Najie Zhu ve Liqun Bai, bu çalışmaya eşit katkıda bulundu. Bu eser mali Kamu Refah Orman Bilimsel Araştırma Fonu Özel (201204501) ve Çin Ulusal Doğa Bilimleri Vakfı (31170604, 31270688 ve 31570638) tarafından desteklenmiştir. Biz İngilizce yazılı onların yararlı öneriler Dr. Holighaus Gerrit ve Dr Danielle Hickford teşekkür ederim.

Virgin Yetişkin Nematodlar 1. kazanılması <ol><li> Pinewood nematod izolatı ve kültür koşulları B. xylophilus&#39;un Nxy61 aslen Çin&#39;de Zhejiang eyaletinin Ningbo alanında hastalıklı Pinus massoniana elde edildi izole: NOT. <ol><li> (PDA Malzemelerin Tablo bakınız) Patates Dekstroz Agar hazırlayın Botrytis cinerea yetiştirmek için plakaları. </li><li> Aşılaması için, B. cinerea mat 10 mm çaplı mantar mat bir parça zımba ve yeni bir PDA plakanın ortasına koydu. Kültür karanlıkta 25 ° C&#39;de 5 gün boyunca B. cinerea. </li><li> Kültür karanlıkta 25 ° C &#39;de B. cinerea içeren hazırlanmış bir petri çam nematodları. </li></ol></li><li> B. xylophilus&#39;un yumurta kazanılması <ol><li> bir huni altında kenetlenmiş kauçuk tüp yerleştirin ve montajı rafa hazırlanan huni tutunBaermann huni cihazı. huni ağzına filtre kağıdı yerine gazlı bez iki kat yerleştirin. </li><li> huni kurulum mantar kültürleri aktarın ve mantar mat batırılır kadar su ekleyin. 2 saat bekleyin ve nematod, mantar kültürü çıkıp filtre kağıdı çapraz ve Baermann huninin en alt kısmında yerleşmek olacaktır. </li><li> 15 ml tüp içine tüpün tabanından su damlaları ilk çift toplamak ve yavaş tüp kelepçe bırakarak nematodları toplar. </li><li> Oda sıcaklığında 2 dakika boyunca 3000 x g&#39;de yukarıda koleksiyonları santrifüjleyin. </li><li> Bir pipet ile suyun üst tabaka uzaklaştırılır ve çift damıtılmış steril (dd), 1 mL H2O ile yeniden süspanse </li><li> Bir pipet ile, yeni bir cam Petri kabı (6 cm çapında) Yukarıdaki tabanda aktarın. Nematod özgürce yüzmek mümkün olduğundan emin olmak için Petri kabı steril dd H2O 3 mL ekleyin. </li><li> glas nematod tutunKaranlıkta 25 ° C &#39;de 10 dakika süre ile Petri kabı s. Yumurta hamile kadın tarafından döşenecek. Çünkü onların glikoprotein yüzeyinin, yumurta cam Petri kabı altına sopa olacak. </li><li> Yumurta bozmadan dikkatlice su ve solucanları temizler. Kurumasını yumurta önlemek için hemen cam Petri kabı steril dd H2O 3 mL ekleyin. </li><li> Adımı tekrarlayın 1.2.8 3x tüm larvaları ve yetişkin kaldırmak ve saf yumurta elde etmek. Petri kabı steril dd, H2O ilave 2 mL (toplam 5 mL) ilave edilir. </li></ol></li><li> Dördüncü aşama gençlerin kazanılması (J4 larva) <ol><li> Hatch 25 ° C&#39;de karanlıkta, 24 saat boyunca toplanan yumurtalar J2 larva elde edildi. </li><li> 2 dakika boyunca 3000 x g&#39;de 15 ml tüp, santrifüj bir pipet ile J2 larvaları transferi ve suyun üst tabakayı kaldırmak. </li><li> Steril dd, H2O 200 uL J2 larvaları yeniden süspanse ve aktarmakB. cinerea içeren PDA plakası. </li><li> Kültür karanlıkta 25 ° C &#39;de 52 saat boyunca J2 larva. Bu zaman noktasında, en J2 larva J4 larvaların erken aşamada haline olacaktır. </li></ol></li><li> Bakire yetişkin nematod kazanılması <ol><li> bir alkol brülör üzerine ısıtıldıktan sonra bir cam kılcal çizerek nematod toplamak için bir iğne hazırlayın. NOT: Bu kılcal iğne ucu, genellikle tek bir nematodu alınması için bir araç olarak kullanılabilir ve böylece, çapı 50 mikron, yetişkin bir nematod kabaca gövde genişliği olmalıdır. </li><li> Bir Baermann hunisi monte ve adımları 1.2.1&#39;de tarif edildiği gibi 2 saat boyunca mantar kültürlerinden nematod çıkarmak - 1.2.3. </li><li> Temiz bir Petri kabı içine su ile J4 aktarın. </li><li> Bir stereomikroskop altında nematod gözlemlemek ve Mamiya ve Kiyohara 8 (Şekil 1 tarafından açıklandığı gibi, genital morfoloji kadınlar ve erkekler arasında ayrım </strong&gt;). Hazırlanan kılcal iğne ile istenilen seks nematod Pick up ve erkeklerde veya kadınlarda uygun fungal kültür plaka transfer. NOT: erkeklerden daha fazla kadın 60 kadın yüzdesi ile vardır -% 70. kadın vulva erkek spicule Açıkçası farklıdır. yetişkin ile karşılaştırıldığında, erken evre J4 içinde spicule veya vulva küçük, ama yine de kolayca görülebilir ve ayırt edilebilir. nematod her zaman, bazen kadın ve erkeklerin ayırt zorluk artar, su, hareket ediyor. </li><li> Kültür karanlıkta 25 ° C &#39;de 24 saat daha J4 larva. NOT: Tüm nematod yetişkinler haline, ama onlar unmated olduğundan, bunlar bakire yetişkin olarak kabul edilmektedir. </li><li> Baermann hunileri iki birleştirin ve adımları 1.2.1 açıklandığı gibi, 2 saat boyunca mantar kültürlerden bakire yetişkin ayıklamak - 1.2.3 ve iki ayrı, temiz Petri kapları içine bakire yetişkin erkek ve kadın aktarın. </li></ol&gt; </li></ol> 2. Gözlem ve çiftleşme Davranış Video Kayıt <ol><li> Birkaç içbükey slaytlar hazırlamak ve onların kuyuların her steril dd H2O 200 mcL ekleyin. </li><li> Bir kılcal iğne ile hazırlanan bakire yetişkin erkek veya kadın ve Pick up ve her içbükey slayt suya sadece bir nematod koydu. </li><li> onlara yeni sulu ortama uyum sağlamak için 1 saat boyunca hazne içinde bakire yetişkin tutun. </li><li> Bir pipet kullanarak başka iyi birinden bunlardan biri aktararak bakire erkek ve dişi çifti. </li><li> Bir stereomikroskop altında içbükey slayt 1♀ + 1♂ kombinasyonunun çiftleşme davranışları gözlemlemek. </li><li> bakire yetişkinlerin çiftleşme etkinliğini analiz etmek, onların çiftleşme başarı oranını (R) hesaplar ve rastgele seçilen yetişkin çifti ile karşılaştırın. birleşme çalışılan çoğaltır sayısına kıyasla görülmüştür ki çoğaltır yüzdesi olarak R hesaplayın. </li><li&gt; Çiftleşme seçimi ve intrasexual rekabet, grup araştırmak ve iki farklı kombinasyonlar bakire nematod gözlemlemek için: 1♀ + 3♂ ve + 1♂ 3♀. </li><li> kalitatif ve kantitatif analiz için veri toplamak amacıyla, Video mikroskopi kullanılarak çiftleşme davranışı filme. Normal olarak, birleşme sonrası birbirinden ayrıldığı zaman nematod an içbükey sürgünün çukuruna yerleştirilir zaman bütün birleşme işlemi, 2 saat içinde tamamlandı. Bu nedenle, bir tekrar en az 2 saat boyunca sürekli olarak birleşme işlemi kaydedilir. en az 30 Komple her kombinasyon için toplam çoğaltır. Not: kayıt işlemi