Name: visualizing membrane ruffle formation using scanning electron microscopy
Uploaded: 2021-05-27T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualizing Membrane Ruffle Formation using Scanning Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

The authors thank Libby Perry (Augusta University) for her help with the SEM sample preparation. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health [R01HL139562 (G.C.) and K99HL146954 (B.S.)] and American Heart Association [17POST33661254 (B.S.)].

NOTE: The following is a general protocol used to quantify membrane ruffle formation in RAW 264.7 macrophages using SEM microscopy. Optimization may be required for different cell types.
1. Cell line and cell culture
<ol>
	<li>Grow RAW 264.7 macrophages in Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% (vol/vol) heat-inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS), 100 IU/mL of penicillin and 100 &#181;g/mL streptomycin in a humidified incubator at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2. R...

<ol>
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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=M-CSF-induced+macropinocytosis+increases+solute+endocytosis+but+not+receptor-mediated+endocytosis+in+mouse+macrophages.">M-CSF-induced macropinocytosis increases solute endocytosis but not receptor-mediated endocytosis in mouse macrophages.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 102, 867-880 (1992).</li><li>Yoshida, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+signaling+during+macropinocytosis+in+response+to+M-CSF+and+PMA+in+macrophages.">Differential signaling during macropinocytosis in response to M-CSF and PMA in macrophages.</a> Frontiers in Physiology. 6, 8 (2015).</li><li>Ghoshal, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nox2-Mediated+PI3K+and+Cofilin+Activation+Confers+Alternate+Redox+Control+of+Macrophage+Pinocytosis.">Nox2-Mediated PI3K and Cofilin Activation Confers Alternate Redox Control of Macrophage Pinocytosis.</a> Antioxidant and Redox Signal. 26 (16), 902-916 (2017).</li><li>Bryant, D. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EGF+induces+macropinocytosis+and+SNX1-modulated+recycling+of+E-cadherin.">EGF induces macropinocytosis and SNX1-modulated recycling of E-cadherin.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 120, 1818-1828 (2007).</li><li>West, M. A., Bretscher, M. S., Watts, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+endocytotic+pathways+in+epidermal+growth+factor-stimulated+human+carcinoma+A431+cells.">Distinct endocytotic pathways in epidermal growth factor-stimulated human carcinoma A431 cells.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 109 (6), 2731-2739 (1989).</li><li>Hagiwara, M., Nakase, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidermal+growth+factor+induced+macropinocytosis+directs+branch+formation+of+lung+epithelial+cells.">Epidermal growth factor induced macropinocytosis directs branch formation of lung epithelial cells.</a> Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 507 (1-4), 297-303 (2018).</li><li>Commisso, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+of+protein+is+an+amino+acid+supply+route+in+Ras-transformed+cells.">Macropinocytosis of protein is an amino acid supply route in Ras-transformed cells.</a> Nature. 497 (7451), 633-637 (2013).</li><li>Bosedasgupta, S., Pieters, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammatory+stimuli+reprogram+macrophage+phagocytosis+to+macropinocytosis+for+the+rapid+elimination+of+pathogens.">Inflammatory stimuli reprogram macrophage phagocytosis to macropinocytosis for the rapid elimination of pathogens.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 10 (1), 1003879 (2014).</li><li>Liu, Z., Roche, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+in+phagocytes:+Regulation+of+MHC+class-II-restricted+antigen+presentation+in+dendritic+cells.">Macropinocytosis in phagocytes: Regulation of MHC class-II-restricted antigen presentation in dendritic cells.</a> Frontiers in Physiology. 6, 1 (2015).</li><li>Zeineddine, R., Yerbury, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+macropinocytosis+in+the+propagation+of+protein+aggregation+associated+with+neurodegenerative+diseases.">The role of macropinocytosis in the propagation of protein aggregation associated with neurodegenerative diseases.</a> Frontiers in Physiology. 6, 277 (2015).</li><li>Yerbury, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+aggregates+stimulate+macropinocytosis+facilitating+their+propagation.">Protein aggregates stimulate macropinocytosis facilitating their propagation.</a> Prion. 10 (2), 119-126 (2016).</li><li>Jayashankar, V., Edinger, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+confers+resistance+to+therapies+targeting+cancer+anabolism.">Macropinocytosis confers resistance to therapies targeting cancer anabolism.</a> Nature Communication. 11 (1), 1121 (2020).</li><li>Kanlaya, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macropinocytosis+is+the+major+mechanism+for+endocytosis+of+calcium+oxalate+crystals+into+renal+tubular+cells.">Macropinocytosis is the major mechanism for endocytosis of calcium oxalate crystals into renal tubular cells.