Abcam</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">ab209794</td>
			<td>Dilutions:1/500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:255px;">Goat Anti-Rabbit IgG (Alexa Fluor 568)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">A11036</td>
			<td>Dilutions:1/500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:255px;">Donkey Anti-Rat IgG (Alexa Fluor 488)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">712-546-150</td>
			<td>Dilutions:1/500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:255px;">Antifade mounting medium with DAPI</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">H-1200</td>
			<td>Counterstaining with DAPI</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:255px;">anti-Notch1 antibody (C-20)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Santa Cruz Biotech</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">sc-6014</td>
			<td>Dilutions:1/50</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:255px;">Donkey Anti-Goat IgG (Alexa Fluor 488)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Abcam</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">ab150073</td>
			<td>Dilutions:1/1000</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an invasive method for the activation of the mouse dentate gyrus by high-frequency stimulation

Electrical high-frequency stimulation (HFS), using implanted electrodes targeting various brain regions, has been proven as an effective treatment for various neurological and psychiatric disorders. HFS in the deep region of the brain, also named deep-brain stimulation (DBS), is becoming increasingly important in clinical trials. Recent progress in the field of high-frequency DBS (HF-DBS) surgery has begun to spread the possibility of utilizing this invasive technique to other situations, such as treatment for major depression disorder (MDD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and so on. 
Despite these expanding indications, the underlying mechanisms of the beneficial effects of HF-DBS remain enigmatic. To address this question, one approach is to use implanted electrodes that sparsely activate distributed subpopulations of neurons by HFS. It has been reported that HFS in the anterior nucleus of the thalamus could be used for the treatment of refractory epilepsy in the clinic. The underlying mechanisms might be related to the increased neurogenesis and altered neuronal activity. Therefore, we are interested in exploring the physiological alterations by the detection of neuronal activity as well as neurogenesis in the mouse dentate gyrus (DG) before and after HFS treatment. 
In this manuscript, we describe methodologies for HFS to target the activation of the DG in mice, directly or indirectly and in an acute or chronic manner. In addition, we describe a detailed protocol for the preparation of brain slices for c-fos and Notch1 immunofluorescent staining to monitor the neuronal activity and signaling activation and for bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling to determine the neurogenesis after the HF-DBS induction. The activation of the neuronal activity and neurogenesis after the HF-DBS treatment provides direct neurobiological evidence and potential therapeutic benefits. Particularly, this methodology can be modified and applied to target other interested brain regions such as the basal ganglia and subthalamic regions for specific brain disorders in the clinic.

Following the HF-DBS stimulation to the hippocampal DG subregion directly or the PP subregion to activate the DG indirectly via inserted electrodes using the stereotactic adjustments, the rodents were anesthetized with pentobarbital and sampled 3 h after the last HF-DBS stimulation for the c-fos and Notch1 immunostaining. For the BrdU staining, 36 h after the last BrdU injection after 1 day or 5 days of HF-DBS stimulation, the rodents were anesthetized with pentobarbital...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Invasive Method for the Activation of the Mouse Dentate Gyrus by High-frequency Stimulation at JoVE.com

An Invasive Method for the Activation of the Mouse Dentate Gyrus by High-frequency Stimulation

This protocol shows how to set up a reliable HFS method in mice. Neurons throughout the hippocampal dentate gyrus are electrically stimulated by HFS directly and indirectly in vivo. Neuronal activity and molecular signaling are examined by c-fos and Notch1 immunofluorescent staining, respectively; neurogenesis is quantified by bromodeoxyuridine labeling assay.

Electrical high-frequency stimulation (HFS), using implanted electrodes targeting various brain regions, has been proven as an effective treatment for ...

