The authors would like to acknowledge funding from Ministry of Education AcRF Tier 1 (RG41) and start up grant from Nanyang Technological University. Low and Tjin are funded by the Research Student Scholarship (RSS) from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

1. Cloning of Recombinant Plasmids Encoding for aECM Proteins
<ol>
	<li>Design the amino acid sequence of the functional domain (e.g., cell-binding domain and elastin-like repeats). Design restriction sites flanking the ends of the functional domains to facilitate sub-cloning using free software according to software instructions (e.g., http://biologylabs.utah.edu/jorgensen/wayned/ape/). Here, select unique restriction sites that are not present in the functional domain to confine digestion to the int...

<ol>
	<li>Chen, Q., Liang, S., Thouas, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastomeric+biomaterials+for+tissue+engineering.">Elastomeric biomaterials for tissue engineering.</a> Prog Polym Sci. 38 (3-4), 584-671 (2013).</li><li>Groeber, F., Holeiter, M., Hampel, M., Hinderer, S., Schenke-Layland, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Skin+tissue+engineering+-+In+vivo+and+in+vitro+applications.">Skin tissue engineering - In vivo and in vitro applications.</a> Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 63 (4-5), 352-366 (2011).</li><li>Kushner, A. M., Guan, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modular+Design+in+Natural+and+Biomimetic+Soft+Materials.">Modular Design in Natural and Biomimetic Soft Materials.</a> Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 50 (39), 9026-9057 (2011).</li><li>Gagner, J. E., Kim, W., Chaikof, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Designing+protein-based+biomaterials+for+medical+applications.">Designing protein-based biomaterials for medical applications.</a> Acta Biomater. 10 (4), 1542-1557 (2014).</li><li>Gomes, S., Leonor, I. B., Mano, J. F., Reis, R. L., Kaplan, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+and+genetically+engineered+proteins+for+tissue+engineering.">Natural and genetically engineered proteins for tissue engineering.</a> Prog Polym Sci. 37 (1), 1-17 (2012).</li><li>Werkmeister, J. A., Ramshaw, J. A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recombinant+protein+scaffolds+for+tissue+engineering.">Recombinant protein scaffolds for tissue engineering.</a> Biomedical Materials. 7 (1), 012002 (2012).</li><li>MacNeil, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomaterials+for+tissue+engineering+of+skin.">Biomaterials for tissue engineering of skin.</a> Materials Today. 11 (5), 26-35 (2008).</li><li>Fong, E., Tirrell, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Collective+Cell+Migration+on+Artificial+Extracellular+Matrix+Proteins+Containing+Full-Length+Fibronectin+Domains.">Collective Cell Migration on Artificial Extracellular Matrix Proteins Containing Full-Length Fibronectin Domains.</a> Advanced Materials. 22 (46), 5271-5275 (2010).</li><li>Ratner, B. D., Bryant, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BIOMATERIALS:+Where+We+Have+Been+and+Where+We+are+Going.">BIOMATERIALS: Where We Have Been and Where We are Going.</a> Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering. 6 (1), 41-75 (2004).</li><li>Cai, L., Heilshorn, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Designing+ECM-mimetic+materials+using+protein+engineering.">Designing ECM-mimetic materials using protein engineering.</a> Acta Biomater. 10 (4), 1751-1760 (2014).</li><li>Annabi, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastomeric+recombinant+protein-based+biomaterials.">Elastomeric recombinant protein-based biomaterials.</a> Biochemical Engineering Journal. 77, 110-118 (2013).</li><li>Heilshorn, S. C., DiZio, K. A., Welsh, E. R., Tirrell, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endothelial+cell+adhesion+to+the+fibronectin+CS5+domain+in+artificial+extracellular+matrix+proteins.">Endothelial cell adhesion to the fibronectin CS5 domain in artificial extracellular matrix proteins.</a> Biomaterials. 24 (23), 4245-4252 (2003).</li><li>Simnick, A. J., Lim, D. W., Chow, D., Chilkoti, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomedical+and+Biotechnological+Applications+of+Elastin-Like+Polypeptides.">Biomedical and Biotechnological Applications of Elastin-Like Polypeptides.</a> Polymer Reviews. 47 (1), 121-154 (2007).</li><li>Tjin, M. S., Chua, A. W. C., Ma, D. R., Lee, S. T., Fong, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+Epidermal+Keratinocyte+Cell+Response+on+Integrin-Specific+Artificial+Extracellular+Matrix+Proteins.">Human Epidermal Keratinocyte Cell Response on Integrin-Specific Artificial Extracellular Matrix Proteins.</a> Macromolecular Bioscience. 14 (8), 1125-1134 (2014).</li><li>MacNeil, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progress+and+opportunities+for+tissue-engineered+skin.">Progress and opportunities for tissue-engineered skin.</a> Nature. 445 (7130), 874-880 (2007).</li><li>Kariya, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+regulation+of+cellular+adhesion+and+migration+by+recombinant+laminin-5+forms+with+partial+deletion+or+mutation+within+the+G3+domain+of+&#945;3+chain.">Differential regulation of cellular adhesion and migration by recombinant laminin-5 forms with partial deletion or mutation within the G3 domain of &#945;3 chain.</a> J Cell Biochem. 88 (3), 506-520 (2003).</li><li>Shang, M., Koshikawa, N., Schenk, S., Quaranta, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+LG3+module+of+laminin-5+harbors+a+binding+site+for+integrin+&#945;3&#914;1+that+promotes+cell+adhesion,+spreading,+and+migration.">The LG3 module of laminin-5 harbors a binding site for integrin &#945;3&#914;1 that promotes cell adhesion, spreading, and migration.</a> J Biol Chem. 276 (35), 33045-33053 (2001).</li><li>Hassouneh, W., Christensen, T., Chilkoti, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastin-like+polypeptides+as+a+purification+tag+for+recombinant+proteins.">Elastin-like polypeptides as a purification tag for recombinant proteins.</a> Current Protocols in Protein Science. , 6.11.1-6.11.16 (2010).</li><li>Keeley, F., Mecham, R., Keeley, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+4.">Ch. 4.</a> Evolution of Extracellular Matrix.Biology of Extracellular Matrix. , 73-119 (2013).</li><li>Le, D. H. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Self-Assembly+of+Elastin-Mimetic+Double+Hydrophobic+Polypeptides.">Self-Assembly of Elastin-Mimetic Double Hydrophobic Polypeptides.</a> Biomacromolecules. 14 (4), 1028-1034 (2013).</li><li>MacEwan, S. R., Hassouneh, W., Chilkoti, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-chromatographic+Purification+of+Recombinant+Elastin-like+Polypeptides+and+their+Fusions+with+Peptides+and+Proteins+from+Escherichia+coli.">Non-chromatographic Purification of Recombinant Elastin-like Polypeptides and their Fusions with Peptides and Proteins from Escherichia coli.</a> Journal of visualized experiments: JoVE. (88), e51583 (2014).</li><li>Meyer, D. E., Chilkoti, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetically+encoded+synthesis+of+protein-based+polymers+with+precisely+specified+molecular+weight+and+sequence+by+recursive+directional+ligation:+examples+from+the+elastin-like+polypeptide+system.">Genetically encoded synthesis of protein-based polymers with precisely specified molecular weight and sequence by recursive directional ligation: examples from the elastin-like polypeptide system.</a> Biomacromolecules. 3 (2), 357-367 (2002).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Recombinant protein engineering is a versatile technique to create novel protein materials using a bottom-up approach. The protein-based materials can be designed to have multiple functionalities, tailored according to the application of interest. Due to increasing advancement in cloning and protein expression technologies, it has become relatively simple (and cost effective) to create a variety of artificial proteins in a reproducible and scalable manner. The elastin-like domain has been incorporated in a number of arti...