sırasında buharlaşma için oyuğuna daha steril GG S, her 0.5 H2O (genellikle 50 uL) eklenir. </li></ol> 3. Veri Toplama <ol><li> Bir bilgisayar ekranında dikkatlice videoları görüntülemek ve niteliksel alt davranışları karakterize. </li><li> çiftleşme kullanarak th süresini ölçmekvideo kaydedici, e kare-kare fonksiyonu. El ile bitiş noktası başlayarak zaman çıkarın. </li><li> 1♀ + 1♂ kombinasyonu için, her video kaydını analiz etmek ve aşağıdaki olaylardan süresini ölçmek: <ol><li> Arama süresini ölçmek (yani, kadın ve erkek karşılaştıkları an içbükey slayt kuyuya tanıtıldı ve birbirine temas edildiğinde geçen süre). </li><li> Temas süresini ölçmek (yani, erkek tam ilk çiftleşme için dişinin vulva konumlandırılmış an ilk temas süresi). </li><li> Copulating süresini ölçmek (yani, o boşalma sonra yerde kadın vücudundan kayarak kadar erkek tam dişinin vulva konumlandırılmış tarihten itibaren zaman). Not: Bazı nematod 2 saat içinde birkaç kez copulate edebilirsiniz. Bu gibi durumlarda, LAS sonunda ilk çiftlerin çiftleşme süresinin ölçülmesiarasındaki zaman dahil olmak üzere, t, bir,. </li><li> Kalan süresinin ölçülmesi (yani, birleşme sonrası dönem erkek ve dişi yüzmek birbirinden uzağa daha fazla nematodlar vücut uzunluğundan daha bir mesafe ile ayrılır kadar (genellikle, 1 mm)). </li></ol></li><li> Çiftleşme frekansı ve her birleşme süresi ve farklı kombinasyonlarının her biri için 2 saat tüm çiftleştirerek ortalama süreyi saymak (yani, 1♀ + 1♂, 3♀ + 1♂ ve 1♀ + 3♂). </li><li> derhal ve hiç ara vermeden yapılan ilk temas, sonra çiftleşme başarı oranı gibi farklı kombinasyonlar için ilk temas (P) çiftleşme başarı oranını hesaplayın. temas aşamasında, çeşitli temas gerçek birleşme öncesi gözlenen olabilir. <ol><li> iki kişi arasındaki mesafe vücut uzunluğundan daha fazla olduğu zaman, bitecek bir kişiyi düşünün. bir tekrarında, kayıt P 100% olarak çiftleşme is ara vermeden, ilk temastan hemen sonra görülen veya 0.00% no çiftleşme gözlendi ya da eğer çiftleşme ancak iki ya da daha fazla temas sonra varsa. NOT: Burada anlatılan her kombinasyon için 30 suret vardı. </li></ol></li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Tokushige, Y., Kiyohara, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bursaphelenchus+sp.+in+the+wood+of+dead+pine+trees.">Bursaphelenchus sp. in the wood of dead pine trees.</a> J. Jap. For. Soc. 51, 193-195 (1969).</li><li>Sun, Y. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bursaphelenchus+xylophilus+was+discovered+in+Sun+Yet-sen's+mausoleum+in+Nanjing.">Bursaphelenchus xylophilus was discovered in Sun Yet-sen's mausoleum in Nanjing.</a> J. Jiangsu Fore. Sci. Tech. (in Chinese). 4, 47 (1982).</li><li>Mota, M. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=First+report+of+Bursaphelenchus+xylophilus+in+Portugal+and+in+Europe.">First report of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in Portugal and in Europe.</a> Nematology. 1, 727-734 (1999).</li><li>Robertson, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Incidence+of+the+pine+wood+nematode+Bursaphelenchus+xylophlius+Steiner+&amp;+Buhrer,+1934+(Nickle,+1970)+in+Spain.">Incidence of the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophlius Steiner &amp; Buhrer, 1934 (Nickle, 1970) in Spain.</a> Nematology. 13, 755-757 (2011).</li><li>Vicente, C., Espada, M., Vieira, P., Mota, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pine+wilt+disease:+a+threat+to+European+forestry.">Pine wilt disease: a threat to European forestry.</a> Euro. J. Plant Path. 133, 89-99 (2012).</li><li>Jones, J. T., Moens, M., Mota, M., Li, H., Kikuchi, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bursaphelenchus+xylophilus:+opportunities+in+comparative+genomics+and+molecular+host-parasite+interactions.">Bursaphelenchus xylophilus: opportunities in comparative genomics and molecular host-parasite interactions.</a> Mol. Plant. Path. 9, 357-368 (2008).</li><li>Mamiya, Y., Furukawa, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fecundity+and+reproduction+of+Bursaphelenchus+lignicolus.">Fecundity and reproduction of Bursaphelenchus lignicolus.</a> Jap. J. Nemat. 7, 6-9 (1977).</li><li>Mamiya, Y., Kiyohara, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Description+of+Bursaphelenchus+lignicolus.+n.+sp.+(Nematoda:+Aphelenchoididae)+from+pine+wood+and+histophathology+of+nematode-infested+trees.">Description of Bursaphelenchus lignicolus. n. sp. (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) from pine wood and histophathology of nematode-infested trees.</a> Nematologica. 18, 120-124 (1972).</li><li>Liu, B. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioural+features+of+Bursaphelenchus+xylophilus+in+the+mating+process.">Behavioural features of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in the mating process.</a> Nematology. 16, 895-902 (2014).</li><li>Simon, J. M., Sternberg, P. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+of+a+mate+finding+cue+in+the+hermaphrodite+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Evidence of a mate finding cue in the hermaphrodite nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 99, 1598-1603 (2002).</li><li>Barr, M. M., Garcia, L. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Male+mating+behaviour.">Male mating behaviour.</a> The C. elegans Research Community Wormbook. , (2006).</li><li>Shinya, R., Chen, A., Sternberg, P. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sex+attraction+and+mating+in+Bursaphelenchus+okinawaensis+and+B.+xylophilus.">Sex attraction and mating in Bursaphelenchus okinawaensis and B. xylophilus.</a> J. Nematol. 47 (3), 176-183 (2015).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Davranış testleri, kimyasal ekoloji, nörobiyoloji, moleküler biyoloji ve genetik bir temel yönü vardır. Nematodlar, ve özellikle de C. elegans, yoğun bu alanda araştırmalar için kullanılmaktadır. C. elegans &#39;çiftleşme davranışı, daha önce 10-11 araştırılmıştır. Bununla birlikte, B xylophilus&#39;un gonochoristic ve hermafrodit C. elegans farklıdır, ve birleşme işlemi farklı davranış özellikleri 9 sahiptir. Son zamanlarda, <em...

The pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner and Buhrer) Nickle, is one of the most destructive invasive species, causing the wilting and eventual death of pine trees. This pathogenic nematode is believed to be native to the USA, but it was transported to several countries, including China, Japan, South Korea, and Portugal. Recently, it has also been reported in Spain, killing millions of pine trees at huge economic losses and threatening forest production and ecological stability1-5.
Once a host pine tree is infected by pinewood nematodes, thousands of millions of offspring are propagated rapidly within the trunk. This causes xylem dysfunction, resulting in wilting and eventually in the death of the host tree6. However, there is currently no efficient way to control this disease. Mating behavior might play an important role in the high fecundity of this nematode7. We therefore investigated the mating behavior of B. xylophilus in the laboratory, trying to find an effective way of disturbing its mating and decreasing its fecundity. 
This protocol is intended to introduce the detailed methods of how to obtain the virgin adults of B. xylophilus and how to observe and analyze the mating behavior using a video recorder and a stereomicroscope. This protocol can also be used as a reference for behavioral studies of other nematodes.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="944">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:18px;width:233px;">B. xylophilus isolate Nxy61</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td style="width:463px;">Extracted from Pinus massoniana in Ningbo area of China</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Grey mold strain</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Obtained from Forestry Academy of China</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Baermann funnels</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">falcon tubes</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">centrifuge</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">pipette</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">sterile dd H2O</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Sterilized by high pressure of steam at 121&#176;C for 30 min.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Petri dishes</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PDA medium</td>
			<td>Huankai Bio.</td>
			<td>021050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">incubator</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Laminar flow</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">glass capillary</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Stereoscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>LED5000 RL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">inverted stereo microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>A1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">concave slides</td>
			<td>Sengong</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

