Name: bottom-up in vitro methods to assay the ultrastructural organization, membrane reshaping, and curvature sensitivity behavior of septins
Uploaded: 2022-08-17T13:10:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Bottom-Up In Vitro Methods to Assay the Ultrastructural Organization, Membrane Reshaping, and Curvature Sensitivity Behavior of Septins at JoVE.com

We thank Patricia Bassereau and Daniel L&#233;vy for their useful advice and discussions. This work benefited from the support of the ANR (Agence Nationale de la Recherche) for funding the project &#34;SEPTIME&#34;, ANR-13-JSV8-0002-01, ANR SEPTIMORF ANR-17-CE13-0014, and the project &#34;SEPTSCORT&#34;, ANR-20-CE11-0014-01. B. Chauvin is funded by the Ecole Doctorale &#34;ED564: Physique en Ile de France&#34; and Fondation pour lea Recherche M&#233;dicale. K. Nakazawa was supported by Sorbonne Universit&#233; (AAP Emergence). G.H. Koenderink was supported by the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO/OCW) through the &#8216;BaSyC-Building a Synthetic Cell&#39;. Gravitation grant (024.003.019).We thank the Labex Cell(n)Scale (ANR-11-LABX0038) and Paris Sciences et Lettres (ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02). We thank the Cell and Tissue Imaging (PICT-IBiSA), Institut Curie, member of the French National Research Infrastructure France-BioImaging (ANR10-INBS-04).

1. Determination of membrane reshaping using giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs)
NOTE: In this section, GUVs are generated to mimic the membrane deformations possibly induced by septins in a cellular context. Indeed, in cells, septins are frequently found at sites with micrometer curvatures. GUVs have sizes ranging from a few to tens of micrometers and can be deformed. They are thus appropriate to assay any micrometer-scale septin-induced deformations. Fluorescent lipids, as well ...

<ol>
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T., Nakos, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellular+functions+of+actin-+and+microtubule-associated+septins.">Cellular functions of actin- and microtubule-associated septins.</a> Current Biology: CB. 31 (10), 651-666 (2021).</li><li>Salameh, J., Cantaloube, I., Benoit, B., Po&#252;s, C., Baillet, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cdc42+and+its+BORG2+and+BORG3+effectors+control+the+subcellular+localization+of+septins+between+actin+stress+fibers+and+microtubules.">Cdc42 and its BORG2 and BORG3 effectors control the subcellular localization of septins between actin stress fibers and microtubules.</a> Current Biology: CB. 31 (18), 4088-4103 (2021).</li><li>Ewers, H., Tada, T., Petersen, J. 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As stated above, a lipid mixture has been used that enhances PI(4,5)P2 incorporation within the lipid bilayer and thus facilitates septin-membrane interactions. Indeed, we have shown elsewhere25 that budding yeast septins interact with vesicles in a PI(4,5)P2-specific fashion. This lipid composition was adjusted empirically from screening multiple compositions and is now widely used by the authors. PI(4,5)P2 lipids have to be handled carefully. Stock solutions must...