For several decades, both synthetic and natural materials have been explored for use as scaffolds in tissue engineering1,2. While synthetic materials such as polymers offer excellent structural integrity and tunable mechanical properties, they often have insufficient bioactivity to promote growth and infiltration of tissues. On the other hand, natural materials such as extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins have excellent biological activity, but have limitations such as batch-to-batch variability, rapid degradation and immunogenicity issues. As such, recombinant proteins are desired, since they can be designed to mimic only the desirable properties of native proteins3,4.
Recombinant protein engineering has garnered widespread interests as a versatile platform for the design and production of novel artificial protein biopolymers. By controlling the genetic sequence, the functionalities of the artificial proteins can be tailored for a wide variety of applications5,6. In particular, artificial extracellular matrix (aECM) proteins can be tailored to have multiple functionalities for applications in tissue engineering, regeneration and wound repair2,7. More importantly, advances in cloning and purification technologies have increased scalability and reduced the cost of manufacturing recombinant proteins tremendously. It is possible to produce large quantities of recombinant proteins at low production costs which are economic for use in the clinic5. 
Artificial extracellular matrix proteins have been developed for tissue engineering applications8-11. For instance, Tirrell et al. designed a small diameter vascular graft using artificial proteins containing fibronectin CS5 sequence and elastin-like repeats (ELP-CS5). They showed that human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were able to adhere and grow on these materials12. Others have also incorporated short bioactive sequences taken from fibronectin, collagen, laminin, fibrinogen and vitronectin as well as structural domains that mimic elastin, spider silk and collagens to create a variety of fusion proteins10. Bulk cross-linked films made out of elastin-based aECM proteins also exhibited mechanical properties similar to that of native elastin (elastic moduli ranges between 0.3-0.6 MPa)13. Subsequently, aECM proteins containing longer fibronectin fragments were also reported to accelerate wound healing in vitro due to increased integrin binding affinities8. 
Recently, integrin-specific artificial ECM proteins have been developed by Tjin and coworkers14. Each aECM protein contains a bioactive cell-binding domain taken from ECM components of native human skin2,7,15, such as laminin-5, collagen-IV and fibronectin. For example, the integrin &#945;3&#914;1 has been shown to bind the PPFLMLLKGSTR sequence found in the laminin-5 alpha-3 chain globular domain 3 (LG3)16,17. In their report, they showed that primary human skin epidermal keratinocytes preferentially engage different integrins for binding to each of the aECM proteins, depending on the type of cell binding domain present.
The aECM proteins discussed in the work by Tjin et al. contain flanking elastin-like domains {(VPGIG)2VPGKG(VPGIG)2}8 that confer elasticity which mimics the mechanical properties of human skin. In addition, the incorporation of lysine residues within the elastin-like repeats also increases the overall protein solubility in aqueous solvents. In addition, the lysine residues also serve as crosslinking sites to facilitate the formation of crosslinked aECM films12. Inclusion of elastin-like repeats within the aECM protein sequence allow the proteins to be readily purified via Inverse Transition Cycling (ITC)14. Elastins undergo a sharp and reversible phase transition at a specific temperature known as the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) or the inverse transition temperature (Tt)18-20. Elastins and elastin-like repeats adopt hydrophilic random coil conformations below their LCST and become soluble in water, whereas above their LCST, elastins aggregate rapidly into micron-size particles. Such phase transitions are reversible and hence, can be exploited to allow elastin-based aECM proteins to be readily purified via the ITC technique21.
In this work, we report a generalized procedure to design, construct and purify artificial ECM proteins containing bioactive cell-binding domains, fused to elastin-like repeats. The process to design and clone the plasmids that encode for the amino acid sequences for the aECM proteins is described. The steps involved to purify the aECM proteins using ITC are outlined. Finally, the methods to determine the purity of the aECM proteins obtained using SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and Western Blotting are discussed.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>pET22b (+)</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69744</td>
			<td>T7 expression vectors with resistance to ampicillin&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BL21(DE3)pLysS&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>C6060-03</td>
			<td>additional antibiotics - chloramphenicol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Gold Biotechnology</td>
			<td>I2481C</td>
			<td>1M stock solution with autoclaved water, make fresh prior to induction.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QIAprep Spin Miniprep Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>27106</td>
			<td>plasmid isolation kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T4 ligase</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>M0202S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td>Affymetrix</td>
			<td>11259</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloramphenicol</td>
			<td>Affymetrix</td>
			<td>23660</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zymoclean&#8482; gel DNA recovery kit</td>
			<td>Zymo Research</td>
			<td>D4001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XL10-gold strain</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>200315</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

