JoVE Logo
Authors
Contact Us

Sign In

A subscription to JoVE is required to view this content. Sign in or start your free trial.

In This Article

  • Summary
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Protocol
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Disclosures
  • Acknowledgements
  • Materials
  • References
  • Reprints and Permissions

Summary

This article presents experimental procedures for assessing memory impairments in pilocarpine-induced epileptic mice. This protocol can be used to study the pathophysiologic mechanisms of epilepsy-associated cognitive decline, which is one of the most common comorbidities in epilepsy.

Abstract

Cognitive impairment is one of the most common comorbidities in temporal lobe epilepsy. To recapitulate epilepsy-associated cognitive decline in an animal model of epilepsy, we generated pilocarpine-treated chronic epileptic mice. We present a protocol for three different behavioral tests using these epileptic mice: novel object location (NL), novel object recognition (NO), and pattern separation (PS) tests to evaluate learning and memory for places, objects, and contexts, respectively. We explain how to set the behavioral apparatus and provide experimental procedures for the NL, NO, and PS tests following an open field test that measures the animals’ basal locomotor activities. We also describe the technical advantages of the NL, NO, and PS tests with respect to other behavioral tests for assessing memory function in epileptic mice. Finally, we discuss possible causes and solutions for epileptic mice failing to make 30 s of good contact with the objects during the familiarization sessions, which is a critical step for successful memory tests. Thus, this protocol provides detailed information about how to assess epilepsy-associated memory impairments using mice. The NL, NO, and PS tests are simple, efficient assays that are appropriate for the evaluation of different kinds of memory in epileptic mice.

Introduction

Epilepsy is a chronic disorder characterized by spontaneous recurrent seizures1,2,3. Because repetitive seizures can cause structural and functional abnormalities in the brain1,2,3, abnormal seizure activity can contribute to cognitive dysfunction, which is one of the most common epilepsy-associated comorbidities4,5,6. Contrary to the chronic seizure events, which are transient and momentary, cognitive impairments can persist throughout epileptic patients’ lives, deteriorating their quality of life. Therefore, it is important to understand the pathophysiologic mechanisms of epilepsy-associated cognitive decline.

Various experimental animal models of epilepsy have been used to demonstrate the learning and memory deficits associated with chronic epilepsy7,8,9,10,11,12. For instance, the Morris water maze, contextual fear conditioning, hole-board, novel object location (NL), and novel object recognition (NO) tests have frequently been used to assess memory dysfunction in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Because the hippocampus is one of the primary regions in which TLE shows pathology, behavioral tests that can evaluate hippocampus-dependent memory function are often preferentially selected. However, given that seizures can induce aberrant hippocampal neurogenesis and contribute to epilepsy-associated cognitive decline10, behavioral paradigms for testing dentate newborn neuronal function (i.e., spatial pattern separation, PS)8,13 can also provide valuable information about the cellular mechanisms of memory impairments in epilepsy.

In this article, we demonstrate a battery of memory tests, NL, NO, and PS, for epileptic mice. The tests are simple and easily accessible and do not require a sophisticated system.

Protocol

All experimental procedures were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Catholic University of Korea and were carried out in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NIH Publications No. 80-23).