Septins are cytoskeletal filament-forming proteins that interact with lipid membranes. Septins are ubiquitous in eukaryotes and essential to numerous cellular functions. They have been identified as the main regulators of cell division in budding yeast and mammals1,2. They are involved in membrane reshaping events, ciliogenesis3, and spermiogenesis4. Within mammalian cells, septins can also interact with actin and microtubules5,6,7 in a binder of Rho GTPases (BORG)-dependent manner8. In various tissues (neurons9, cilia3, spermatozoa10), septins have been identified as regulators of diffusion barriers for membrane-bound components11. Septins have also been shown to regulate membrane blebbing and protrusion formation12. Septins, being multi-tasking proteins, are implicated in the emergence of various prevalent diseases13. Their misregulation is associated with the emergence of cancers14 and neurodegenerative diseases15.
Depending on the organism, several septin subunits (two in Caenorhabditis elegans to 13 in humans) assemble to form complexes whose organization varies in a tissue-dependent fashion16. The basic septin building block gathers two to four subunits, present in two copies and self-assembled in a rod-like palindromic manner. In budding yeast, septins are octameric17,18. In situ, septins are often localized at sites with micrometer curvature; they are found at division constriction sites, at the base of cilia and dendrites, and at the annulus of spermatozoa19,20. At the membrane, the role of septins seems to be dual: they are implicated in reshaping the lipid bilayer and in maintaining membrane integrity21. Hence, investigating the biophysical properties of septin filament-forming proteins and/or subunits at the membrane is crucial for understanding their role. To dissect specific properties of septins in a well-controlled environment, bottom-up in vitro approaches are appropriate. So far, only a few groups have described the biophysical properties of septins in vitro20,22,23. Hence, as compared with other cytoskeletal filaments, the current knowledge on the behavior of septins in vitro remains limited.
This protocol describes how the organization of septin filaments, membrane reshaping, and curvature sensitivity can be analyzed19. To this end, a combination of optical and electron microscopy methods (fluorescence microscopy, cryo-electron microscopy [cryo-EM], and scanning electron microscopy [SEM]) has been used. The membrane reshaping of micrometer-sized giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) is visualized using fluorescence optical microscopy. The analysis of the arrangement and ultrastructure of septin filaments bound to lipid vesicles is performed using cryo-EM. Analysis of septin curvature sensitivity is carried out using SEM, by studying the behavior of septin filaments bound to solid-supported lipid bilayers deposited on wavy substrates of variable curvatures, which enables the analysis of curvature sensitivity for both positive and negative curvatures. As compared with previous analysis20,24, here, we propose to use a combination of methods to thoroughly analyze how septins can self-assemble, synergistically deform membrane, and be curvature-sensitive. This protocol is believed to be useful and adaptable to any filamentous protein that displays an affinity for membranes.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850725</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840035</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bath sonicator</td>
			<td>Elma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Elmasonic S10H</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bodipy-TR-Ceramide</td>
			<td>invitrogen, Thermo Fischer scientific</td>
			<td>11504726</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals: NaCl, Tris-HCl, sucrose, KCl, MgCl2, B-casein, chloroform, sodium cacodylate, tannic acid, ethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope</td>
			<td>nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>spinning disk or confocal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Critical point dryer</td>
			<td>Leica microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>CPD300</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water generator</td>
			<td>MilliQ</td>
			<td>F1CA38083B</td>
			<td>MilliQ integral 3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Egg L-&#945;-phosphatidylcholine</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840051</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Field Emission Gun SEM (FESEM)</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Gemini SEM500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutaraldehyde 25 %, aqueous solution</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer scientific</td>
			<td>50-262-19</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High vacuum grease, Dow corning</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IMOD software</td>
			<td>https://bio3d.colorado.edu/imod/</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>software suite for tilted series image alignment and 3D reconstruction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lacey Formvar/carbon electron microscopy grids</td>
			<td>Eloise</td>
			<td>01883-F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lipids</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-&#945;-phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metal evaporator</td>
			<td>Leica microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>EM ACE600</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NOA (Norland Optical Adhesives), NOA 71 and NOA 81</td>
			<td>Norland Products</td>
			<td>NOA71, NOA81</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Osmium tetraoxyde 4%</td>
			<td>delta microscopies</td>
			<td>19170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Osmometer</td>
			<td>L&#246;ser</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>15 M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasma cleaner</td>
			<td>Alcatel</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>pascal 2005 SD</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasma generator</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Science</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plunge freezing equipment</td>
			<td>leica microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>EMGP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transmission electron microscope</td>
			<td>Thermofischer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Tecnai G2 200 kV, LaB6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Uranyl acetate</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Science</td>
			<td>22451</td>
			<td>this product is not available for purchase any longer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wax plates, Vitrex</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

bottom-up in vitro methods to assay the ultrastructural organization, membrane reshaping, and curvature sensitivity behavior of septins