</a> Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 67 (3), 1171-1179 (2013).</li><li>Csanyi, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CD47+and+Nox1+mediate+dynamic+fluid-phase+macropinocytosis+of+native+LDL.">CD47 and Nox1 mediate dynamic fluid-phase macropinocytosis of native LDL.</a> Antioxidants and Redox Signaling. 26 (16), 886-901 (2017).</li><li>Francis, C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ruffles+induced+by+Salmonella+and+other+stimuli+direct+macropinocytosis+of+bacteria.">Ruffles induced by Salmonella and other stimuli direct macropinocytosis of bacteria.</a> Nature. 364 (6438), 639-642 (1993).</li><li>Mercer, J., Helenius, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Virus+entry+by+macropinocytosis.">Virus entry by macropinocytosis.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 11 (5), 510-520 (2009).</li><li>Liu, X., Ghosh, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+nanoparticle+delivery+by+oncogenic+KRAS-mediated+macropinocytosis.">Intracellular nanoparticle delivery by oncogenic KRAS-mediated macropinocytosis.</a> International Journal of Nanomedicine. 14, 6589-6600 (2019).</li><li>Desai, A. S., Hunter, M. R., Kapustin, A. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+macropinocytosis+for+intracellular+delivery+of+therapeutic+nucleic+acids+to+tumour+cells.">Using macropinocytosis for intracellular delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to tumour cells.</a> Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 374 (1765), 20180156 (2019).</li><li>Lin, H. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+novel+macropinocytosis+inhibitors+using+a+rational+screen+of+Food+and+Drug+Administration-approved+drugs.">Identification of novel macropinocytosis inhibitors using a rational screen of Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs.</a> British Journal of Pharmacology. 175 (18), 3640-3655 (2018).</li><li>Singla, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PKC&#948;-Mediated+Nox2+Activation+Promotes+Fluid-Phase+Pinocytosis+of+Antigens+by+Immature+Dendritic+Cells.">PKC&#948;-Mediated Nox2 Activation Promotes Fluid-Phase Pinocytosis of Antigens by Immature Dendritic Cells.</a> Frontiers in Immunology. 9, 537 (2018).</li><li>Ivanov, A. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmacological+inhibition+of+endocytic+pathways:+is+it+specific+enough+to+be+useful.">Pharmacological inhibition of endocytic pathways: is it specific enough to be useful.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 440, 15-33 (2008).</li><li>Araki, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+3-methyladenine+on+the+fusion+process+of+macropinosomes+in+EGF-stimulated+A431+cells.">Effect of 3-methyladenine on the fusion process of macropinosomes in EGF-stimulated A431 cells.</a> Cell Structure and Function. 31 (2), 145-157 (2006).</li><li>Koivusalo, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amiloride+inhibits+macropinocytosis+by+lowering+submembranous+pH+and+preventing+Rac1+and+Cdc42+signaling.">Amiloride inhibits macropinocytosis by lowering submembranous pH and preventing Rac1 and Cdc42 signaling.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 188 (4), 547-563 (2010).</li><li>Fischer, E. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scanning+electron+microscopy.">Scanning electron microscopy.</a> Current Protocols in Microbiology. , (2012).</li><li>Yoshida, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dorsal+ruffles+enhance+activation+of+Akt+by+growth+factors.">Dorsal ruffles enhance activation of Akt by growth factors.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 131 (22), (2018).</li><li>Nakase, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Active+macropinocytosis+induction+by+stimulation+of+epidermal+growth+factor+receptor+and+oncogenic+Ras+expression+potentiates+cellular+uptake+efficacy+of+exosomes.">Active macropinocytosis induction by stimulation of epidermal growth factor receptor and oncogenic Ras expression potentiates cellular uptake efficacy of exosomes.</a> Science Reports. 5, 10300 (2015).</li><li>Gold, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+clathrin+independent+macropinocytosis-like+entry+mechanism+used+by+bluetongue+virus-1+during+infection+of+BHK+cells.">A clathrin independent macropinocytosis-like entry mechanism used by bluetongue virus-1 during infection of BHK cells.</a> PLoS One. 5 (6), 11360 (2010).</li><li>Mishra, R., Bhowmick, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+of+Macropinocytosis+in+Prostate+Fibroblasts.">Visualization of Macropinocytosis in Prostate Fibroblasts.</a> Bio- Protocols. 9 (10), (2019).</li><li>Gordon, R. 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The present SEM imaging protocol provides a tool to visualize and quantify membrane ruffle formation, circular protrusions, and macropinocytic cups on the cell surface in vitro. Although the current protocol focuses on macrophages, studies have shown that membrane ruffle formation also occurs on various other cell types including dendritic cells, fibroblasts, neurons, and cancer cells11,12,14,<sup class='xref...