1. Novel object location test (NL)

  1. Prepare epileptic C57BL/6 or transgenic mice 4–6 weeks after pilocarpine injection.
    NOTE: Acute seizures were induced by intraperitoneal (IP) pilocarpine injection, following the protocol detailed in our previous report14.
  2. Transfer the epileptic mice from the breeding room to the behavior room one day before the behavioral tests begin. Allow the mice to habituate for at least 12 h overnight.
  3. In the behavior room, separate individual mice into new cages for single housing. Write the information for each animal on the cage card and keep the animals in the same cages throughout the behavioral testing. Multiple cages can be simultaneously transferred using a cart.
  4. On the next day, begin 3 days of habituation sessions (H1–H3) in the early morning. Acclimate the animals to the low light in their home cages for at least 30 min.
  5. Prepare an open field box with outside dimensions of 44 x 44 x 31 cm and inside dimensions of 43 x 43 x 30.5 cm. On day 1 of the habituation (H1), place an illuminometer in the center of the open field box and adjust the illuminance to 60 lux.
  6. Spray the floor and walls of the open field box with 70% ethanol and wipe down with a clean paper towel to remove possible olfactory cues. Then wait for at least 1 min until the residual alcohol has dried completely.
  7. Evaluate the locomotor activity of each mouse by performing an open field test.
    1. To record and track the behavior of each experimental mouse, use animal behavior video tracking software (see Table of Materials).
    2. Once the video tracking software is opened, calibrate the size of the open field box. Then, set the zone for tracking. Set 3 s of latency and 15 min of acquisition time to avoid tracking an experimenter’s hands. Insert the information about each experimental mouse (group, gender, age, etc.).
    3. Then, gently place an experimental mouse in the open field box facing the wall. Do this by placing it on the cage lid to minimize handling-associated stress and anxiety. Then, release the mouse near the wall of the open field box that is the farthest from where the objects will be during the familiarization session (step 1.9.3.).
      NOTE: Once the mouse is in the open field box, the mouse tracking software will automatically detect it and start recording. For optimal tracking of the exploration, the camera can be placed directly above the open field box.
    4. After 15 min of recording, return the animal to its home cage by placing it on the cage lid. Clean the open field box with 70% ethanol spray and wipe down with a clean paper towel between trials. Restore the bright light and measure the animal’s total distance moved using the video tracking software according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
      1. Open the video tracking software and video clips. Then, click Analysis to calculate the total distance moved based on the calibration of the open field box size.
  8. On day 2 and day 3, perform the habituation sessions (H2, H3) by repeating steps 1.3 to 1.7.
  9. On day 4, perform the familiarization session (F1).
    1. In the dim light, place each mouse in the empty open field for 3 min. After that brief rehabituation, return the animal to its home cage.
    2. During the habituation, thoroughly clean the objects with 70% ethanol and wipe them down with a paper towel. Wait for at least 1 min for the residual alcohol to dry completely.
    3. Place two identical objects (rubber dolls, object A) in the open field arena 5 cm away from the adjoining walls. Fix the objects with double-sided tape. Introduce the experimental mouse into the open field box, facing the wall farthest from the objects.
    4. Allow free exploration for 20 min and manually measure the time spent exploring both objects using two stopwatches. Once the mouse reaches the minimum exploration time (30 s) for both objects, stop the F1 session and transfer the animal to its home cage. If the mouse fails to explore the objects for 30 s within 20 min, remove the mouse from the open field box and exclude it from further sessions.
    5. After the animal is removed from the open field box, thoroughly clean the floor and walls of the box with 70% ethanol spray and wipe them down with a paper towel.
      NOTE: Measure the time when the mouse touches the objects with its whiskers, snout, or front paws. Do not quantify as exploratory time any behaviors in which the animal’s snout does not point toward the object, such as sitting on the object, passing by the object, or resting with its hind end pointing at the object.
  10. On day 5, perform the NL testing session.
    1. Transfer the mouse from its home cage to the open field area for rehabituation for 3 min. Then return the animal to its home cage.
    2. During the habituation, thoroughly clean the objects with 70% ethanol and wipe them down with a paper towel. Wait for at least 1 min for the residual alcohol to dry completely.
    3. Move one object (rubber doll, object A) to the diagonal position, 5 cm away from the adjoining walls. Fix the object with double-sided tape. Transfer the experimental mouse on its cage lid to the open field area and place it facing the wall of the open field box.
      NOTE: Counterbalance the location of the object moved to reduce any potential innate preference for a certain direction. For example, change the location of the preferred object from the familiarization session for half of the experimental animals, and for the rest of the animals, move the less preferred object from the familiarization session.
    4. Allow 10 min of free exploration and record with a video tracking system. Measure the time spent exploring each object using two stopwatches and calculate the discrimination ratio as
      figure-protocol-6386
      NOTE: Measure the time when the mouse touches the objects with its whiskers, snout, or front paws. Do not quantify as exploratory time any behaviors in which the animal’s snout does not point toward the object, such as sitting on the object, passing by the object, or resting with its hind end pointing at the object.
    5. Grab the tail of the experimental mouse and place it on its cage lid for transfer to its home cage. For 3 days (days 6–8), let the mouse rest with free access to food and water.
    6. Once the animal is removed from the open field box, thoroughly clean the floor and walls of the box with 70% ethanol spray and wipe down with a paper towel.