Membrane remodeling occurs constantly at the plasma membrane and within cellular organelles. To fully dissect the role of the environment (ionic conditions, protein and lipid compositions, membrane curvature) and the different partners associated with specific membrane reshaping processes, we undertake in vitro bottom-up approaches. In recent years, there has been keen interest in revealing the role of septin proteins associated with major diseases. Septins are essential and ubiquitous cytoskeletal proteins that interact with the plasma membrane. They are implicated in cell division, cell motility, neuro-morphogenesis, and spermiogenesis, among other functions. It is, therefore, important to understand how septins interact and organize at membranes to subsequently induce membrane deformations and how they can be sensitive to specific membrane curvatures. This article aims to decipher the interplay between the ultra-structure of septins at a molecular level and the membrane remodeling occurring at a micron scale. To this end, budding yeast, and mammalian septin complexes were recombinantly expressed and purified. A combination of in vitro assays was then used to analyze the self-assembly of septins at the membrane. Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs), giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs), and wavy substrates were used to study the interplay between septin self-assembly, membrane reshaping, and membrane curvature.

GUVs deformations 
Typical confocal fluorescence images of GUVs reshaped after being incubated with septins are displayed in Figure 3, in conditions where septins polymerize. Bare GUVs (Figure 3A) were perfectly spherical. Upon incubation with more than 50 nM budding yeast septin filaments, the vesicles appeared deformed. Up to a concentration of 100 nM budding yeast septin octamers, the vesicles appeared facetted, and the deformations rema...

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Bottom-Up In Vitro Methods to Assay the Ultrastructural Organization, Membrane Reshaping, and Curvature Sensitivity Behavior of Septins

Septins are cytoskeletal proteins. They interact with lipid membranes and can sense but also generate membrane curvature at the micron scale. We describe in this protocol bottom-up in vitro methodologies for analyzing membrane deformations, curvature-sensitive septin binding, and septin filament ultrastructure.

Bottom-Up In Vitro Methods to Assay the Ultrastructural Organization, Membrane Reshaping, and Curvature Sensitivity Behavior of Septins

Membrane remodeling occurs constantly at the plasma membrane and within cellular organelles. To fully dissect the role of the environment (ionic ...