Macropinocytosis is an endocytic process responsible for internalizing a large amount of extracellular fluid and its content via the formation of dynamic and actin-driven plasma membrane protrusions called membrane ruffles1. Many of these membrane ruffles form cups that close and fuse back onto the cell and separate from the plasma membrane as large, heterogeneous intracellular endosomes also known as macropinosomes1. Although macropinocytosis is induced by growth factors such as macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) in a wide range of cell types, an additional unique, calcium-dependent process known as constitutive macropinocytosis has been also observed in innate immune cells2,3,4,5,6,7,8.
The ability of cells to internalize extracellular material via macropinocytosis has been shown to play an important role in a variety of physiological processes ranging from nutrient uptake to pathogen capture and antigen presentation9,10,11. However, because this process is non-selective and inducible, it has also been implicated in a number of pathological conditions. Indeed, previous studies suggested that macropinocytosis plays an important role in Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, cancer, nephrolithiasis and atherosclerosis12,13,14,15,16. Moreover, certain bacteria and viruses have shown to utilize macropinocytosis to gain entry into host cells and induce infection17,18. Interestingly, stimulation of macropinocytosis can be also exploited for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents in various disease conditions19,20.
Previous studies have explored macropinocytosis by quantifying internalized fluorescently-tagged fluid-phase markers in the absence and presence of pharmacological agents that inhibit macropinocytosis using flow cytometry and confocal imaging21,22. Currently available pharmacological tools that inhibit macropinocytosis are limited to and comprise of 1) actin polymerization inhibitors (cytochalasin D and latrunculins), 2) PI3K blockers (LY-290042 and wortmannin) and 3) inhibitors of sodium hydrogen exchangers (NHE) (amiloride and EIPA)5,14,15,23,24,25. However, because these inhibitors have endocytosis independent effects, it is difficult to selectively determine the contribution of macropinocytosis to solute uptake and disease pathogenesis especially in vivo21.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces ultra-high-resolution images of cells using a focused beam of electrons26. In macropinocytosis research, SEM imaging is regarded as the gold standard technique to visualize topographical and morphological characteristics of the plasma membrane, quantify membrane ruffle formation, and investigate their progression towards macropinosome internalization. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy combined with the quantification of solute uptake, in the presence and absence of macropinocytosis blockers, provides a reliable strategy to examine macropinocytotic solute internalization in vitro. This paper provides a detailed protocol on how to prepare cells for SEM, visualize the cell surface, quantify ruffle formation, and examine their progress towards cup closure and macropinosome internalization.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.5% Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15400-054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2% Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>16320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4% Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>281692</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl)-Amiloride</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>A3085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Accuri C6 Flow Cytometer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbon Adhesive Tabs</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>77825-09</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl Sulfoxide</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-950-CQC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium</td>
			<td>Cytiva Life Sciences</td>
			<td>SH30022.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon 24-well Clear Flat Bottom TC-treated Multiwell Cell Culture Plate</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>353047</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Gemini Bio</td>
			<td>900-108</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FitC-dextran</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D1823</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FM 4-64</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>T13320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HERAcell 150i CO2 incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>51026282</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hummer Model 6.2 Sputter Coater</td>
			<td>Anatech USA</td>
			<td>58565</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">JSM-IT500HR scanning electron microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Cover Glass</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-545-82</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pen Strep</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>524400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RAW 264.7 macrophage</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>ATCC TIB-71</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant Human M-CSF</td>
			<td>Peprotech</td>
			<td>300-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Samdri-790 Critical Point Dryer</td>
			<td>Tousimis Research Corporation</td>
			<td>8778B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SEM Aluminum Specimen Mounts</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>75220</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Cacodylate</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>12300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Texas red-dextra</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D1864</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypan Blue Solution</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15250061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss LSM 780 confocal microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualizing membrane ruffle formation using scanning electron microscopy