2. Novel object recognition test (NO)

  1. On day 9, perform a 15 min habituation session by repeating steps 1.2–1.7.
  2. On day 10, perform the familiarization session (F1).
    1. In dim light, place the mouse in the empty open field for 3 min. After rehabituating the mouse to the open field area, temporarily return it to its home cage.
    2. During the habituation, thoroughly clean the objects with 70% ethanol and wipe down with a paper towel. Wait at least 1 min for the residual alcohol to dry completely.
    3. Place two identical objects (50 mL plastic tubes filled with 40 mL of water, object B) in the open field 5 cm away from the adjoining walls. Fix the objects with double-sided tape. Introduce the experimental mouse into the open field box facing the wall farthest from the objects.
    4. As the animal is exposed to the two different objects (50 mL plastic tube filled with 40 mL of water, object B; glass Coplin jar, object C) in the NO test, counterbalance the object during the F1 session. For example, present two identical objects (glass Coplin jars, object C) for half of the animals in the group.
    5. Allow free exploration for 20 min and manually measure the time spent exploring both objects using two stopwatches. Once the mouse reaches the minimum exploration time (30 s) for both objects, stop the F1 session and transfer the animal to its home cage. If the mouse fails to explore the objects for 30 s within 20 min, remove it from the open field box and exclude it from further sessions.
    6. After the animal is removed from the open field box, thoroughly clean the floor and walls of the box with 70% ethanol spray and wipe them down with a paper towel.
      NOTE: Measure the time when the mouse touches the objects with its whiskers, snout, or front paws. Do not quantify as exploratory time any behaviors in which the animal’s snout does not point toward the object, such as sitting on the object, passing by the object, or resting with its hind end pointing at the object.
  3. On the next day (day 11), perform the NO testing session.
    1. Transfer the mouse from its home cage to the open field for rehabituation for 3 min, and then return the animal to its home cage.
    2. During the habituation, thoroughly clean the objects with 70% ethanol and wipe down with a paper towel. Wait for at least 1 min for the residual alcohol to dry completely.
    3. Replace one object (50 mL plastic tube filled with 40 mL of water, object B) with another object (glass Coplin jar, object C) 5 cm away from the adjoining walls. Fix the objects with double-sided tape. Transfer the experimental mouse on the cage lid to the open field, and place it facing the wall. Counterbalance the objects presented together during the NO test. For example, replace one glass Coplin jar (object C) with a 50 mL plastic tube filled with 40 mL of water (object B) for the mice exposed to the two glass Coplin jars (object C) during the familiarization session.
      NOTE: Counterbalancing the location of the object replaced can be also performed to reduce the potential innate preference for a certain direction. For example, for each cohort of the animals exposed to the set of two objects (object B or object C), change the preferred object in the familiarization session for half of the experimental animals, and for the rest of the animals, replace the object less preferred in the familiarization session.
    4. Allow 10 min of free exploration and record it using a video tracking system. Measure the time spent exploring each object using two stopwatches and calculate the discrimination ratio.
      NOTE: Measure the time when the mouse touches the objects with its whiskers, snout, or front paws. Do not quantify as exploratory time any behaviors in which the animal’s snout does not point toward the object, such as sitting on the object, passing by the object, or resting with its hind end pointing at the object.
    5. Grab the tail of the experimental mouse and place it on the cage lid for transfer to its home cage. For 3 days (days 12–14), let the mouse rest with free access to food and water.
    6. Once the animal is removed from the open field box, thoroughly clean the floor and walls of the open field box with 70% ethanol spray and wipe down with a paper towel.