Using this protocol, we visualized the organization of cytoskeletal filamentous proteins on pattern substrates displaying various curvatures. We can test the curvature sensitivity. The resolution of scanning electron microscope images is high enough so that nanometer scale organizations are visualized.The methods we use for fixation are mild enough to preserve the intra-structural organization of the protein. This remains in the scope of fundamental research to understand the behavior of cytoskeletal filaments. Begin by designing a wavy Norland Optical Adhesive, or NOA replica, in a clean room environment from wavy polydimethylsiloxane undulated patterns of 250 nanometer amplitude and two micrometer lateral periodicity.To do so, deposit five microliters of liquid NOA on a circular glass cover slip of one centimeter diameter and then place the PDMS template on the drop. Treat the assembly with UV light at 320 nanometers for five minutes to photopolymerize the liquid NOA into a thin polymer film. Once done, gently peel off the PDMS template from the cover slip with the freshly polymerized NOA.Treat the NOA film using an air plasma cleaner for five minutes to make the surface hydrophilic. Prepare a solution of small unilamellar vesicles, or SUVs, as described in the manuscript, and obtain the SUVs by resuspending a dried lipid film in the observation buffer under the sonication in a bath sonicator for five to 10 minutes until the solution is transparent. Later, insert the cover slips supporting the NOA patterns within the wells of cell culture boxes and incubate the freshly glow discharged NOA patterns with 100 microliters of one milligram per milliliter SUV solution for 30 minutes at room temperature to generate a supported lipid bilayer.To remove the unfused SUV, rinse the sides thoroughly six times with the septin low salt buffer without letting the sample completely dry between two washes. Dilute the octomeric septin stock solution in a septin low salt buffer to final concentrations, ranging from 10 to 100 nanomolar and volumes of one milliliter. Then, incubate the protein solution on the slides for one hour at room temperature.Wash the NOA slides containing fused supported lipid bilayers and incubate protein with septin low salt buffer. Replace septin low salt buffer with 2%glutaraldehyde fixative solution in 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate buffer, prewarmed at 37 degrees Celsius, and let the reaction proceed for 15 minutes, and wash the fixed sample thrice, five minutes each with 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate. After washing, incubate the sample in the fixative solution of osmium tetroxide, then the filtered tannic acid, and finally the filtered uranyl acetate for 10 minutes each.Wash the sample thrice in distilled water after every solution. Incubate the sample serially in ethanol solutions starting from 50%to 100%for two to three minutes each. Transfer the glass slides inside the critical point dryer prefilled with ethanol and follow the manufacturer's instructions for drying.As dried samples are highly hydroscopic, coat them immediately by attaching the cover slip to the stubs. Then add a strip of silver paint to the upper face of the cover slip without creating paint deglomerates. Make sure that the connection with the stub is satisfactory.When the sample evaporates completely, use an apparatus equipped with a plasma magnetron sputtering head and a rotary planetary stage, and follow standard protocols provided by the manufacturer. Perform pre-sputtering at 120 milliamperes for 60 seconds to remove the oxide layer at the surface. Then deposit 1.5 nanometers of tungsten with a film thickness monitor at 90 milliamperes and a working distance of 50 milliliters.Later, store the samples under a vacuum to protect them from the ambient air until and throughout the SEM analyses. To achieve high solution imaging by detecting the secondary electrons with the inland detector, set the accelerating voltage to three kilovolts and the beam current to 20 micrometer aperture. For observations, use resolutions ranging from 21.25 nanometers per pixel to 1.224 nanometers per pixel.Use a resolution of 5.58 nanometers per pixel for data analysis. Set the working distance between one to two millimeters for high resolution observation and around three millimeters if an increased depth of field is required. Adjust the scan speed and line integration continuously to ensure a constant signal to noise ratio with an acquisition time of around 30 to 45 seconds per image.The representative analysis illustrates the effect of the material deposited on the septin filaments on wavy PDMS patterns with 1.5 nanometers of platinum and 1.5 nanometers of tungsten. It was observed that bare giant unilamellar vesicles, or GUVs, were perfectly spherical. After the septin-induced deformation, the vesicles appeared faceted and the deformations remained static, and thus did not fluctuate.At higher concentrations of the septins, periodic deformations in the vesicles were observed. Self-assembly of the septin filaments bound to large unilamellar vesicles, or LUVs, was examined with a cryo electron microscopy image and 3D reconstruction was obtained from a tilted series. The curvature-dependent arrangement of the septin filaments was visualized by scanning electron microscopy.At low magnification, a wavy pattern with the periodicity of negative and positive curvatures was visible. The ultra-structural organization of the septin filaments was viewed at higher magnification. The NOA have to be gently peeled off to prevent degradation.After imaging, some image analysis can be performed to quantify the ultra-structure features visualized by SCM, such as filament spacing, and orientation of the filament. The present method has been applied to septins, but it could also be used for other cytoskeletal proteins or proteins that organize as long filaments and thus be sensitive to curvature.

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Biology

Testing Visual Sensitivity to the Speed and Direction of Motion in Lizards

Testing visual sensitivity in any species provides basic information regarding behaviour, evolution, and ecology. However, testing specific features of the visual system provide more empirical evidence for functional applications. Investigation into the sensory system provides information about the sensory capacity, learning and memory ability, and establishes known baseline behaviour in which to gauge deviations (Burghardt, 1977). However, unlike mammalian or avian systems, testing for learning and memory in a reptile species is difficult. Furthermore, using an operant paradigm as a psychophysical measure of sensory ability is likewise as difficult. Historically, reptilian species have responded poorly to conditioning trials because of issues related to motivation, physiology, metabolism, and basic biological characteristics. Here, I demonstrate an operant paradigm used a novel model lizard species, the Jacky dragon (Amphibolurus muricatus) and describe how to test peripheral sensitivity to salient speed and motion characteristics. This method uses an innovative approach to assessing learning and sensory capacity in lizards. I employ the use of random-dot kinematograms (RDKs) to measure sensitivity to speed, and manipulate the level of signal strength by changing the proportion of dots moving in a coherent direction. RDKs do not represent a biologically meaningful stimulus, engages the visual system, and is a classic psychophysical tool used to measure sensitivity in humans and other animals. Here, RDKs are displayed to lizards using three video playback systems. Lizards are to select the direction (left or right) in which they perceive dots to be moving. Selection of the appropriate direction is reinforced by biologically important prey stimuli, simulated by computer-animated invertebrates.