observation and quantification of mating behavior in the pinewood nematode, bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Gözlemlemek ve çam nematod, orijinli olanlar çiftleşme davranışı ölçülmesi için bir yöntem olup, bir stereo mikroskop altında kurulmuştur. B. xylophilus&#39;un çiftleşme verimliliğini artırmak ve çiftleşme gözlem şansını artırmak için, bakire yetişkinler kültür ve soruşturma için kullanılır. Yumurta suda nematod tutmak ve dişiler 10 dakika boyunca yumurtalarını bırakmak için izin vererek elde edilmiştir. Ikinci aşama yavru (J2) karanlıkta 25 ° C&#39;de 24 saat boyunca inkübe edilerek yumurta senkronize edildi ve erken J4 bir 52 saat daha, gri küfe, Botrytis cinerea ile J2 kültürlenmesiyle elde edilmiştir. Bu sefer noktada, çoğu J4 nematod genital morfolojisi kullanarak erkek ya da kadın olarak açıkça ayırt olabilir. erkek ve dişi J4 toplandı ve bakir yetişkin nematod için 24 saat boyunca, iki farklı Petri kapları ayrı ayrı kültürlenmiştir. Bir bakire erkek ve bakire kadın wat bir damla eşleştirilmişiçbükey sürgünün oyuk er. çiftleşme davranışı bir stereo mikroskop altında bir video kaydedici ile çekildi. çiftleşme sürecinin tüm dönem 82.8 ± 3.91 dakika (ortalama ± SH) ve 4 farklı aşamalarında bölünmüş olabilir: arama, temas çiftleşen ve kalıcı. süresi ortalama dakika sırasıyla 21.8 ± 2.0, ± 1.9 28.0, 25.8 ± 0.7 ve 7.2 ± 0.5 idi. Onbir alt davranışlar tarif edildi: seyir yaklaşıyor, karşılaşmadan, boğmaca, dokunmadan, yerini, bağlama, ejaculating, sessizliğini ayıran ve dolaşım. bir kadın 3 erkek veya 3 kadın ile bir erkek ile gruplandırılmış zaman İlginçtir, bariz içi cinsel rekabet gözlendi. Bu protokol, B. xylophilus&#39;un çiftleşme davranışı araştırırken, aynı zamanda diğer nematodların etiyolojik çalışmalar için bir referans olarak hareket sadece, kullanışlı ve değerlidir.