The overall goal of this experiment is to observe the effect of high-frequency stimulation on neuronal activity in neurogenesis. This method can help answer key questions in an aligned cellular and molecular mechanisms of high-frequency deep brain stimulation, such as the induction of neuron activity and the neurogenesis in hippocampus. The advantage of this technique is that it demonstrates the powerful effect of high-frequency TBS on neuron activity and the neurogenesis in the adult brain.Though this method can provide insight into the effects of high-frequency TBS on the mouse dentate gyrus, it can also be applied to other systems such as the basal ganglia and the subthalamic regions for the brain disorders in the clinic. To begin this procedure, place an anesthetized mouse onto the stereotactic frame. Align the ear bands with its head, and gently tighten them to support the centered head.Grasp the skin anterior to its ears and remove about one square centimeter of it over the skull. Then remove the muscle and other attachment overlying the skull with a cotton swab to expose the skull surface. Next, apply hydrogen peroxide solution to dry the skull in order to identify the sagittal and lambda suture lines.Then, identify the bregma and lambda. The bregma point will be used as the original point to set the nucleus position. After that, level the skull on the horizontal plane using these two points.Make sure that the heights of these two points are almost the same in the dorsal ventral plane. In addition, make sure that the skull is leveled in the medial lateral plane. Next, mount a homemade two channel copper micro wire electrode into the rotating electrode holder on the stereotactic surgical frame.Place the electrode directly above the bregma and set it as original site. Then, move the electrode gently to the correct position above the skull, without touching it. Use the digital display on the stereotactic surgical frame to indicate the anterior posterior, medial lateral, and dorsoventral positions.When the desired site is identified for the electrode insertion mark the position with a black marker. Afterward, use the dorsoventral stereotactic adjustments to raise the electrode holder. Then, sterilize the drill bit with 70%ethanol.Use a handheld micromanipulator assisted drill, make a burr hole precisely at the marked position. Use a sterile cotton swab to stop any bleeding during the operation. Keep drilling until dura is exposed.Use a bent needle to remove any bone scraps that are generated during the drilling, and make a pinhole on the dura without damaging the underlying soft brain tissue. To confirm that the burr hole is made properly at the desired position, lower the electrode to make sure that it inserts through the burr hole smoothly without touching any obstacle. If no resistance is detected, slowly insert the electrode to the target depth from the surface of the skull.Then, apply dental cement using a small spatula to hold the electrode in place. As the cement thickens, mold it around the inserted electrode and other bone screws to form a nice, smooth cap. Next, disengage the electrode from the electrode holder.Remove the mouse from the stereotactic frame, and return it to a warm cage. Let the mouse move freely and allow it to recover for two days in the cage. To deliver stimulation, connect the implanted electrode to a programmable stimulator via leads.Set up the software interface. Then, set the HFS parameters as six series of six trains of six pulses at 400 Hertz, and the stimulation intensity of 200 milliamps. Deliver HFS for the desired period of time as set up.For the control group, implant electrodes in the mice without delivering any stimulation. For CFAS staining, stimulate the experimental mice two times for one day. For BrdU labeling, apply appropriate stimulations to both the acute stimulation group and the chronic stimulation group.During the course of the stimulation, make sure the mouse is awake. Remember to insure the leads are not twisted. When the stimulation is done, carefully disconnect the electrode pin from the electrode holder in the connector of the recording system.For the CFAS and notch one staining, about three hours after the last HFDBS, anesthetize the mice by injecting pentobarbital to achieve a surgical plane of anesthesia. For BrdU labeling, about 12 hours after the last HFDBS stimulation, give six injects of BrdU to the control and the stimulated mice at two hour intervals. 36 hours after the last injection, deeply anesthetize the mice with pentobarbital and transcardially profuse it with 50 milliliters of cold PBS followed by 50 milliliters of cold 4%paraformaldehyde.Remove its head and make an incision on the skin to expose the skill. Using forceps, chip off the skull slightly and carefully remove the whole brain. Then, post fix the brain is 4%paraformaldehyde for an additional two days, and transfer it to 30%sucrose solution at four degrees Celsius overnight.Using a cryostat, slice the brain into 20 micron coronal sections. Transfer and mount the sections to the glass slide with a brush, and store them a minus 20 degrees Celsius. Afterward, transfer the slides into normal PBS containing no fixative.Wash the sections with PBS three to four times for five minutes each to remove any excess fixative. For the BrdU labeled group, incubate the sections in two molar HCL for 30 minutes at 37 degree Celsius, and rinse them in a 0.1 molar borate buffer. After 10 minutes, wash the sections two times in PBS for five minutes each time.Subsequently, incubate the sections in blocking solution for one hour at room temperature. Then, incubate the sections with anti-CFAS polyclonal antibody, anti-notch one antibody, or anti-BrdU antibody in a blocking solution at four degrees Celsius overnight. Was the sections three times in PBS for 10 minutes each time, then incubate them with Alexa Fluor 568 conjugated anti-rabid, Alexa Fluor 488 conjugated anti-goat, or Alexa Fluor 488 conjugated anti-rat secondary antibody for one hour at room temperature.Was the sections three times in PBS for 10 minutes each time. Subsequently, cover the immuno labeled brain sections using an antifade reagent mounting medium containing DAPI. Let the sections air dry, and store them protected from light at four degrees Celsius.Shown here is an experimental paradigm for the HFS treatment in the generation of BrdU labeled proliferating neurons in the DG.The animals were divided into an acute and a chronic group to receive different patterns of stimulations. Afterward, the animals in both groups were injected with BrdU on day six. On day eight, the animals were anesthetized and profused for the preparation of cryostat sections.Here are the images of the BrdU immunofluorescent staining post-HFDBS in the DG.A quantitative analysis of the neuronal production indicated that the acute stimulation in the DG could not enhance neurogenesis. While the chronic stimulation in the DG significantly up regulated the neurogenesis. Compared to the control group, the number of BrdU labeling cells increased significantly in the chronic group, both in the ipsilateral and contralateral hemisphere.These are the images of the BrdU immunofluorescent staining post-HFDBS in the PP sub-region. A quantitative analysis of the neuronal production indicated that either the acute or chronic stimulation in the PP could not enhance the neurogenesis significantly. The number of BrdU labeling cells was relatively stable with or without the HFS treatment.While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember to locate the electrode properly, and to deliver the stimulation successfully. After it's development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field neuroscience high-frequency stimulation enrolled in the models. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to deliver high-frequency stimulation to deep brain nucleus.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

7.5K visualizações.  Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences. The overall goal of this experiment is to observe the effect of high-frequency stimulation on neuronal activity in neurogenesis. This method can help answer key questions in an aligned cellular and molecular mechanisms of high-frequency deep brain stimulation, such as the induction of neuron activity and the neurogenesis in hippocampus. The advantage of this technique is that it demonstrates the powerful effect of high-frequency TBS on neuron activity and the neurogenesis in the adult brain.