Testing visual sensitivity in lizards using an operant conditioning paradigm that employs video playback of random-dot kinematograms and computer-generated invertebrates.

Testing visual sensitivity in any species provides basic information regarding behaviour, evolution, and ecology. However, testing specific features of ...

Protein Membrane Overlay Assay: A Protocol to Test Interaction Between Soluble and Insoluble Proteins in vitro

Validating interactions between different proteins is vital for investigation of their biological functions on the molecular level. There are several methods, both in vitro and in vivo, to evaluate protein binding, and at least two methods that complement the shortcomings of each other should be conducted to obtain reliable insights. 
For an in vivo assay, the bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assay represents the most popular and least invasive approach that enables to detect protein-protein interaction within living cells, as well as identify the intracellular localization of the interacting proteins 1,2. In this assay, non-fluorescent N- and C-terminal halves of GFP or its variants are fused to tested proteins, and when the two fusion proteins are brought together due to the tested proteins&#x2019; interactions, the fluorescent signal is reconstituted3-6. Because its signal is readily detectable by epifluorescence or confocal microscopy, BiFC has emerged as a powerful tool of choice among cell biologists for studying about protein-protein interactions in living cells 3. This assay, however, can sometimes produce false positive results. For example, the fluorescent signal can be reconstituted by two GFP fragments arranged as far as 7 nm from each other due to close packing in a small subcellular compartment, rather that due to specific interactions7.
Due to these limitations, the results obtained from live cell imaging technologies should be confirmed by an independent approach based on a different principle for detecting protein interactions. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) or glutathione transferase (GST) pull-down assays represent such alternative methods that are commonly used to analyze protein-protein interactions in vitro. However, iIn these assays, however, the tested proteins must be readily soluble in the buffer that supportsused for the binding reaction. Therefore, specific interactions involving an insoluble protein cannot be assessed by these techniques.
 Here, we illustrate the protocol for the protein membrane overlay binding assay, which circumvents this difficulty. In this technique, interaction between soluble and insoluble proteins can be reliably tested because one of the proteins is immobilized on a membrane matrix. This method, in combination with in vivo experiments, such as BiFC, provides a reliable approach to investigate and characterize interactions faithfully between soluble and insoluble proteins. In this article, binding between Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) movement protein (MP), which exerts multiple functions during viral cell-to-cell transport8-14, and a recently identified plant cellular interactor, tobacco ankyrin repeat-containing protein (ANK) 15, is demonstrated using this technique.

Protein Membrane Overlay Assay: A Protocol to Test Interaction Between Soluble and Insoluble Proteins in vitro

Testing protein-protein interaction is indispensable for dissection of protein functionality. Here, we introduce an in vitro protein-protein binding assay to probe a membrane-immobilized protein with a soluble protein. This assay provides a reliable method to test interaction between an insoluble protein and a protein in solution.

Validating interactions between different proteins is vital for investigation of their biological functions on the molecular level.  There are several ...

Bottom-up and Shotgun Proteomics to Identify a Comprehensive Cochlear Proteome

Proteomics is a commonly used approach that can provide insights into complex biological systems. The cochlear sensory epithelium contains receptors that transduce the mechanical energy of sound into an electro-chemical energy processed by the peripheral and central nervous systems. Several proteomic techniques have been developed to study the cochlear inner ear, such as two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE), antibody microarray, and mass spectrometry (MS). MS is the most comprehensive and versatile tool in proteomics and in conjunction with separation methods can provide an in-depth proteome of biological samples. Separation methods combined with MS has the ability to enrich protein samples, detect low molecular weight and hydrophobic proteins, and identify low abundant proteins by reducing the proteome dynamic range. Different digestion strategies can be applied to whole lysate or to fractionated protein lysate to enhance peptide and protein sequence coverage. Utilization of different separation techniques, including strong cation exchange (SCX), reversed-phase (RP), and gel-eluted liquid fraction entrapment electrophoresis (GELFrEE) can be applied to reduce sample complexity prior to MS analysis for protein identification.