Bakire yetişkinlerin çiftleşme başarı oranı (R) rastgele seçilmiş yetişkinlerin önemli ölçüde daha yüksek olduğu, ortalama 86,67% oldu: 13.33 ± 4.65% (F = 1301,71, df = 1, p = 0.0001) (Şekil 2). Bu bulgu B. xylophilus&#39;un rastgele seçilen yetişkinlere göre daha bakir yetişkinlerle çiftleşme davranışlarını gözlemlemek için daha kolay olduğunu göstermektedir. <p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.within-pa...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus at JoVE.com

Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

A protocol for investigating the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is presented. Behavioral features of B. xylophilus are described in the mating process.

Pinewood Nematodu gözlem ve Çiftleşme Davranış miktarının belirlenmesi,<em&gt; Orijinli olanlar</em

A method for observing and quantifying the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, was established under a stereomicroscope. ...

observation-quantification-mating-behavior-pinewood-nematode

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

9.3K Görüntüleme.  Zhejiang Agricultural & Forestry University. A protocol for investigating the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is presented. Behavioral features of B. xylophilus are described in the mating process.

Video: Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Mating and Tetrad Separation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for Genetic Analysis

The unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlamydomonas) has become a popular organism for research in diverse areas of cell biology and genetics because of its simple life cycle, ease of growth and manipulation for genetic analysis, genomic resources, and transformability of the nucleus and both organelles. Mating strains is a common practice when genetic approaches are used in Chlamydomonass, to create vegetative diploids for analysis of dominance, or following tetrad dissection to ascertain nuclear vs. organellar inheritance, to test allelism, to analyze epistasy, or to generate populations for the purpose of map-based cloning. Additionally, genetic crosses are routinely used to combine organellar genotypes with particular nuclear genotypes. Here we demonstrate standard methods for gametogenesis, mating, zygote germination and tetrad separation. This protocol consists of an easy-to-follow series of steps that will make genetic approaches amenable to scientists who are less familiar with Chlamydomonas. Key parameters and trouble spots are explained. Finally, resources for further information and alternative methods are provided.

Mating and Tetrad Separation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for Genetic Analysis

Mating and tetrad separation are required for genetic analysis in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Here we demonstrate standard methods for gametogenesis, mating, zygote germination and tetrad dissection. This protocol consists of an easy-to-follow series of steps that will make genetic approaches amenable to scientists who are less familiar with Chlamydomonas.

Çiftleşme ve tetrad Ayırma Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Genetik Analiz

The unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlamydomonas) has become a popular organism for research in diverse areas of cell biology and ...

Biyoloji

Quantification of &gamma;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA lesions with respect to survival and preservation of genomic integrity. An early response to the induction of DSBs is phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming &gamma;H2AX1. Following induction of DSBs, H2AX is rapidly phosphorylated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PIKK) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)2. Typically, only a few base-pairs (bp) are implicated in a DSB, however, there is significant signal amplification, given the importance of chromatin modifications in DNA damage signalling and repair. Phosphorylation of H2AX mediated predominantly by ATM spreads to adjacent areas of chromatin, affecting approximately 0.03% of total cellular H2AX per DSB2,3. This corresponds to phosphorylation of approximately 2000 H2AX molecules spanning ~2 Mbp regions of chromatin surrounding the site of the DSB and results in the formation of discrete &gamma;H2AX foci which can be easily visualized and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy2. The loss of &gamma;H2AX at DSB reflects repair, however, there is some controversy as to what defines complete repair of DSBs; it has been proposed that rejoining of both strands of DNA is adequate however, it has also been suggested that re-instatement of the original chromatin state of compaction is necessary4-8. The disappearence of &gamma;H2AX involves at least in part, dephosphorylation by phosphatases, phosphatase 2A and phosphatase 4C5,6. Further, removal of &gamma;H2AX by redistribution involving histone exchange with H2A.Z has been implicated7,8. Importantly, the quantitative analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in medical and nuclear research. Here, we demonstrate the most commonly used immunofluorescence method for evaluation of initial DNA damage by detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in &gamma;-irradiated adherent human keratinocytes9.

Quantification of &#947;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

Quantification of DNA double-strand streaks using &gamma;H2AX formation as a molecular marker has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we demonstrate the use of an immunofluorescence assay for quantification of &gamma;H2AX foci after exposure of cells to radiation.

İyonlaştırıcı Radyasyon Cevabı γH2AX Foci Kantitasyonu

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA ...