3. Pattern separation test (PS)

  1. On day 15, perform the first familiarization session (F1) for the PS test.
    1. Transfer the mouse from its home cage to the open field area for rehabituation for 3 min, and then return it to its home cage.
    2. During the habituation, thoroughly clean the objects and the gridded floor plate with 70% ethanol and wipe down with a paper towel. Wait for at least 1 min for the residual alcohol to dry completely.
    3. Place the floor plate (42.5 x 42.5 x 0.5 cm) with the wide grid (5.5 x 5.5 cm) in the open field box and place two identical objects (plastic T-flasks filled with 50 mL of water, object D) in the open field 5 cm away from the adjoining walls. Fix the objects with double-sided tape. Introduce the experimental mouse into the open field box facing the wall farthest from the objects.
    4. As the animal is exposed to two different objects (plastic T-flask filled with 50 mL of water, object D; glass bottle, object E) in the PS test, counterbalance the object during the F1 and F2 sessions. For example, present two identical objects (glass bottles, object E) on the wide grid floor for half of the animals in the group.
    5. Allow free exploration for 20 min, and manually measure the time spent exploring both objects using two stopwatches. Once the mouse reaches the minimum exploration time total (30 s) for both objects, stop the F1 session and transfer the animal to its home cage. If the mouse fails to explore the objects for 30 s within 20 min, remove it from the open field box and exclude it from further sessions.
      NOTE: Measure the time when the mouse touches the objects with its whiskers, snout, or front paws. Do not quantify as exploratory time any behaviors in which the animal’s snout does not point toward the object, such as sitting on the object, passing by the object, or resting with its hind end pointing at the object.
    6. After completion of the first familiarization session (F1), thoroughly clean the objects and the floor plate with 70% ethanol spray and remove them from the open field box.
  2. On the next day (day 16), perform the second familiarization session (F2) for the PS test.
    1. Transfer the mouse from its home cage to the open field area for rehabituation for 3 min, and then return the animal to its home cage.
    2. During the habituation, thoroughly clean the objects and gridded floor plate with 70% ethanol and wipe down with a paper towel. Wait for at least 1 min for the residual alcohol to dry completely.
    3. Place the floor plate (42.5 x 42.5 x 0.5 cm) with the narrow grid (2.75 x 2.75 cm) in the open field box and place two identical objects (glass bottles, object E) in the open field 5 cm away from the adjoining walls. Fix the objects with double-sided tape. Introduce the experimental mouse into the open field box facing the wall farthest from the objects.
    4. For counterbalancing, present two identical objects (plastic T-flasks filled with 50 mL of water, object D) on the narrow grid floor.
    5. Allow free exploration for 20 min and manually measure the time spent exploring both objects using two stopwatches. Once the mouse reaches the minimum exploration time total (30 s) for both objects, stop the F2 session and transfer the animal to its home cage. If the mouse fails to explore the objects for 30 s within 20 min, remove it from the open field box and exclude it from further sessions.
      NOTE: Measure the time when the mouse touches the objects with its whiskers, snout, or front paws. Do not quantify as exploratory time any behaviors in which the animal’s snout does not point toward the object, such as sitting on the object, passing by the object, or resting with its hind end pointing at the object.
    6. After completion of the second familiarization session (F2), thoroughly clean the objects and floor plate with 70% ethanol spray and remove them from the open field box.
  3. On the next day (day 17), perform the PS testing session.
    1. Transfer the mouse from its home cage to the open field area for rehabituation for 3 min, and then return it to its home cage.
    2. During the habituation, thoroughly clean the objects and gridded floor plate with 70% ethanol and wipe down with a paper towel. Wait for at least 1 min for the residual alcohol to dry completely.
    3. Place the floor plate with the narrow grid (2.75 x 2.75 cm) in the open field box and place two different objects (plastic T-flask filled with 50 mL of water, object D; glass bottle, object E) on the floor plate 5 cm away from the adjoining walls. Fix the objects with double-sided tape. Transfer the experimental mouse on the cage lid to the open field area and place it facing the wall.
    4. Counterbalance the objects presented together during the PS test. For example, place each object (object D, object E) on the narrow grid floor to make the object E a novel object in this context. Counterbalancing the location of object D or object E (a novel object on the narrow floor pattern) can be also performed to reduce the potential for an innate preference for a certain direction. For example, replace the preferred object from the second familiarization session for half of the experimental animals, and for the rest of the animals, replace the less preferred object from the second familiarization session.
    5. Allow 10 min of free exploration and record using a video tracking system. Measure the time spent exploring each object using two stopwatches and calculate the discrimination ratio.
      NOTE: Measure the time when the mouse touches the objects with its whiskers, snout, or front paws. Do not quantify as exploratory time any behaviors in which the animal’s snout does not point toward the object, such as sitting on the object, passing by the object, or resting with its hind end pointing at the object.
    6. Grab the tail of the experimental mouse and place it on the cage lid for transfer to its home cage.