Proteome analysis of the cochlear sensory epithelium can be challenging due to its small size and because membrane proteins are difficult to isolate and identify. Both membrane and soluble proteins can be identified by combining multiple preparative methods and separation techniques along with high-resolution mass spectrometry.

Proteomics is a commonly used approach that can provide insights into complex biological systems. The cochlear sensory epithelium contains receptors that ...

Who is Who? Non-invasive Methods to Individually Sex and Mark Altricial Chicks

Many experiments require early determination of offspring's sex as well as early marking of newborns for individual recognition. According to animal welfare guidelines, non-invasive techniques should be preferred whenever applicable. In our group, we work on different species of song birds in the lab and in the field, and we successfully apply non-invasive methods to sex and individually mark chicks. This paper presents a comprehensive non-invasive tool-box. Sexing birds prior to the expression of secondary sexual traits requires the collection of DNA-bearing material for PCR. We established a quick and easy method to sex birds of any age (post hatching) by extracting DNA from buccal swabs. Results can be obtained within 3 hours. For individual marking chick's down feathers are trimmed in specific patterns allowing fast identification within the hatching order. This set of methods is easily applicable in a standard equipped lab and especially suitable for working in the field as no special equipment is required for sampling and storage. Handling of chicks is minimized and marking and sexing techniques are non-invasive thereby supporting the RRR-principle of animal welfare guidelines.

This protocol provides a convenient set of methods, which enables extremely fast, easy, non-invasive, reliable and low-cost, molecular sex determination of birds and their non-invasive, quick, safe and easily recognizable marking shortly after hatching. Only limited handling of chicks is required. This convenient toolbox of methods complies entirely with the RRR-guidelines.

Many experiments require early determination of offspring's sex as well as early marking of newborns for individual recognition. According to animal ...

In vitro Methylation Assay to Study Protein Arginine Methylation

Protein arginine methylation is one of the most abundant post-translational modifications in the nucleus. Protein arginine methylation can be identified and/or determined via proteomic approaches, and/or immunoblotting with methyl-arginine specific antibodies. However, these techniques sometimes can be misleading and often provide false positive results. Most importantly, these techniques cannot provide direct evidence in support of the PRMT substrate specificity. In vitro methylation assays, on the other hand, are useful biochemical assays, which are sensitive, and consistently reveal if the identified proteins are indeed PRMT substrates. A typical in vitro methylation assay includes purified, active PRMTs, purified substrate and a radioisotope labeled methyl donor (S-adenosyl-L-[methyl-3H] methionine). Here we describe a step-by-step protocol to isolate catalytically active PRMT1, a ubiquitously expressed PRMT family member. The methyl transferase activities of the purified PRMT1 were later tested on Ras-GTPase activating protein binding protein 1 (G3BP1), a known PRMT substrate, in the presence of S-adenosyl-L-[methyl-3H] methionine as the methyl donor. This protocol can be employed not only for establishing the methylation status of novel physiological PRMT1 substrates, but also for understanding the basic mechanism of protein arginine methylation.

In vitro Methylation Assay to Study Protein Arginine Methylation

Protein arginine methylation, catalyzed by a class of enzymes viz., protein arginine methyl transferases (PRMTs), is the process of enzymatic addition of methyl group(s) to arginines within proteins. The in vitro methylation assay is the most dependable tool for assessing the methylation status of known or novel PRMT substrates.

Protein arginine methylation is one of the most abundant post-translational modifications in the nucleus. Protein arginine methylation can be identified ...