RNAi Mediated Gene Knockdown and Transgenesis by Microinjection in the Necromenic Nematode Pristionchus pacificus

Although it is increasingly affordable for emerging model organisms to obtain completely sequenced genomes, further in-depth gene function and expression analyses by RNA interference and stable transgenesis remain limited in many species due to the particular anatomy and molecular cellular biology of the organism. For example, outside of the crown group Caenorhabditis that includes Caenorhabditis elegans3, stably transmitted transgenic lines in non-Caenorhabditis species have not been reported in this specious phylum (Nematoda), with the exception of Strongyloides stercoralis4 and Pristionchus pacificus5. To facilitate the expanding role of P. pacificus in the study of development, evolution, and behavior6-7, we describe here the current methods to use microinjection for making transgenic animals and gene knock down by RNAi. Like the gonads of C. elegans and most other nematodes, the gonads of P. pacificus is syncitial and capable of incorporating DNA and RNA into the oocytes when delivered by direct microinjection. Unlike C. elegans however, stable transgene inheritance and somatic expression in P. pacificus requires the addition of self genomic DNA digested with endonucleases complementary to the ends of target transgenes and coinjection markers5. The addition of carrier genomic DNA is similar to the requirement for transgene expression in Strongyloides stercoralis4 and in the germ cells of C. elegans. However, it is not clear if the specific requirement for the animals' own genomic DNA is because P. pacificus soma is very efficient at silencing non-complex multi-copy genes or that extrachromosomal arrays in P. pacificus require genomic sequences for proper kinetochore assembly during mitosis. The ventral migration of the two-armed (didelphic) gonads in hermaphrodites further complicates the ability to inject both gonads in individual worms8. We also demonstrate the use of microinjection to knockdown a dominant mutant (roller,tu92) by injecting double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) into the gonads to obtain non-rolling F1 progeny. Unlike C. elegans, but like most other nematodes, P. pacificus PS312 is not receptive to systemic RNAi via feeding and soaking and therefore dsRNA must be administered by microinjection into the syncitial gonads. In this current study, we hope to describe the microinjection process needed to transform a Ppa-egl-4 promoter::GFP fusion reporter and knockdown a dominant roller prl-1 (tu92) mutant in a visually informative protocol.

RNAi Mediated Gene Knockdown and Transgenesis by Microinjection in the Necromenic Nematode Pristionchus pacificus

In model organisms, transgenesis can manipulate gene functions while RNAi can knockdown specific mRNA transcripts 1-2. This protocol aims to illustrate the techniques needed to introduce stably transmitted DNA and transient double stranded RNA into the necromenic nematode Pristionchus pacificus for studies in evolutionary, developmental, and behavioral biology.

RNAi Necromenic nematodu Mikroenjeksiyon Gen demonte ve Transgenesis aracılığı ile Pristionchus pacificus</em

Although it is increasingly affordable for emerging model organisms to obtain completely sequenced genomes, further in-depth gene function and expression ...

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems including plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. There are various methods to achieve RNAi in vivo4,5. For example, the target gene may be transformed into an RNAi vector, and then either permanently or transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to achieve gene knockdown effects; alternatively synthesized double-strand oligonucleotides from specific target genes (RNAi oligos) may be transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to silence target genes; or synthesized double-strand RNA molecules may be microinjected into an organism. Since the nematode C. elegans uses bacteria as a food source, feeding the animals with bacteria expressing double-strand RNA against target genes provides a viable strategy6. Here we present an RNAi feeding method to score body size phenotype. Body size in C. elegans is regulated primarily by the TGF- &beta; - like ligand DBL-1, so this assay is appropriate for identification of TGF-&beta; signaling components7. We used different strains including two RNAi hypersensitive strains to repeat the RNAi feeding experiments. Our results showed that rrf-3 strain gave us the best expected RNAi phenotype. The method is easy to perform, reproducible, and easily quantified. Furthermore, our protocol minimizes the use of specialized equipment, so it is suitable for smaller laboratories or those at predominantly undergraduate institutions.

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

We demonstrate how to use the RNAi feeding technique to knock down target genes and score body size phenotype in C. elegans. This method could be used for a large scale screen to identify potential genetic components of interest, such as those involved in body size regulation by DBL-1/TGF-&beta; signaling.

Nematod Vücut büyüklüğü Yönetmelik ilgilendim Genler için Ekran RNA-aracılı Girişim Besleme Strateji Kullanımı<em&gt; C. elegans</em

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems ...