Membrane ruffling is the formation of motile plasma membrane protrusions containing a meshwork of newly polymerized actin filaments. Membrane ruffles may form spontaneously or in response to growth factors, inflammatory cytokines, and phorbol esters. Some of the membrane protrusions may reorganize into circular membrane ruffles that fuse at their distal margins and form cups that close and separate into the cytoplasm as large, heterogeneous vacuoles called macropinosomes. During the process, ruffles trap extracellular fluid and solutes that internalize within macropinosomes. High-resolution scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a commonly used imaging technique to visualize and quantify membrane ruffle formation, circular protrusions, and closed macropinocytic cups on the cell surface. The following protocol describes the cell culture conditions, stimulation of the membrane ruffle formation in vitro, and how to fix, dehydrate, and prepare cells for imaging using SEM. Quantification of membrane ruffling, data normalization, and stimulators and inhibitors of membrane ruffle formation are also described. This method can help answer key questions about the role of macropinocytosis in physiological and pathological processes, investigate new targets that regulate membrane ruffle formation, and identify yet uncharacterized physiological stimulators as well as novel pharmacological inhibitors of macropinocytosis.

Here, we describe the results from the presented technique. Representative SEM images shown in Figure 1 demonstrate membrane ruffle formation in RAW 264.7 macrophages following treatment with PMA and M-CSF. Images were first captured at a magnification of 3,500x for quantification purposes and then at higher levels of magnification (8,500x to 16,000x) to show the plasma membrane at greater details. Pretreatment of macrophages with the macropinocytosis inhibitor EIPA attenuated membrane ruffl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualizing Membrane Ruffle Formation using Scanning Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

Visualizing Membrane Ruffle Formation using Scanning Electron Microscopy

Macropinocytosis is a highly conserved endocytic process initiated by the formation of F-actin-rich sheet-like membrane projections, also known as membrane ruffles. Increased rate of macropinocytotic solute internalization has been implicated in various pathological conditions. This protocol presents a method to quantify membrane ruffle formation in vitro using scanning electron microscopy.

Membrane ruffling is the formation of motile plasma membrane protrusions containing a meshwork of newly polymerized actin filaments. Membrane ruffles may ...