Microperfusion Technique to Investigate Regulation of Microvessel Permeability in Rat Mesentery

Experiments to measure the permeability properties of individually perfused microvessels provide a bridge between investigation of molecular and cellular mechanisms regulating vascular permeability in cultured endothelial cell monolayers and the functional exchange properties of whole microvascular beds. A method to cannulate and perfuse venular microvessels of rat mesentery and measure the hydraulic conductivity of the microvessel wall is described. The main equipment needed includes an intravital microscope with a large modified stage that supports micromanipulators to position three different microtools: (1) a beveled glass micropipette to cannulate and perfuse the microvessel; (2) a glass micro-occluder to transiently block perfusion and enable measurement of transvascular water flow movement at a measured hydrostatic pressure, and (3) a blunt glass rod to stabilize the mesenteric tissue at the site of cannulation. The modified Landis micro-occlusion technique uses red cells suspended in the artificial perfusate as markers of transvascular fluid movement, and also enables repeated measurements of these flows as experimental conditions are changed and hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressure difference across the microvessels are carefully controlled. Measurements of hydraulic conductivity first using a control perfusate, then after re-cannulation of the same microvessel with the test perfusates enable paired comparisons of the microvessel response under these well-controlled conditions. Attempts to extend the method to microvessels in the mesentery of mice with genetic modifications expected to modify vascular permeability were severely limited because of the absence of long straight and unbranched microvessels in the mouse mesentery, but the recent availability of the rats with similar genetic modifications using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology is expected to open new areas of investigation where the methods described herein can be applied.

The modified Landis technique enables paired measurement of the hydraulic conductivity of individual microvessels in the mesentery of normal and genetically modified rats under control and test conditions using microperfusion techniques. It provides a convenient method to evaluate mechanisms that regulate microvessel permeability and transvascular exchange under physiological conditions.

Experiments to measure the permeability properties of individually perfused microvessels provide a bridge between investigation of molecular and cellular ...

In Vitro Assay to Measure Phosphatidylethanolamine Methyltransferase Activity

Phosphatidylethanolamine methyltransferases are biosynthetic enzymes that catalyze the transfer of one or more methyl group(s) from S-adenosyl-L-methionine onto phosphatidylethanolamine, monomethyl-phosphatidylethanolamine, or dimethyl-phosphatidylethanolamine to give either monomethyl-phosphatidylethanolamine, dimethyl-phosphatidylethanolamine or phosphatidylcholine. These enzymes are ubiquitous in animal cells, fungi, and are also found in approximately 10% of bacteria. They fulfill various important functions in cell physiology beyond their direct role in lipid metabolism such as in insulin resistance, diabetes, atherosclerosis, cell growth, or virulence. The present manuscript reports on a simple cell-free enzymatic assay that measures the transfer of tritiated methyl group(s) from S-[Methyl-3H]adenosyl-L-methionine onto phosphatidylethanolamine using whole cell extracts as an enzyme source. The resulting methylated forms of phosphatidylethanolamine are hydrophobic and thus, can be separated from water soluble S-[Methyl-3H]adenosyl-L-methionine by organic extraction. This assay can potentially be applied to any other cell types and used to test inhibitors/drugs specific to a phosphatidylethanolamine methyltransferase of interest without the need to purify the enzyme.

In Vitro Assay to Measure Phosphatidylethanolamine Methyltransferase Activity

The present report describes an in vitro enzymatic assay to measure phosphatidylethanolamine methyltransferase activity using Leishmania cell extracts. This assay is based on the transfer of a radioactive methyl group from S-[Methyl-3H]adenosyl-L-methionine onto endogenous phosphatidylethanolamine.

Phosphatidylethanolamine methyltransferases are biosynthetic enzymes that catalyze the transfer of one or more methyl group(s) from ...

Methods to Discover Alternative Promoter Usage and Transcriptional Regulation of Murine Bcrp1

Gene expression in different tissues is often controlled by alternative promoters that result in the synthesis of mRNA with unique &#8212; usually untranslated &#8212; first exons. Bcrp1 (Abcg2), the murine orthologue of the ABC transporter Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (BCRP, ABCG2), has at least four alternative promoters that are designated by the corresponding four alternative first exons produced: E1U, E1A, E1B, and E1C. Herein, in-silico protocols are presented to predict alternative promoter usage for Bcrp1. Furthermore, reporter assay methods are described to produce reporter constructs for alternative promoters and to determine the functionality of putative promoters upstream of the alternative first exons that are identified.