Design and Analysis of Temperature Preference Behavior and its Circadian Rhythm in Drosophila

The circadian clock regulates many aspects of life, including sleep, locomotor activity, and body temperature (BTR) rhythms1,2. We recently identified a novel Drosophila circadian output, called the temperature preference rhythm (TPR), in which the preferred temperature in flies rises during the day and falls during the night 3. Surprisingly, the TPR and locomotor activity are controlled through distinct circadian neurons3. Drosophila locomotor activity is a well&#160;known circadian behavioral output and has provided strong contributions to the discovery of many conserved mammalian circadian clock genes and mechanisms4. Therefore, understanding TPR will lead to the identification of hitherto unknown molecular and cellular circadian mechanisms. Here, we describe how to perform and analyze the TPR assay. This technique not only allows for dissecting the molecular and neural mechanisms of TPR, but also provides new insights into the fundamental mechanisms of the brain functions that integrate different environmental signals and regulate animal behaviors. Furthermore, our recently published data suggest that the fly TPR shares features with the mammalian BTR3. Drosophila are ectotherms, in which the body temperature is typically behaviorally regulated. Therefore, TPR is a strategy used to generate a rhythmic body temperature in these flies5-8. We believe that further exploration of Drosophila TPR will facilitate the characterization of the mechanisms underlying body temperature control in animals.

Design and Analysis of Temperature Preference Behavior and its Circadian Rhythm in Drosophila

We recently identified a novel Drosophila circadian output, temperature preference rhythm (TPR), in which the preferred temperature in flies rises during the day and falls during the night. TPR is regulated independently from another circadian output, locomotor activity. Here&#160;we describe the design and analysis of TPR in Drosophila.

Drosophila'da Sıcaklık Tercih Davranışının ve Sirkadiyen Ritminin Tasarımı ve Analizi

The circadian clock regulates many aspects of life, including sleep, locomotor activity, and body temperature (BTR) rhythms1,2. We recently identified a ...

Observation and Quantification of Telomere and Repetitive Sequences Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) with PNA Probes in Caenorhabditis elegans

Telomere is a ribonucleoprotein structure that protects chromosomal ends from aberrant fusion and degradation. Telomere length is maintained by telomerase or an alternative pathway, known as alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT)1. Recently, C. elegans has emerged as a multicellular model organism for the study of telomere and ALT2. Visualization of repetitive sequences in the genome is critical in understanding the biology of telomeres. While telomere length can be measured by telomere restriction fragment assay or quantitative PCR, these methods only provide the averaged telomere length. On the contrary, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) can provide the information of the individual telomeres in cells. Here, we provide protocols and representative results of the method to determine telomere length of C. elegans by fluorescent in situ hybridization. This method provides a simple, but powerful, in situ procedure that does not cause noticeable damage to morphology. By using fluorescently labeled peptide nucleic acid (PNA) and digoxigenin-dUTP-labeled probe, we were able to visualize two different repetitive sequences: telomere repeats and template of ALT (TALT) in C. elegans embryos and gonads.

Observation and Quantification of Telomere and Repetitive Sequences Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization FISH with PNA Probes in Caenorhabditis elegans

We report a concise procedure of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) in the gonad and embryos of Caenorhabditis elegans for observing and quantifying repetitive sequences. We successfully observed and quantified two different repetitive sequences, telomere repeats and template of alternative lengthening of telomeres (TALT).

Gözlem ve telomer Niceleme ve Tekrarlayan Diziler kullanma Floresan<em&gt; In Situ</emPNA Sondalar&gt; ile hibridizasyon (FISH)<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em

Telomere is a ribonucleoprotein structure that protects chromosomal ends from aberrant fusion and degradation. Telomere length is maintained by telomerase ...

Quantification of Proliferative and Dead Cells in Enteroids

The intestinal epithelium acts as a barrier that prevents luminal contents, such as pathogenic microbiota and toxins, from entering the rest of the body. Epithelial barrier function requires the integrity of intestinal epithelial cells. While epithelial cell proliferation maintains a continuous layer of cells that forms a barrier, epithelial damage leads to barrier dysfunction. As a result, luminal contents can across the intestinal barrier via an unrestricted pathway. Dysfunction of intestinal barrier has been associated with many intestinal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease. Isolated mouse intestinal crypts can be cultured and maintained as crypt-villus-like structures, which are termed intestinal organoids or &ldquo;enteroids&rdquo;. Enteroids are ideal to study the proliferation and cell death of intestinal epithelial cells in vitro. In this protocol, we describe a simple method to quantify the number of proliferative and dead cells in cultured enteroids. 5-ethynyl-2&rsquo;-deoxyuridine (EdU) and propidium iodide are used to label proliferating and dead cells in enteroids, and the proportion of proliferating and dead cells are then analyzed by flow cytometry. This is a useful tool to test the effects of drug treatment on intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and cell survival.

The presented protocol uses flow cytometry to quantify the number of proliferating and dead cells in cultured mouse enteroids. This method is helpful to evaluate the effects of drug treatment on organoid proliferation and survival.