4. Cresyl violet staining

  1. After completing all the behavioral tests, anesthetize the animal by injecting a cocktail (4:0.5) of ketamine (50 mg/mL) and xylazine (23.3 mg/mL) dissolved in saline at a dose of 110 mL/kg body weight (IP; 1 mL syringe; 26 G needle). Check for the depth of anesthesia by the lack of a response to a toe pinch.
  2. Once the animal is deeply anesthetized, perform transcardial perfusion with 4% paraformaldehyde to fix the brain15.
  3. After the transcardial perfusion is finished, decapitate the animal with a pair of scissors15. Then, remove the skull using a pair of iris scissors to expose the brain. After the brain is isolated, postfix it in 4% paraformaldehyde overnight, followed by cryoprotection in 30% sucrose in 0.01 M phosphate-buffered saline.
  4. Make coronal sections (30 μm) from the snap-frozen brain using a cryostat.
  5. Mount the brain tissues on slides and perform a series of hydration steps from 100% ethanol to tap water by washing for 3 min sequentially in 100%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70% ethanol.
  6. Incubate the tissue slides in 0.1% cresyl violet solution for 15 min.
  7. Remove excessive stain by immersing the tissue slides in 95% ethanol/0.1% glacial acetic acid, and then dehydrate the tissues with solutions of 100% ethanol, 50% ethanol/50% xylene, and 100% xylene.
  8. Coverslip the tissue slides using a commercially available xylene mounting medium.

Results

A general experimental schedule and setup for evaluating cognitive function are shown in Figure 1. Six weeks after the introduction of pilocarpine-induced acute seizures, mice were subjected to the NL, NO, and PS tests in that order separated by 3 day rest periods between tests (Figure 1A). For the NL test, two identical objects were placed in the open field during the familiarization session (F1), and on the next day, one object was moved to a new location. In ...

Discussion

This work describes experimental procedures for evaluating cognitive function in mice with chronic epilepsy. Many different behavioral test paradigms are used to assess learning and memory functions in mice18. The Morris water maze, radial arm maze, Y-maze, contextual fear conditioning, and object-based tests are the most frequently used behavioral tests and provide reliable results. Among them, the NL, NO, and PS tests are efficient, simple methods for evaluating learning and memory in epileptic ...

Disclosures

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Jae-Min Lee for his technical support. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grants funded by the Korean government (NRF-2019R1A2C1003958, NRF-2019K2A9A2A08000167).