With the murine ABC transporter Bcrp1 (Abcg2) as an example, in-silico protocols are presented to detect alternative promoter usage in genes expressed in mouse tissues, and to evaluate the functionality of the alternative promoters identified using reporter assays.

Gene expression in different tissues is often controlled by alternative promoters that result in the synthesis of mRNA with unique &#8212; usually ...

Complete Workflow for Analysis of Histone Post-translational Modifications Using Bottom-up Mass Spectrometry: From Histone Extraction to Data Analysis

Nucleosomes are the smallest structural unit of chromatin, composed of 147 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins. Histone function is mediated by extensive post-translational modification by a myriad of nuclear proteins. These modifications are critical for nuclear integrity as they regulate chromatin structure and recruit enzymes involved in gene regulation, DNA repair and chromosome condensation. Even though a large part of the scientific community adopts antibody-based techniques to characterize histone PTM abundance, these approaches are low throughput and biased against hypermodified proteins, as the epitope might be obstructed by nearby modifications. This protocol describes the use of nano liquid chromatography (nLC) and mass spectrometry (MS) for accurate quantification of histone modifications. This method is designed to characterize a large variety of histone PTMs and the relative abundance of several histone variants within single analyses. In this protocol, histones are derivatized with propionic anhydride followed by digestion with trypsin to generate peptides of 5 - 20 aa in length. After digestion, the newly exposed N-termini of the histone peptides are derivatized to improve chromatographic retention during nLC-MS. This method allows for the relative quantification of histone PTMs spanning four orders of magnitude.

This protocol outlines a fully integrated workflow for characterizing histone post-translational modifications using mass spectrometry (MS). The workflow includes histone purification from cell cultures or tissues, histone derivatization and digestion, MS analysis using nano-flow liquid chromatography and instructions for data analysis. The protocol is designed for completion within 2 - 3 days.

Nucleosomes are the smallest structural unit of chromatin, composed of 147 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins. Histone ...

In Vitro SUMOylation Assay to Study SUMO E3 Ligase Activity

Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) modification is an important post-translational modification (PTM) that mediates signal transduction primarily through modulating protein-protein interactions. Similar to ubiquitin modification, SUMOylation is directed by a sequential enzyme cascade including E1-activating enzyme (SAE1/SAE2), E2-conjugation enzyme (Ubc9), and E3-ligase (i.e., PIAS family, RanBP2, and Pc2). However, different from ubiquitination, an E3 ligase is non-essential for the reaction but does provide precision and efficacy for SUMO conjugation. Proteins modified by SUMOylation can be identified by in vivo assay via immunoprecipitation with substrate-specific antibodies and immunoblotting with SUMO-specific antibodies. However, the demonstration of protein SUMO E3 ligase activity requires in vitro reconstitution of SUMOylation assays using purified enzymes, substrate, and SUMO proteins. Since in the in vitro reactions, usually SAE1/SAE2 and Ubc9, alone are sufficient for SUMO conjugation, enhancement of SUMOylation by a putative E3 ligase is not always easy to detect. Here, we describe a modified in vitro SUMOylation protocol that consistently identifies SUMO modification using an in vitro reconstituted system. A step-by-step protocol to purify catalytically active K-bZIP, a viral SUMO-2/3 E3 ligase, is also presented. The SUMOylation activities of the purified K-bZIP are shown on p53, a well-known target of SUMO. This protocol can not only be employed for elucidating novel SUMO E3 ligases, but also for revealing their SUMO paralog specificity.

In Vitro SUMOylation Assay to Study SUMO E3 Ligase Activity

Unlike ubiquitin ligases, few E3 SUMO ligases have been identified. This modified in vitro SUMOylation protocol is able to identify novel SUMO E3 ligases by an in vitro reconstitution assay.

Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) modification is an important post-translational modification (PTM) that mediates signal transduction primarily ...