Enteroidlerde Proliferatif ve Ölü Hücrelerin Sayısallaştırılması

The intestinal epithelium acts as a barrier that prevents luminal contents, such as pathogenic microbiota and toxins, from entering the rest of the body. ...

Culturing and Screening the Plant Parasitic Nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci

Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) destroy over 12% of global food crops every year, which equates to roughly 157 billion dollars (USD) lost annually. With a growing global population and limited arable land, controlling PPN infestation is critical for food production. Compounding the challenge of maximizing crop yields are the mounting restrictions on effective pesticides because of a lack of nematode selectivity. Hence, developing new and safe chemical nematicides is vital to food security. In this protocol, the culture and collection of the PPN species Ditylenchus dipsaci are demonstrated. D. dipsaci is both economically damaging and relatively resistant to most modern nematicides. The current work also explains how to use these nematodes in screens for novel small molecule nematicides and reports on data collection and analysis methodologies. The demonstrated pipeline affords a throughput of thousands of compounds per week and can be easily adapted for use with other PPN species such as Pratylenchus penetrans. The techniques described herein can be used to discover new nematicides, which may, in turn, be further developed into highly selective commercial products that safely combat PPNs to help feed an increasingly hungry world.

Culturing and Screening the Plant Parasitic Nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci

The present protocol describes a reliable and straightforward method for culturing, collecting, and screening Ditylenchus dipsaci.

Bitki Parazitik Nematodu Ditylenchus dipsaci Kültürleme ve Eleme

Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) destroy over 12% of global food crops every year, which equates to roughly 157 billion dollars (USD) lost annually. With ...

Application of RNA Interference in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

The pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is one of the most destructive invasive species worldwide, causing the wilting and eventual death of pine trees. Despite the recognition of their economic and environmental significance, it has thus far been impossible to study the detailed gene functions of plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) using conventional forward genetics and transgenic methods. However, as a reverse genetics technology, RNA interference (RNAi) facilitates the study of the functional genes of nematodes, including B. xylophilus. 
This paper outlines a new protocol for RNAi of the ppm-1 gene in B. xylophilus, which has been reported to play crucial roles in the development and reproduction of other pathogenic nematodes. For RNAi, the T7 promoter was linked to the 5&#8242;-terminal of the target fragment by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) was synthesized by in vitro transcription. Subsequently, dsRNA delivery was accomplished by soaking the nematodes in a dsRNA solution mixed with synthetic neurostimulants. Synchronized juveniles of B. xylophilus (approximately 20,000 individuals) were washed and soaked in dsRNA (0.8 &#181;g/mL) in the soaking buffer for 24 h in the dark at 25 &#176;C.
The same quantity of nematodes was placed in a soaking buffer without dsRNA as a control. Meanwhile, another identical quantity of nematodes was placed in a soaking buffer with green fluorescent protein (gfp) gene dsRNA as a control. After soaking, the expression level of the target transcripts was determined using real-time quantitative PCR. The effects of RNAi were then confirmed using microscopic observation of the phenotypes and a comparison of the body size of the adults among the groups. The current protocol can help advance research to better understand the functions of the genes of B. xylophilus and other parasitic nematodes toward developing control strategies through genetic engineering.

Application of RNA Interference in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Here, we introduce a detailed soaking method of RNA interference in Bursaphelenchus xylophilus to facilitate the study of gene functions.

RNA Girişiminin Çam Ağacı Nematodunda Uygulanması, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

The pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is one of the most destructive invasive species worldwide, causing the wilting and eventual death of ...

Observation of Photobehavior in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

For the survival of the motile phototrophic microorganisms, being under proper light conditions is crucial. Consequently, they show photo-induced behaviors (or photobehavior) and alter their direction of movement in response to light. Typical photobehaviors include photoshock (or photophobic) response and phototaxis. Photoshock is a response to a sudden change in light intensity (e.g., flash illumination), wherein organisms transiently stop moving or move backward. During phototaxis, organisms move toward the light source or in the opposite direction (called positive or negative phototaxis, respectively). The unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is an excellent organism to study photobehavior because it rapidly changes its swimming pattern by modulating the beating of cilia (a.k.a., flagella) after photoreception. Here, various simple methods are shown to observe photobehaviors in C. reinhardtii. Research on C. reinhardtii&#39;s photobehaviors has led to the discovery of common regulatory mechanisms between eukaryotic cilia and channelrhodopsins, which may contribute to a better understanding of ciliopathies and the development of new optogenetics methods.

Observation of Photobehavior in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Most swimming photoautotrophic organisms show photo-induced behavioral changes (photobehavior). The present protocol observes the said photobehavior in the model organism Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.