Materials

NameCompanyCatalog NumberComments
1 ml syringeSung-shimUse with the 26 or 30 gauge needle
70% EthanolDuksanUN1170Spray to clean the box and objects
black curtainFor avoiding unnecessary visual cues
Cresyl violetSigmaC5042For Cresyl violet staining
cryotomeLeicaE21040041For tissue sectioning
double-sided sticky tapeFor the firm placement of the objects
DPX mounting mediumSigma06522
ethanol seriesDuksanUN1170Make 100%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70% ethanol solutions
floor plate with narrow grid patternsLeehyo-bioBehavioral experiment equipment, plate size: 42.5 x 42.5 x 0.5 cm, grid size: 2.75 x 2.75 cm
floor plate with wide grid patternsLeehyo-bioBehavioral experiment equipment, plate size: 42.5 x 42.5 x 0.5 cm, grid size: 5.5 x 5.5 cm
illuminometerTES Electrical Electronic Corp.1334AFor the measurement of the room lighting (60 Lux)
Intensive care unitThermocare#W-1
ketamine hydrochlorideYuhan7003Use to anesthetize the mouse for transcardial perfusion
LED lampLungoP13A-0422-WW-04Lighting for the behavioral test room
objectsRubber doll, 50 ml plastic tube, glass Coplin jar, plastic T-flask, glass bottle
open field boxLeehyo-bioBehavioral experiment equipment, size: 44 x 44 x 31 cm
paper towelYuhan-Kimberly47201Use to dry open field box and objects
paraformaldehydeMerck Millipore104005Make 4% solution
pilocarpine hydrochlorideSigmaP6503
rulerUse to locate the objects in the open field box
scopolamine methyl nitrateSigmaS2250Make 10X stock
Smart system 3.0PanlabVideo tracking system
stopwatchJunsoJS-307For the measurement of explorative activities of mice
sucroseSigmaS9378For cryoprotection of tissue sections
terbutaline hemisulfate saltSigmaT2528Make 10X stock
video camera (CCD camera)VisionVCE56HQ-12Place the camera directly overhead of the open field box
xylazine (Rompun)Bayer koreaKR10381Use to anesthetize the mouse for transcardial perfusion
xyleneDuksanUN1307For Cresyl violet staining