design and construction of artificial extracellular matrix (aecm) proteins from escherichia coli for skin tissue engineering

Recombinant technology is a versatile platform to create novel artificial proteins with tunable properties. For the last decade, many artificial proteins that have incorporated functional domains derived from nature (or created de novo) have been reported. In particular, artificial extracellular matrix (aECM) proteins have been developed; these aECM proteins consist of biological domains taken from fibronectin, laminins and collagens and are combined with structural domains including elastin-like repeats, silk and collagen repeats. To date, aECM proteins have been widely investigated for applications in tissue engineering and wound repair. Recently, Tjin and coworkers developed integrin-specific aECM proteins designed for promoting human skin keratinocyte attachment and propagation. In their work, the aECM proteins incorporate cell binding domains taken from fibronectin, laminin-5 and collagen IV, as well as flanking elastin-like repeats. They demonstrated that the aECM proteins developed in their work were promising candidates for use as substrates in artificial skin. Here, we outline the design and construction of such aECM proteins as well as their purification process using the thermo-responsive characteristics of elastin.

In designing fusion proteins containing elastin-like repeats, it is important to maintain an overall elastin content, large enough fraction of the fusion protein18. This is to ensure that the fusion protein construct retains its elastin-like characteristics, in order to use ITC for purification. The aECM proteins design and sequences described in this section were specifically taken from the work by Tjin et al.14. In this work, three aECM proteins were successfully cloned into the ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Design and Construction of Artificial Extracellular Matrix aECM Proteins from Escherichia coli for Skin Tissue Engineering at JoVE.com

Design and Construction of Artificial Extracellular Matrix aECM Proteins from Escherichia coli for Skin Tissue Engineering

Recombinant technologies have enabled material designers to create novel artificial proteins with customized functionalities for tissue engineering applications. For example, artificial extracellular matrix proteins can be designed to incorporate structural and biological domains derived from native ECMs. Here, we describe the construction and purification of aECM proteins containing elastin-like repeats.

Design and Construction of Artificial Extracellular Matrix (aECM) Proteins from Escherichia coli for Skin Tissue Engineering

Recombinant technology is a versatile platform to create novel artificial proteins with tunable properties. For the last decade, many artificial proteins ...

design-construction-artificial-extracellular-matrix-aecm-proteins

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

8.8K Görüntüleme.  Nanyang Technological University. Recombinant technologies have enabled material designers to create novel artificial proteins with customized functionalities for tissue engineering applications. For example, artificial extracellular matrix proteins can be designed to incorporate structural and biological domains derived from native ECMs. Here, we describe the construction and purification of aECM proteins containing elastin-like repeats. 