The present SEM imaging protocol provides a tool to visualize and quantify membrane ruffle formation, circular protrusions, and macropinocytic cups on the cell surface in vitro. SEM provides high-resolution images of the cell surface that can be used to to visualize macropinocytic membrane activities. This technique can be used to discover new signaling pathways regulating macropinocytosis, and identify novel stimulators and inhibitors of micropinocytosis.Begin by placing sterile glass cover slips in wells of a 24-well plate using autoclaved forceps. Then seed raw 264.7 macrophages onto the cover slips at a density of 10 to the sixth cells per milliliter and incubate the plate overnight in a humidified incubator at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide. On the following day, replace the media in each well with 500 microliters of fresh complete media, then pretreat the macrophages for 30 minutes with a vehicle control such as DMSO or a macropinocytosis inhibitor such as EIPA.Next, to promote membrane ruffling, treat the cells for 30 minutes with macropinocytosis stimulators, such as a one-micromolar PMA solution or 100 nanograms per milliliter of macrophage colony stimulating factor. To fix the cells for scanning electron microscopy, aspirate the media from the wells and wash the cover slips twice with ice-cold PBS, then incubate the cover slips in a fixative for 30 minutes at room temperature followed by overnight incubation at four degrees Celsius. On the following day, without disturbing the cell monolayer, gently wash and then incubate the cover slips in 500 microliters of 0.1-motor sodium cacodylate for 15 minutes.Following two washes with 500 microliters of distilled water, wash the cover slips twice in 500 microliters of a graded ethanol series with a 10-minute incubation in each wash. To perform critical point drying, place the cover slips in a critical point dryer and cover them with 100%ethanol. Then, press the power button and open the carbon dioxide tank.Press the cool button for approximately 30 seconds until the temperature decreases to zero degrees Celsius. Then, press the fill button until a bubble appears in the chamber window. Next, press the purge button until the smell of ethanol from the purge exhaust disappears.Then, press the cool button again until the temperature decreases to zero degrees Celsius. Re-press the full and purge buttons to turn them off. Then, close the carbon dioxide tank.Re-press the cool bottom to turn it off, then press the heat button. Set the temperature to 42 degrees Celsius and pressure to 1, 200 pounds per square inch. Once the pressure and temperature stabilize, press the bleed button to allow the pressure to decrease slowly.Once the chamber pressure reaches 150 pounds per square inch, press the vent bottom and wait until the pressure decreases to zero pounds per square inch. Turn off the critical point dryer and remove the cover slips. Next, using carbon adhesive taps, mount the cover slips on the aluminum specimen mounts for scanning electron microscopy, then proceed to sputter coating using gold or palladium in a sputter coater.Turn on the power button of the sputter coater. After the vacuum reaches 30 millitorrs, flush the chamber to remove humidity and air by turning off the gas switch and turning the fine gas valve counterclockwise. Once the vacuum increases to 200 millitorrs, turn off the gas switch and wait until the vacuum reaches 30 millitorrs.Then, flush the chamber again to remove humidity and air as demonstrated. After flushing the chamber three times, push the timer bottom and adjust the voltage knob until the gauge reads 10 milliamperes. Then, remove the coated cover slips from the chamber.To visualize and quantify the membrane ruffles, insert the sample cover slips into the chamber of a scanning electron microscope, close the door, and press the evac button. Open the microscope operating software and set the accelerating voltage to 15 kilovolts and the working distance to 10 millimeters. Press the Coordinates button and move around the controller until the cells appear in the center of the observation screen.Set the magnification to 3, 500 X and image the sample by clicking the Photo button. Shown here are representative scanning electron microscopy images, demonstrating membrane ruffle formation in raw 264.7 macrophages following treatment with PMA and macrophage colony stimulating factor. Pretreatment of macrophages with the macropinocytosis inhibitor EIPA attenuates membrane ruffle formation.During ruffle formation, the plasma membrane undergoes distinct morphological stages, including a sheet-like membrane protrusion, a C-shaped membrane ruffle, and a macropinocytic cup. Membrane ruffle formation following PMA and macrophage colony stimulating factor treatments can be quantified using scanning electron microscopy, whereas macropinosome formation can be confirmed by alternative imaging techniques, such as confocal microscopy using Texas red dextran and FM4-64. The blue arrows indicate membrane ruffling, while the yellow and green arrows point to the micropinosomes.Finally, macropinocytosis can be confirmed and quantified through flow cytometry using a fluorescent fluid phase marker such as FITC or Texas red dextran. In addition to SEM, live cell imaging and flow cytometry analysis of fluorescently-labeled dextran internalization can also be performed to investigate and quantify macropinocytosis.

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Oral Biofilm Analysis of Palatal Expanders by Fluorescence In-Situ Hybridization and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy

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Preparation and In Vitro Characterization of Magnetized miR-modified Endothelial Cells

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Immunofluorescence Labelling of Human and Murine Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Paraffin-Embedded Tissue

Neutrophil granulocytes, also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) due to their lobulated nucleus, are the most abundant type of leukocytes. They ...

Visualizing and Quantifying Pharmaceutical Compounds within Skin using Coherent Raman Scattering Imaging

Cutaneous pharmacokinetics (cPK) after topical formulation application has been a research area of particular interest for regulatory and drug development ...