References

  1. Chang, B. S., Lowenstein, D. H. Mechanisms of disease - Epilepsy. New England Journal of Medicine. 349 (13), 1257-1266 (2003).
  2. Scharfman, H. E. The neurobiology of epilepsy. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Report. 7 (4), 348-354 (2007).
  3. Rakhade, S. N., Jensen, F. E. Epileptogenesis in the immature brain: emerging mechanisms. Nature Reviews in Neurology. 5 (7), 380-391 (2009).
  4. Breuer, L. E., et al. Cognitive deterioration in adult epilepsy: Does accelerated cognitive ageing exist. Neuroscience and Biobehavior Reviews. 64, 1-11 (2016).
  5. Leeman-Markowski, B. A., Schachter, S. C. Treatment of Cognitive Deficits in Epilepsy. Neurology Clinics. 34 (1), 183-204 (2016).
  6. Helmstaedter, C., Elger, C. E. Chronic temporal lobe epilepsy: a neurodevelopmental or progressively dementing disease. Brain. 132, 2822-2830 (2009).
  7. Groticke, I., Hoffmann, K., Loscher, W. Behavioral alterations in the pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy in mice. Experimental Neurology. 207 (2), 329-349 (2007).
  8. Long, Q., et al. Intranasal MSC-derived A1-exosomes ease inflammation, and prevent abnormal neurogenesis and memory dysfunction after status epilepticus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science U. S. A. 114 (17), 3536-3545 (2017).
  9. Lima, I. V. A., et al. Postictal alterations induced by intrahippocampal injection of pilocarpine in C57BL/6 mice. Epilepsy & Behavior. 64, 83-89 (2016).
  10. Cho, K. O., et al. Aberrant hippocampal neurogenesis contributes to epilepsy and associated cognitive decline. Nature Communication. 6, 6606 (2015).
  11. Zhou, Q., et al. Adenosine A1 Receptors Play an Important Protective Role Against Cognitive Impairment and Long-Term Potentiation Inhibition in a Pentylenetetrazol Mouse Model of Epilepsy. Molecular Neurobiology. 55 (4), 3316-3327 (2018).
  12. Jiang, Y., et al. Ketogenic diet attenuates spatial and item memory impairment in pentylenetetrazol-kindled rats. Brain Research. 1646, 451-458 (2016).
  13. Zhuo, J. M., et al. Young adult born neurons enhance hippocampal dependent performance via influences on bilateral networks. Elife. 5, 22429 (2016).
  14. Kim, J. E., Cho, K. O. The Pilocarpine Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and EEG Monitoring Using Radiotelemetry System in Mice. Journal of Visualized Experiments. (132), e56831 (2018).
  15. Gage, G. J., Kipke, D. R., Shain, W. Whole animal perfusion fixation for rodents. Journal of Visualized Experiments. (65), e3564 (2012).
  16. Muller, C. J., Groticke, I., Bankstahl, M., Loscher, W. Behavioral and cognitive alterations, spontaneous seizures, and neuropathology developing after a pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in C57BL/6 mice. Experimental Neurology. 219 (1), 284-297 (2009).
  17. Brandt, C., Gastens, A. M., Sun, M., Hausknecht, M., Loscher, W. Treatment with valproate after status epilepticus: effect on neuronal damage, epileptogenesis, and behavioral alterations in rats. Neuropharmacology. 51 (4), 789-804 (2006).
  18. Wolf, A., Bauer, B., Abner, E. L., Ashkenazy-Frolinger, T., Hartz, A. M. A Comprehensive Behavioral Test Battery to Assess Learning and Memory in 129S6/Tg2576 Mice. PLoS One. 11 (1), 0147733 (2016).
  19. Lueptow, L. M. Novel Object Recognition Test for the Investigation of Learning and Memory in Mice. Journal of Visualized Experiments. (126), e55718 (2017).
  20. Antunes, M., Biala, G. The novel object recognition memory: neurobiology, test procedure, and its modifications. Cognitive Processing. 13 (2), 93-110 (2012).
  21. van Goethem, N. P., van Hagen, B. T. J., Prickaerts, J. Assessing spatial pattern separation in rodents using the object pattern separation task. Nature Protocols. 13 (8), 1763-1792 (2018).
  22. Leger, M., et al. Object recognition test in mice. Nature Protocols. 8 (12), 2531-2537 (2013).
  23. Moscovitch, M., Cabeza, R., Winocur, G., Nadel, L. Episodic Memory and Beyond: The Hippocampus and Neocortex in Transformation. Annual Reviews in Psychology. 67, 105-134 (2016).
  24. Eichenbaum, H. A cortical-hippocampal system for declarative memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 1 (1), 41-50 (2000).
  25. Brown, M. W., Aggleton, J. P. Recognition memory: What are the roles of the perirhinal cortex and hippocampus. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2 (1), 51-61 (2001).
  26. Winters, B. D., Forwood, S. E., Cowell, R. A., Saksida, L. M., Bussey, T. J. Double dissociation between the effects of peri-postrhinal cortex and hippocampal lesions on tests of object recognition and spatial memory: Heterogeneity of function within the temporal lobe. Journal of Neuroscience. 24 (26), 5901-5908 (2004).
  27. Winters, B. D., Bussey, T. J. Transient inactivation of perirhinal cortex disrupts encoding, retrieval, and consolidation of object recognition memory. Journal of Neuroscience. 25 (1), 52-61 (2005).
  28. Bermudez-Rattoni, F., Okuda, S., Roozendaal, B., McGaugh, J. L. Insular cortex is involved in consolidation of object recognition memory. Learning & Memory. 12 (5), 447-449 (2005).
  29. Akirav, I., Maroun, M. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex is obligatory for consolidation and reconsolidation of object recognition memory. Cerebral Cortex. 16 (12), 1759-1765 (2006).
  30. Cohen, S. J., Stackman, R. W. Assessing rodent hippocampal involvement in the novel object recognition task. A review. Behavior Brain Research. 285, 105-117 (2015).
  31. Cohen, S. J., et al. The Rodent Hippocampus Is Essential for Nonspatial Object Memory. Current Biology. 23 (17), 1685-1690 (2013).
  32. Broadbent, N. J., Gaskin, S., Squire, L. R., Clark, R. E. Object recognition memory and the rodent hippocampus. Learning and Memory. 17 (1), 5-11 (2010).
  33. Tuscher, J. J., Taxier, L. R., Fortress, A. M., Frick, K. M. Chemogenetic inactivation of the dorsal hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex, individually and concurrently, impairs object recognition and spatial memory consolidation in female mice. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 156, 103-116 (2018).
  34. de Lima, M. N., Luft, T., Roesler, R., Schroder, N. Temporary inactivation reveals an essential role of the dorsal hippocampus in consolidation of object recognition memory. Neuroscience Letters. 405 (1-2), 142-146 (2006).
  35. Hammond, R. S., Tull, L. E., Stackman, R. W. On the delay-dependent involvement of the hippocampus in object recognition memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 82 (1), 26-34 (2004).
  36. Clark, R. E., Zola, S. M., Squire, L. R. Impaired recognition memory in rats after damage to the hippocampus. Journal of Neuroscience. 20 (23), 8853-8860 (2000).
  37. Stackman, R. W., Cohen, S. J., Lora, J. C., Rios, L. M. Temporary inactivation reveals that the CA1 region of the mouse dorsal hippocampus plays an equivalent role in the retrieval of long-term object memory and spatial memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 133, 118-128 (2016).
  38. Mumby, D. G., Gaskin, S., Glenn, M. J., Schramek, T. E., Lehmann, H. Hippocampal damage and exploratory preferences in rats: memory for objects, places, and contexts. Learning & Memory. 9 (2), 49-57 (2002).
  39. Jeong, K. H., Lee, K. E., Kim, S. Y., Cho, K. O. Upregulation of Kruppel-Like Factor 6 in the Mouse Hippocampus after Pilocarpine-Induced Status Epilepticus. Neuroscience. 186, 170-178 (2011).
  40. Kim, J. E., Cho, K. O. The Pilocarpine Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and EEG Monitoring Using Radiotelemetry System in Mice. Journal of Visualized Experiments. (132), e56831 (2018).
  41. Jiang, Y., et al. Abnormal hippocampal functional network and related memory impairment in pilocarpine-treated rats. Epilepsia. 59 (9), 1785-1795 (2018).
  42. Wang, L., Liu, Y. H., Huang, Y. G., Chen, L. W. Time-course of neuronal death in the mouse pilocarpine model of chronic epilepsy using Fluoro-Jade C staining. Brain Research. 1241, 157-167 (2008).
  43. Detour, J., Schroeder, H., Desor, D., Nehlig, A. A 5-month period of epilepsy impairs spatial memory, decreases anxiety, but spares object recognition in the lithium-pilocarpine model in adult rats. Epilepsia. 46 (4), 499-508 (2005).
  44. Benini, R., Longo, D., Biagini, G., Avoli, M. Perirhinal Cortex Hyperexcitability in Pilocarpine-Treated Epileptic Rats. Hippocampus. 21 (7), 702-713 (2011).
  45. Yassa, M. A., Stark, C. E. Pattern separation in the hippocampus. Trends in Neurosciences. 34 (10), 515-525 (2011).
  46. Goncalves, J. T., Schafer, S. T., Gage, F. H. Adult Neurogenesis in the Hippocampus: From Stem Cells to Behavior. Cell. 167 (4), 897-914 (2016).
  47. Sahay, A., et al. Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation. Nature. 472 (7344), 466-539 (2011).

Reprints and Permissions

Request permission to reuse the text or figures of this JoVE article

Request Permission

Explore More Articles

Memory FunctionPilocarpine induced EpilepsyCognitive ImpairmentMouse ModelChronic EpilepsyNovel Object LocationNovel Object RecognitionPattern Separation TestOpen Field BoxAnimal Behavior TrackingLocomotor ActivityVideo Tracking SoftwareCalibration ProcessTesting ProtocolData AcquisitionAnalysis Report

This article has been published

Video Coming Soon

JoVE Logo

Privacy

Terms of Use

Policies

Contact Us

Recommend to library

JoVE NEWSLETTERS

Research

Education

Authors

Librarians

ABOUT JoVE

Copyright © 2025 MyJoVE Corporation. All rights reserved